APPRECIATION

First of all, we thank ALLAH the Almighty for these

favors and kindness, for giving us the courage, the will and
the patience to finish this modest work.

We would like to express my sincere thanks to our

supervisor, Mr. Mechraoui, a professor in the mechanical
engineering department for having accepted to lead this
work as well as for his full availability, support and his
precious advice during the entire period of the
development of this work. .

And I do not forget a heartfelt thank you to all my family

who have never stopped supporting me and all those who
have contributed directly or indirectly to the realization of
this project.
 DEDICATIONS

To my very dear Mother who was always by my side;

to my father who has always guided and supported me.

To my brothers and sisters, as a testimony of my love

and deep admiration; who god protects you and grants you
good health and long life.

To my friends whom I have shared the best moments of

my life with, And my friends who have always encouraged.

To all those who have helped me from near or far and

who know me.

To my master, director of this work, Mr. Mechraoui

ameur; you have done me the honor of leading this work.
We ask you to see in this work, the expression of my
esteem and my gratitude.
 General
Introduction
General Introduction

Pipelines are essential tools for the massive transport of fluids (liquid,
liquefied or gaseous) over large distances as well as over small links. They
combine high flow and discretion and confirm year after year that they are the
safest and most ecological mode of transporting hydrocarbons, in particular.
However, if their burial allows this discretion in performance, it is also
problematic when it is necessary to consider ensuring the maintenance of these
transport structures. This is particularly the case to verify the effectiveness of the
preventive measures implemented to face the various threats to which a buried
or submarine pipeline is subjected: aggressive environment, damage by third
parties or by elements of the ground, fluid transported. Corrosive.

The possibilities offered to improve the capacity of transporting

hydrocarbons, by increasing the operating pressure and the diameters of the
tubes for transporting petroleum products are not yet sufficiently used, while
global trends in this field are considering their increase. The transition to high
operating pressures requires improving the mechanical properties of the steels
thereof, so as to reduce the thicknesses of the walls of the tubes. In other words,
the quality of high flow hydrocarbons depends on the choice of best
combination between the properties of the tubes, namely strength and toughness.
The quality of a hydrocarbon is a primary issue for pipeline oil and gas
transportation projects. The goal in this case is to reduce unplanned disruptions,
the consequences of which are often harmful.

Pipelines are usually made of carbon steel, a material chosen because of the
following properties:
• It is easy to weld
• It can withstand high operating temperatures and pressures
• It can be protected against corrosion
• It can remain in service indefinitely if properly maintained

However, none of these properties are taken for granted. Before a pipeline
is built, all steel members are subjected to a series of tests to verify the forces
that can deform them and to determine how resistant they are to fractures. These
rigorous tests continue throughout the construction process to ensure that the
finished pipe meets specific requirements.

1
General Introduction

“Pipelines are built and managed with the utmost care by professionals who
ensure that the best available materials and best practices are used when
installing pipelines. The most advanced technology is also used to maintain
pipelines once they go into service, "

Modern gas transport tubes are produced from sheets obtained by controlled
rolling. This process consists in optimizing the rolling conditions by imposing
certain parameters of the forming and heat treatment process. The properties of
ferrite-perlite structural steels obtained by rolling depend essentially on:

The size of the ferritic grain, Hardening by precipitation in the form of

nitrides, carbides or carbonitrides formed by the reaction of carbon and nitrogen
with certain micro alloy elements (V, Nb, etc.). Hardening of solution solids.

Producers of steels for gas transport tubes have constantly doubled their
efforts to improve the mechanical characteristics of these materials. They are
often forced to seek a compromise between antagonistic properties. Among
these, we can mention : The elastic limit, the resilience and the transition
temperature, ductile / brittle, Weld ability.
Weld ability is one of the constraints imposed which limits the rate of carbon in
steel and, to a lesser extent, the rate of equivalent carbon linked to the presence
of additives.

The multiplicity of diameters and thicknesses of tubes and the development

over time of their manufacturing techniques [4], constitute the reasons for the
diversity of the Algerian gas transport network. We find:

• Spiral welded tube

• Longitudinal welded tubes
• Seamless tubes
The procedures for manufacturing spiral welded pipe are made by bending
steel sheet strip into the shape of a pipe and welding together. This production
technique goes through stages, as shown in Figure 2.2. Welding occurs here on
the production of spiral tubes which are typically supplied.

2
General Introduction

Figure: Manufacturing technique of welded spiral tubes.

The manufacture of spiral tubes can be subdivided into the following main
operations:

• preparing the tape

• the splicing tape
• Bending
• Welding
• Completion
• Reception and inspection

The preparation of the strip and the edges of the strip as well as the butt
welds directly affect the quality of the pipe. Because of the importance, we pay
special attention to the latter in this talk.

At the entrance of the spiral tube machine, the following operations are
carried out:

• Unwinding of the tape

• Dressing of the shearing belt
• Chamfering the edges of the strip
• Arching of the banks to eliminate the roof effect

3
General Introduction

At the entrance to the forming stand, the inside pass of the weld is made
while the outside pass is made on the formed tube. The usual methods for
cutting are:

• Oxycutting
• Plasma cutting.

Pipeline welding is important in industry. The chief methods are used in the
welding of pipelines for gas, oil, water, etc. There are several types of pipe
joints. Pipes may be joined by either fixed position welding or roll welding. Pipe
welding in fixed position and the lengths of pipes to be welded are placed on
rollers for easy rotation. In roll welding the pipes are rotated as the weld
progresses. Types of welds include, but are not limited to, the following.

