8 INTRODUCTION [CHAP.

(6) Because of the high percent of boxes of cereal which are under the labeled weight in the sample, a
decision is made to increase the weight per box for each box in the population. This is an example of
inferential statistics.
( c ) The tables of measurements such as stock prices and change in stock prices are descriptive in nature
and the re fore represent descriptive statistics.
((2) The magazine is stating a conclusion about &hepopulation based upon a sample and therefore this is
an example of inferential statistics.

1.2 Identify the sample and the population in each of the following scenarios.

( a ) In order to study the response times for emergency 91 1 calls in Chicago, fifty “robbery in
progress” calls are selected randomly over a six-month period and the response times are
recorded.
( b ) In order to study a new medical charting system at Saint Anthony’s Hospital, a
representative group of nurses is asked to use the charting system. Recording times and
error rates are recorded for the group.
( c )Fifteen hundred individuals who listen to talk radio programs of various types are selected
and information concerning their education level, income level, and so forth is recorded.

Am. ( a ) The 50 “robbery in progress” calls is the sample, and all “robbery in progress” calls in Chicago
during the six-month period is the population.
(bj The representative group of nurses who use the medical charting system is the sample and all nurses
who use the medical charting system at Saint Anthony’s is the population.
(cj The 1500 selected individuals who listen to talk radio programs is the sample and the millions who
listen nationally is the population.

VARIABLE, OBSERVATION, AND DATA SET

1.3 In a sociological study involving 35 low-income households, the number of children per
household