• Circumferential Welds: Typical of pipelines, verifies the integrity of

circumferential welds at pipeline joints.

• Butt welds: Two metal parts of the same plane are joined by butt welds
which are prone to the inclusion of slag, porosity or cracking, for
example.

Corrosion Resistant Alloy (CRA) Welds: Common in the coastal oil and gas
industry require special attention and skill when performing ultrasonic (UT)
testing.

All pipeline steels can fail due to external or internal forces, such as
mechanical and thermal stresses, or from related phenomena such as creep,
fatigue and erosion.
The tubes are also liable to be attacked by a phenomenon of internal and
external corrosion, cracking or even manufacturing faults. Internal and external
corrosion is the main cause of pipe leaks and ruptures, sometimes resulting in
catastrophic damage (human damage, pollution of the natural environment,
additional repair costs, prolonged stoppage of pumping, etc.). If a water-carrying
pipeline is affected with a leak burst, at least it does not harm the environment.
However, if the pipeline is leaking oil or gas, it can be an environmental
disaster. Corrosion may be incredibly damaging to a pipeline, but, thankfully,
there are ways to treat and prevent it. Depending on the type of corrosion that
you are dealing with as well as the material and structure of your pipeline, you
may be able to prevent corrosion using solutions such as corrosion inhibitors,
coating your pipeline with corrosion-resistant paints, plating your pipeline with
metallic platings, and modifying the environmental conditions that your pipeline
is exposed to.

4
General Introduction

In addition to taking measures to prevent corrosion, you will also want to rely
on frequent condition monitoring and corrosion inspection to spot corrosion as it
appears and treat it as soon as possible.

All manufacturing processes have the potential introduce imperfections into

the pipe. Inspections during manufacturing and construction along with
methods of pre-service testing prove that the pipe is fit-for-service at the
proposed operating pressure. However, history has shown that some flaws can
degrade over time to the point where a failure could occur. Additionally, certain
conditions such as corrosion can initiate after a pipeline has gone into service.
Therefore it is imperative that the integrity of the pipe is appropriately managed
throughout the service life of the pipeline. While there are many processes,
systems, and technologies dedicated to mitigating the causes of degradation of
flaws in pipe, eventually the severity may require that the pipe be repaired.
While federal regulations establish the criteria used to define injurious defects,
damage, or anomalies, they do not specify acceptable repair methods or under
what circumstances different repair methods are applicable. For this type of
guidance, one must refer to industry codes and standards which contain industry
best practices. Below is a list of the most common repair methods recognized
and discussed by industry standards.

• Replace as Cylinder
• Removal by Grinding
• Deposition of Weld Metal
• Reinforcing Full Encirclement Sleeve (Type A)
• Pressure-Containing Full Encirclement Sleeve (Type B)
• Composite Sleeve
• Mechanical Bolt-on Clamps
• Hot Tap
• Fittings

5
General Introduction

That being said, there are three repair methods recognized by industry
standards which are acceptable for repairing any type of potentially injurious
condition. Those repair methods are Replace as Cylinder, Type B Sleeve, and
Mechanical Bolt-on Clamps.

This work aims to study the process of welding pipelines in service. We

have divided the work into three sub-chapters

In the first chapter we presented different methods of welding pipes in

general and the conditions for welding. In the second chapter, we presented the
failure and the damage of the pipeline, and the process of monitoring these lines.
In the third chapter, we shed light on the best way to weld pipes during service
with an explanation in detail, which has great economic importance. And
commercial.

6
 Chapter I
Pipeline Welding
Chapter I Pipeline welding

I.1 Introduction:
For about thirty years, welding has been used as a process for assembling
metal structural members. In fact, there are different processes to achieve a
weld these can be classified into two main categories [1]:

- Welds made using the combustion properties of certain gases.

- Welds made using electrical energy.

A welded assembly must present all the guarantees of obtaining the expected
final quality allowing it to meet the service conditions imposed on it. This is
called global weld ability. All the stages in the production of a welded assembly
are subject to the vagaries of manufacturing, whether it is the care taken in the
execution or the rigor of its follow-up [2].

Among the assembly processes, welding occupies an important place in all

branches of industry and construction, because it makes it possible to adapt the
forms of construction as well as possible to the stresses which they are called
upon to withstand in service. Welding is an operation which consists in bringing
together two or more constituent parts of an assembly, so as to ensure continuity
between the parts to be assembled, either by heating, or by pressure intervention,
or by both , with or without filler metal, the melting point of which is of the
same order of magnitude as that of the base material.

8
Chapter I Pipeline welding

I.2 Welding:
Welding here depends on the technique of submerged arc welding using
an automatic welding head. The inner and outer welds grow longitudinally on
a path of a straight line. Usually the inner bead is done first as shown in
fig1.2

Fig 1.2: Longitudinal weld.

Currently, in the construction of long-distance pipelines, there are several

methods of welding reclosure welds:

1) Downward welding of a cellulose electrode. This method is generally

used for doctor blade welding by manual welding. For automatic welding,
the work of cleaning and grinding slag from the root bead is very important,
which obviously affects the efficiency of automatic welding.

(2) Semi-automatic STT welding. This is the currently commonly used

method. The advantage is that the operation is convenient, the weld bead is
well formed and the efficiency is high, but the speed of back seam welding
still does not meet the requirements of automatic welding.

(3) Interior welder. The internal welder has fast welding speed and good
weld quality, which is an ideal method for sealing the bottom. However, the
internal welder can only accommodate a pipe diameter and the utilization
rate of reused material is low; the relative cost of setting up equipment is
therefore high, and most building units are unbearable.

9
Chapter I Pipeline welding

(4) Automatic PWT welder. The use of the device is flexible, has high
welding efficiency and high adaptability to the diameter of the pipe. It is an
ideal automatic bottom sealing equipment. However, the equipment is
complicated, the shape of the groove is peculiar, and the processing is
difficult. There is a need to develop the application in on-site construction
and it still takes some time to accumulate technology and experience. In
addition, the equipment is an Italian product, the price is high, the technical
support is not perfect, and it is difficult to promote and apply in most of the
construction units in China. However, we believe that the technical form of
this equipment should be the direction of the development of automatic
sealing and bottom welding equipment.

I.3 welding of pipeline process:

Welding equipment:

➢ Equipment intended for welding must be well maintained. They must

have the same execution capacities as those used for the qualification
of welding procedures.
➢ The installation of the earth should be in as wide a place as possible.
Earthling connections must not be made available to the controllers to
be able to carry out the calibrations when necessary.
➢ Welders must be provided with their personal protective equipment.

Chamfering:

The design of the weld joint will be carried out in accordance with the
qualified welding procedure. (See fig1.3)

If necessary, the chamfering of the weld joint will be carried out on site in
accordance with the dimensional characteristics indicated in the qualified
welding procedure.

It will be carried out by flame cutting at an angle with a grinding wheel

finish.

10
Chapter I Pipeline welding

Fig1.3: The chamfer of the gas pipeline.

Tube alignment (Clamping):

The use of the outer clamps to ensure better alignment of the butt welds
will be in accordance with the WPS. They will be removed after welding
50% of the first pass. Fig’s 1.4 and 1.5 illustrate the clamping procedure.

Fig. 1.4: Beginning of clamping. Fig. 1.5: End of clamping.

11
Chapter I Pipeline welding

Ground Cable:

The ground wire connected, shown in fig 1.6, to the welding machine will
be connected to the surface to be welded to eliminate arcs and strikes on the
base metal.

Ground cable

Fig 1.6: Ground cable.

Preheating:

The preheating of the two edges to be welded must be explicit of the

welding procedure. The minimum preheating temperature must be that
recommended by the approved welding procedure (WPS). The figure shows
the preheating procedure.

Fig 1.7: preheating with torch.

12
Chapter I Pipeline welding

Execution of welds:

Welding and pipeline inspection must meet the requirements of API 1104
and in accordance with the approved and qualified WPS.
The Owner will be informed of the number of welders for the first pass.
"Priming of weld edges is unacceptable.
Each weld pass must be cleaned of all traces of slag by suitable means
(disc tools). Defects visible to the naked eye will be removed by grinding
each pass. Before any work interruption, make sure that the number of passes
made is at least 3 (three) passes. The fig1.8 shows the welding execution.

Fig. 1.8: Execution of welding

Cleaning the weld bead by brushing:

At the end of the welding operation, the weld bead is cleaned by brushing
as shown in the fig1.9 to remove the slag.

Fig. 1.9: Cleaned weld seam.

13
Chapter I Pipeline welding

Marking:

The weld joint will be identified by its sequential number as well as the mark
of the welders who performed it, as shown in the fig1.10

Fig 1.10: Identification of the weld joint

Human and Material Resources

Human resources:

- Qualified welder
- Radiologists
- Controller
- Qualified molders
- Qualified pipefitters
- Qualified electricians and mechanics
Clampers
Work machine operator
Material resources:
Soldering poster
External clamps
Side Boom
Bender
Cranes
Compressor
Gas Bottle and Torch
Grinder

Individual protection means (glasses, helmet, mask, gloves, and shoes).

14
Chapter I Pipeline welding

Fig1.11: Centering machine Fig1.12: Side Boom

Fig1.13: The Crane Fig1.14: Welding station

Figure 1.15: Tube alignment tool (Clamps)

15
Chapter I Pipeline welding

Conclusion:

Many different energy sources can be used for welding, including a gas flame
(chemical), an electric arc (electrical), a laser, an electron beam, friction,
and ultrasound. While often an industrial process, welding may be performed in
many different environments, including in open air, under water, and in outer
space. Welding is a hazardous undertaking and precautions are required to
avoid burns, electric shock, vision damage, inhalation of poisonous gases and
fumes, and exposure to intense ultraviolet radiation.

The review has proven that the technology of automatic long-distance

pipeline welding is a complete technology. It is a combination of
multidisciplinary, multidisciplinary and multiple technologies. In order to
maximize the benefits, reasonable configuration is required. And corresponding.
From the manufacture of tubes to the adaptation of welding consumables; from
beveling to grouping of fields; pipe layers, beveling machines, counterparts to
on-site generators, transport equipment, etc. from the welding of the back cover
to the filler cover.

16
Chapter II
Damage of pipelines
Chapter II Damage of pipelines

Introduction:

Gas production pipelines are made of butt welded steel tubes covered with
an insulating material (polyethylene, polypropylene, ..) contributing to their
protection against corrosion. They can also be coated internally to improve the
flow of the transported fluid or to prevent internal corrosion if the transported
gas is corrosive.
Depending on their type of use, pipelines are operated by exploration,
production, transmission or distribution industries. The operation of a pipeline
consists of maintaining the structure in good working order under optimum
conditions of safety and cost. Today there are millions of kilometers of pipelines
which are widely used to transport water, gas and oil either overhead or
underground or well below the sea, from original sources to factories. Product
treatment (filtration, refining, liquefaction, etc.) (Figure 2.1).

Fig. 2.1: Pipelines

18
Chapter II Damage of pipelines

Main Causes of Pipeline Failures:

The pipelines are susceptible to attack by the phenomena of internal and
external corrosion resulting from defects such as cracking, causing mainly leaks
and ruptures. Accidents, sometimes resulting in catastrophic damage (human
damage, pollution of the natural environment, additional repair costs, and
prolonged shutdown of production units) occur sporadically during their
operation

In the petroleum and gas industry, damage to pipelines and reservoirs is well
documented. It is due to service conditions and environmental parameters.
Structures designed for petroleum products are affected by several types of
damage, erosion, corrosion, embrittlement, etc. It is of the type: crack, notch,
hole, complex geometry defect,… Etc.

All pipeline steels can fail due to external or internal forces, such as
mechanical and thermal stresses, or from related phenomena such as creep,
fatigue and erosion.

The tubes are also liable to be attacked by a phenomenon of internal and

external corrosion, cracking or even manufacturing faults. Internal and external
corrosion is the main cause of pipe leaks and ruptures, sometimes resulting in
catastrophic damage (human damage, pollution of the natural environment,
additional repair costs, prolonged stoppage of pumping, etc.). If a water-carrying
pipeline is affected with a leak burst, at least it doesn't harm the environment.
However, if the pipeline is leaking oil or gas, it can be an environmental
disaster.

Studies have been carried out in the context of controlling the harmfulness of
surface defects in pipelines:
• During transport, pipelines are subject to oscillations which can cause
microscopic cracks by weakening the mesh of the material.
• When assembling tubes, welds made on site (butt welding) may show cracks
because they are sometimes performed under difficult conditions and may not
necessarily be controlled (lack of penetration of the material).
• During maintenance operations, by recklessness, a machine hits the pipeline,
generating a deformation called as the case may be (scratch, dent or combined
(scratch + dent)
• Depending on the case of the pipeline (buried / submerged or overhead), the
environment has a harmful influence by causing the phenomenon of corrosion.

19
Chapter II Damage of pipelines

For pipes, damage is caused by: corrosion craters, cracks, indentations, scratches
and the so-called combined defect (dent + scratches).

Tube Failures:
Among the parameters influencing the fatigue behavior of pipelines and
structures, there are three main categories represented in the following flowchart
(figure 2.2).
The causes of failures in pressurized tubes or pipes are of various kinds, they
can be manifested either by a rupture or by a "crack" leak. Most of these failures
are caused by pitting or stress corrosion cracking, but there are also problems
with weld faults. Ground movements (landslides, earthquakes, etc.) can also be
the cause of damage to buried tubes (figure 2.3). Pipe operators have studied
these problems for a long time and have a good knowledge of the methods of
dealing with them.

Fig 2.2: Flowchart shows the main categories of damage

20
Chapter II Damage of pipelines

External causes, corresponding to the impact of other activities, are the

predominant origin of accidents.
The scenario is each time more or less the same: work totally independent of the
pipeline, most often buried (2 out of 3 cases) is undertaken and machinery
(earthmoving, agricultural or other) damage and often perforate the pipeline.

Fig 2.3. Causes of pipeline ruptures during operation [5]

This situation is encountered in almost one in two accidents. Several cases

have been observed where the pipeline, initially buried at a significant depth (0.8
m to 1.0 m) during its installation, is found over the years, due to soil erosion for
example, at much lower depths (up to 0.30 m), insufficient height to avoid
impacts from plowshares for example.
Organizational inadequacies in the preparation of the site are frequently
highlighted or assumed: absence of a request for intervention, ignorance of the
easements inherent in the passage of the pipeline, difficulty in communication or
lack of coordination between the various actors.

The other notable cause of accidents is related to the condition of the pipes.
These are then failures due to the equipment (for known cases, nozzle resistance,
design of welds, corrosion, stress cracking, especially in the case of cyclical
stress). This situation is observed in more than one in three cases.

21
Chapter II Damage of pipelines

Welding faults:
There are several types of weld defects for example: crater, crack, arc starter,
Bites / Channels, Inclusions, lack of fusion, porosity ... etc.

In our work, we are going to extend our study on the crack defect which is a
defect that cannot be underestimated because over time it will cause degradation
such as piercing.

The main welding defects The classification of welding defects in accordance

with standard NF EN 26250.

a. Group 1: Cracks.
b. Group 2: Cavities.
c. Group 3: Solid inclusion.
d. Group4: Lack of fusion / Lack of penetration.
e. Group 5: Formal defects.

Cracks and ruptures of cylindrical tubes under pressure:

Cracking is not a disease, but a symptom of a disease. Indeed, the low
deformation capacity and the low tensile, compressive or pressure resistance ..,
make the materials very sensitive to cracking.
The use of new ductile materials (steel and other metallic alloys) for tensile
loads, however, led to some problems; ruptures sometimes occurred at load
levels well below the yield strength; Initially, practitioners tried to avoid these
risks of fracture by oversizing the structures, but the need to increasingly lighten
the structures and reduce costs led to the development of research on fracture
mechanics.

Definition of a crack:
A crack is defined as the surface locally separating a solid into two parts. The
field of displacements is then discontinuous through this surface. The object of
fracture mechanics is the study of the evolutions of this surface (propagation of
the crack) according to the applied loadings and the characteristics of the
constituent material. [6].
The presence of a crack in a structure presents a local flexibility which
affects the dynamic response, moreover, a fatigue crack is a crack which opens
and closes over time depending on the load conditions and the amplitude of
vibration. [7].

22
Chapter II Damage of pipelines

The crack:
The pipes are most often assembled on site from the junction of butt-welded
steel tubes (butt welds). The longitudinal welds made during the forming of the
tube in the factory are checked before the transport of the tube is On the
worksite.
On the other hand, welds made on site (butt welding) can show cracks because
they are sometimes made under difficult conditions.

Fig2.4: Crack in welded joints [8]

Scratch:
A scratch is superficial damage to the surface due to contact with a foreign
object that causes material to be removed. This scratch can be considered a gash.
The dimensions of a scratch are defined so that the length is greater than the
width. The worker's tool causes a shock (for example with a pickaxe) or a
construction machine (impact of a bucket tooth for example); most of the time,
the incident goes unnoticed or simply goes unreported.

23
Chapter II Damage of pipelines

Fig2.5: Example of a pipeline containing a notch [9]

Enforcement:
A dent in a pipeline is a permanent plastic deformation of the circular
section of the wall of the tube due to an impact with a foreign body (example:
the bucket of a machine under construction for pipes buried or l aid on the
ground, the anchors of boats for submerged pipelines).
In other words, a dent is a change in the curvature of the pipeline wall without a
change in thickness. The depth of this depression is defined as the maximum
reduction in the diameter of the pipe compared to its initial diameter .

Fig 2.6: A sunken pipeline [10]

24
Chapter II Damage of pipelines

Combined damage (denting scratch):

This type of damage is very dangerous because it results from the
concentration of stresses caused by external aggression (sinking) and the
reduction in the thickness of the pipeline (scratching) which lead to a local
reduction in mechanical resistance. As a result, a local decrease in the
mechanical strength of the pipe is observed.

Corrosion phenomenon:

- Definition of corrosion:
Corrosion is generally defined as being the destruction of metals which
occurs under the effect of a chemical or electronic reaction when they are in
contact with a gaseous or aqueous medium. [10]
Corrosion is a natural phenomenon, metals produced industrially from an ore as
a result of often complex operations, tend when left to their own devices to
transform into increasingly stable chemical compounds. The vast majority of
corrosion problems encountered are linked to the presence of liquid water in
contact with metals.
(For more on the corrosion phenomenon see appendix B)

Fig2.7: corrosive attacks on the outer wall of a metal pipe. [11].

25
Chapter II Damage of pipelines

Fig 2.8: Galvanic corrosion [11].

A- Metal losses due to internal corrosion:

Metal losses are most often caused by chemical attack on the internal surface
of the pipe (figure 2.9). This type of corrosion is favored by the presence of
hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide in the gas and the presence of sulfate-
reducing bacteria (SSB) in the case of pipelines.

Fig.2.9: Metal losses due to internal corrosion [12]

26
 Chapter II Damage of pipelines

B- Metal losses due to external corrosion:

Metal losses are most often caused by electrochemical and chemical

phenomena on the outer surface of the pipe (figure 2.10).
The main factors favoring this type of corrosion are:
- Defects in the pipe coating;
- The shortcomings of the cathodic protection system;
- The aggressiveness of the soil (soil with low electrical resistivity) [12].

Fig. 2.10: Metal losses due to external corrosion [12]

C- Uniform corrosion:

Uniform corrosion is characterized by a relatively uniform corrosion rate

over an entire exposed surface. This type of corrosion is usually expected for
structural component parts that can be sacrificed over time, but it affects all base
metals. In the case of carbon steels, iron reacts with oxygen to form the mineral
magnetite, which is iron oxide with the chemical formula Fe3O4.

Fig. 2.11: Uniform corrosion [13]

27
Chapter II Damage of pipelines

D- Pitting corrosion and crevice corrosion:

Pitting corrosion and crevice corrosion are special cases of galvanic

corrosion in which the metal loss is localized to a relatively small area of metal.
In such cases corrosion occurs due to differences in concentration localized
oxygen or an aggressive ion, such as a chlorine ion, or due to a difference in pH.
This situation can arise when flow conditions cause low flow or stagnation, for
example, in small cracks, gaps or cracks, such as those associated with the
presence of bolts or gaskets, or else at the points of contact between metals.

Figure 2.12: Pitting corrosion [13]

E- Corrosion-erosion:
Corrosion-erosion occurs when the flow of water combines with corrosion to
dramatically increase the rate of metal removal compared to the rate of removal
at lower flow rates. The flow effect is due to the removal of metal ions and
protective layers as they form, which increases the driving force of chemical
corrosion and can prevent the formation of a protective layer.

F- Microbiologically induced corrosion (MIC):

Bacteria, commonly found in standing water, promote microbiologically
induced corrosion (MIC). It can happen with or without oxygen, because some
bacteria have evolved to reproduce under either condition.
Nodules of oxygen-loving bacteria can deposit on the surface of metals, creating
conditions similar to those described in the Pitting corrosion section [3].

28
Chapter II Damage of pipelines

Non-destructive and destructive controls:

A- Non Destructive Controls (NDT):
Non-destructive testing (NDT), is commonly used to describe the
technology for detecting defects in solids. This technology covers a group of
analytical techniques used in science and industry to assess the properties of a
material, component or system without causing damage. It is an essential part of
the quality control of engineering systems for their safe and successful use in
practical situations. However, NDT applications go no further and have a much
broader scope than the detection of coarse defects. They concern all aspects of
the characterization of solids as well as their method of preparation [14].

1- Ingot control:
An inspection upon receipt of the ingots is carried out on the basis of the
technical specifications (shape, dimensions, surface defects such as indentations
and scratches), the packing list and the specification of the ingots in order to
ensure the compliance of the ingots received with the accompanying documents.
A second check of the accompanying documents (chemical and mechanical
analysis certificates) established by the supplier. Compliant ingots are entered
on a receiving list, and are identified by an indelible marking comprising:
Ingot number, Cast number and steel grade, Ingot weight, Dimensions, Supplier
name, Project identification.
This identification ensures the traceability of the product received. Non-
compliant ingots are isolated with a specific marking.

2- Tube checks:
The purpose of this check is to highlight faults either directly (visual) or
indirectly through their effects (visual, magnetic particle inspection, ultrasound,
BEH, etc.).
These faults are of the following types:
• Permissible defects (spherical or elongated blowholes, arc blow, etc.)
• Inadmissible defects (lack of penetration, cracks, channels, etc.).
The compliance of the tubes is checked at the end of the manufacturing
operation and before their transport to the park by various means of control.
These controls are as follows:

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Chapter II Damage of pipelines

3- Visual inspection:
Visual inspection consists of the analysis, by a controller, of the variations in
the relative reflectivity of a part subjected to lighting, the geometry and power of
which allow it to highlight the defects sought. The use of optical instruments
such as magnifying glasses, endoscopes or television systems makes it possible,
when necessary, to obtain greater sensitivity than that of the naked human eye or
to access areas of complex or restrictive geometries. .

Visual inspection is direct if the optical path is not interrupted between the
inspected surface and the eye of the inspector. This category includes controls
with the naked eye and those using magnifiers, mirrors, lenses, boroscopes,
optical fibers, etc.
The visual inspection allows the detection of any defect leading to the surface
(cracks, scratches, porosities, shrinkage, cold drops, lines, folds, splits, cracks,
tapures, deposits, traces of corrosion, deposits, migrating bodies, tearing, etc.)
[16].

4- Final control:
It is a dimensional visual inspection which consists of an internal and external
inspection of each tube by checking the information mentioned on the tube card.
The tube is then received or classified, a sequential number will be assigned to
it. The final inspector sees to the marking of the tubes according to the current
procedure.

Fig 2.13: Marking of tubes.

30
Chapter II Damage of pipelines

Prevention of pipeline damage:

Failure detection is done by ultrasonic testing where an intelligent tool will

inspect the internal and external walls of the tubes and detect any failures by
corrosion peaks. The interpretation of the results of the tool will determine the
failures on the pipeline where the defects were found which will need to be
replaced or repaired depending on the severity and size of the pipe defect.
Inspection is the set of theories and processes capable of providing
information on the health of a part or a structure without resulting in alterations
detrimental to their subsequent use. The operation of checking an object is
generally not limited to the detection of possible faults. Indeed, even if the
choice of the process, the method and the material has been made beforehand, it
is necessary to consider a whole procedure having the following objectives:
reliability of the examination, localization of faults, identification,
characterization of these , in particular by their size, visual presentation, finally
archiving of results and examination conditions. The pipelines are subjected to
internal forces of the products [gas or oil] (boosted by pumps) and external
forces as it was indicated previously, for that period inspections become more
than necessary.

Protection of pipelines:

There are two ways to protect pipelines. The first involves the application of
a coating to the pipeline during its manufacture. The most common type is
epoxy coating; it is a paint-like substance that seals the steel surface of the
pipeline. The epoxy interferes with the corrosion mechanisms that affect the
pipeline. Other types of specific coatings are also used in the field to prevent
corrosion. They often apply to specific cases, depending on the situation. For
example, a special cement plaster is used for crossing a watercourse to make the
pipeline heavier and to protect it from mechanical damage during installation.

31
Chapter II Damage of pipelines

Figure 2.13: Images courtesy of Kinder Morgan Canada and Shaw Pipe [13]

Corrosion protection:
The fight against corrosion is a constant concern in many industrial fields, it
must be taken into consideration from the start of a project until its completion,
it is a question of guaranteeing a certain lifespan to an object for a minimum of
charges.

Within GTFT, the means of protection against corrosion are:

Cathodic protection for external corrosion.
Injection of inhibitor for internal corrosion.

• Impressed current protection:

This method uses an external generator and an auxiliary anode. It offers the
advantage of being able to adjust the emf or the current as needed, this allows
the system to be optimized and large areas to be protected.

• Measuring points:
They are intended to control the potential of a pipeline with respect to the
ground. The number of measurement points depends on the configuration of the
structure

• Potential measurement:
Measuring the potential of pipes in the ground is essential to monitor the
effectiveness of cathodic protection. The potential is measured by means of
reference electrodes.

32
 Chapter II Damage of pipelines

The most widely used reference electrode is the Cu / CuSO4 copper sulfate
electrode

Figure 2.14: The electrode Cu/CuSO4

The corrosion inhibitor injection system:

In order to protect the surface facilities and maintain their integrity, a

corrosion inhibitor injection system is in place. This device includes:
“A fixed tank filled with the chemical inhibit inhibitor ’’.
✓ Injection pumps.
✓ A flow meter to measure the flow.
✓ The corrosion inhibitor is injected at the wellhead

Fig 2.15: The corrosion inhibitor injection system

33
Chapter II Damage of pipelines

Conclusion

An important factor that leads to degradation of pipelines in the oil and gas
industry is corrosion. Huge costs are directed annually to mitigate corrosion.
Stress corrosion in oil pipelines and gas is a very important issue, because
always there is leakage or rupture and failure of pipelines can pose a potential
threat to humans and the environment.

In this chapter, in the first part, a definition and an overview of pipeline

technology has been presented. Then we talked about the chemical and
mechanical properties that characterize the most used steels and we mentioned
the different manufacturing processes of tubes for the transport of hydrocarbons.

In the second part we carried out research on the main causes of pipeline
failure such as cracks, corrosion ect. The presented study responds to concerns
related to industrial maintenance relating to the increase in the life of damaged
structures. A method is proposed for repair; patch reinforcement in composite
material (Boron / epoxy).

The pipes are subjected in service to mechanical stresses giving rise to

stresses generally multiaxial and of variable amplitude, which leads to the
appearance of cracks causing their damage or their ruptures. An alternative to
repairing these pipes is to reinforce them first, to delay the appearance or spread
of cracks. Thus, patches made of composite materials are used for this purpose.
This repair makes it possible to delay the propagation of cracks and increase the
life of the pipes thus repaired.

Since the installation of composites for repairing metal structures and pipes
transporting hydrocarbons, efforts have been made to offer repair solutions
adapted to these materials. Initially, the only possible solutions for the damaged
pipes were to replace them with others or to weld a new section to them. Among
all the repairs identified, the bonding repair of a composite patch is now used to
resolve industrial problems related to pipelines. This repair technique seems to
us the most promising for quickly and inexpensively resolving pipe damage.

34
Chapter III
Welding In Service
Chapter III Welding In Service

INTRODUCTION:

Pipeline operators are often faced with opportunities to repair corrosion

damage on pipelines, which is second only to mechanical damage as the primary
cause of natural gas pipeline failures .To prevent an area of corrosion damage
from causing a pipeline to rupture, the area containing the corrosion damage
must be rein forced to prevent the pipeline from bulging. There are often
significant incentives for avoiding interruption of pipeline service; therefore, this
welding is often performed (in-service). There are two primary concerns with
welding onto in service pipelines, whether for installing repair sleeves or
installing a branch connection prior to "hot tapping". The first is for "burn
through", where the welding arc causes the pipe wall to be penetrated. The
second concern is for hydrogen cracking, sincewelds made in-service cool at an
accelerated rate as the result of the flowing contents' ability to remove heat from
the pipe wall.
Fabricate a Complete Line of Full Encirclement Steel Sleeve This Sleeves are
probably the most important and widely used method of General Repair of
Pipeline .Half Pipe Sole consist of a Cylindrical Shell Placed around the pipe
section to be Repaired and Welded along the Two Longitudinal seams. There
are Two Types of Sleeves, herein referred to as “Type A” and “Type B” Sleeves
can be made from Pipe or Rolled Plate Material.
It was a Result of the work that began in the year 1970 show that a properly
fabricated steel sleeve restores the strength of a defective pipeline segment to at
least 100% of the specified minimum yield strength. Damaged pipe sections
repaired using properly installed repair sleeves failed in the pipe body away
from the repair.
To prevent an area of corrosion or other damage from causing a pipeline to
rupture, the area containing the damage must be reinforced to prevent the
pipeline from bulging. Alternatively, the area containing the damage can be
encapsulated to contain any leak that may occur. The predominant method of
reinforcing or encapsulating damage in cross-country pipelines is to install a
Full-Encirclement Repair Sleeve.
Different repair methods :

• Sleeve :

The most predominant method of rein forcing corrosion damage in cross-

country pipelines is to install a full encirclement repair sleeve. The applications
of this and other repair methods are described in detail elsewhere. (Ref 2) there
are two basic types of full-encirclement sleeves; Type A and Type B (Figure 1).
Type a sleeves are for repair of external corrosion only. While not necessary to

36
 Chapter III Welding In Service

prevent bulging, the ends of Type A sleeves are often welded to the pipeline to
prevent further corrosion. Type B sleeves are for repair of leaking defects or
defects that will eventually leak (e.g., internal corrosion). Therefore, the ends of
Type B sleeves must be welded to the pipeline to contain the pressure.

-Type B Sleeve -Type A Sleeve

Fig 3.1-Types of sleeve pipeline.

• Using a composite patch :

A composite repair has many benefits when compared to more traditional

pipeline repair methods. Firstly, a composite repair can be installed while the
pipeline is still in-service. The pressure does not have to be raised or lowered to
make the repair. No hot works permits are required to install these composite
repair systems, thereby producing a safer environment for the service providers
when compared with a welded sleeve. Welded sleeves also produce harmful
effects of potential cracking in the heat-affected zone, which removes welded
sleeves as a repair option for external corrosion and dent defects. Moreover,
composite repairs can take approximately one third of the time to install when
compared with a welded sleeve. All of these factors combined add up to show
that composite repairs can be a more economical repair solution. Also consider
that wet lay-up systems can be easily installed around complex geometries such
as elbows, tees, nozzles and bends.

37
 Chapter III Welding In Service

Fig 3.2- Composite patch of pipeline.

• Piercings and fillings :

Services and supply of products for the insulation of sections of pipelines or

networks for the transport of fluids and gases, for intervention and repair of the
section concerned.

Fig 3.3- Double closure.

Pipeline repair by sleeves:

When an operator becomes aware of the need to repair a pipeline, the
operator first identifies the location of the repair. Depending upon the location,
the operator may have to obtain permits, notify property owners, prepare a dig
plan, and let contracts to outside firms as necessary. Since the majority of pipe is
underground, the operator first must excavate the repair site. Once the repair
location is uncovered, the operator will inspect the pipeline for the general
condition of the pipeline coating. The pipeline coating will be removed to
expose the exterior of the pipe. If the defect or anomaly is on the exterior surface

38
 Chapter III Welding In Service

of the pipe, the pipe will be cleaned. Once the defect or anomaly is exposed, the
operator may perform an ultrasonic test, a dye penetrant or magnetic particle
test, or take an etching of the anomaly. Dimensional data such as, depth, width,
length, and exact location on the pipe, will be taken to compare with the
information provided by the in line assessment tool. At this point the operator is
ready to repair the pipeline.

Size Range, Specification and Grade:

Sleeve Size 06" NB to 64" NB
Sleeve Thickness As per Client Requirement, or min Carrier Pipe Thickness.
Sleeve Length 100 MM to 3000 MM, as per Client Requirement.
Sleeve Edges Milled Groove or Plain
Backing Strips Yes we Supply along with the Sleeve min Thickness 1.6 mm
Carrier Pipe Size 2" NB To 64" NB (Nominal Bore Size)
Carrier Pipe Wall Schedule 10 To Schedule XXS (Heavier On Request)
Thickness
Temperature -20 to 150F
Testing Destructive, Magnetic Particle, Liquid Penetrate, PMI, Ultrasonic etc.

Types sleeves:
Sleeves are probably the most important and widely used method of general
repair of pipeline defects. Sleeves may be steel, Type A (reinforcement) or Type
B (pressure retaining reinforcement), or composite material.

Sleeve A (Reinforcing) :
Type A Sleeve Ends are not Welded Circumferentially to the Carrier Pipe.
The Type A sleeve is not capable of containing Internal Pressure but functions
as reinforcement for a Defective area. It is only used for the repair of defects that
are not leaking and that are not expected to grow during service, or when the
damage mechanism and growth rate are fully understood.
Type A Sleeve is made by two curved piece of Steel Plates or Two Cylindrical
Halves of Pipe that are wrap around the Carrier Pipe the Defective Area and
After Positioning, they are joined by Welded the Side Seams.

39
 Chapter III Welding In Service

Fig3.4 :Sleeve type A.

Sleeve B (Pressure Containing) :

Type B sleeve ends are welded circumferentially to the carrier pipe. A Type
B sleeve is capable of containing internal pressure because the ends are fillet
welded to the carrier pipe. Type B sleeves can be used to repair leaking defects
or defects that may eventually leak and to strengthen pipe having defects that
reduce the axial load carrying capability of the pipe. The ends of a Type B
sleeve are fillet welded to the carrier pipe. Since its ends are attached to the
carrier pipe, a Type B sleeve can be used to repair leaks and to strengthen
circumferentially oriented defects.
In fact, a Type B sleeve has been used in place of a girth weld to make a tie-
in on a pipeline. Because a Type B sleeve may contain pressure and/or carry a
substantial longitudinal stress imposed on the pipeline by lateral loads, it should
be designed to carry the full pressure of the carrier pipe. Additionally, it should
be carefully fabricated and inspected to ensure its integrity.

Fig3.5-Sleeve type B.

40
 Chapter III Welding In Service

Types of welded joints performed to repair transmission Pipelines:

Fig 3.6- Types of welded to repair.

Circular Welded Joints (CWJ) :

But or fillet welded joints; their performance affects directly and
considerably the pipe wall by generating a field of residual stresses.

Longitudinal Welded Joints (LWJ) :

Welding procedures for CWJ require special analyses especially when
performed on in-service (pressurised) pipelines.

41
 Chapter III Welding In Service

Conclusion:

Pipelines carrying gases and fluids often contain defects that can lead to their
rupture. These defects are classified into five major types: pitting and corrosion
craters, cracks, notches, indentations and so-called combined faults. The
difference in geometry and nature of the defect sledre searchers to create
specifictools for each type of defect based on limit analysis, linear and nonlinear
fracture mechanics, as well as finite element analysis and experimentation.

One of the many challenges operators face each day is keeping their pipelines
safe from the public. It is important that operators are aware of the methods
available for repairing mechanically damaged pipe and have a plan in place for
when they encounter it. Composite sleeves have been used to constrain the dent.

Composite sleeves are proven to provide almost two orders of magnitude

improvement in fatigue life compared to grinding alone and almost three for
unrepaired pipe. The strain, as the dent tries to flex, is transferred through the
incompressible material into the composite repair.

It is also important that operator’s fully assess the composite they want to
utilize to repair their pipelines, as not all composite repairs are the same. Any
company offering a composite repair system for mechanical damage should be
able to back up its claims of repair suitability with valid and independent testing.

42
 Reference
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[17] (. Gheorghe Zecheru, Ph.D. Eng. Andrei Dumitrescu, Ph.D. Eng. Assoc.
Gheorghe Drăghici, Alin Diniță , Ph.D. Eng. Mechanical Engineering
Department Petroleum – Gas University of Ploiești 9th ANNUAL
ROMANIA OIL & GAS Conference & Exhibition 2017 Ramada Parc Hotel -
Bucharest, 21 November 2017

[18] sales@tecpesa.com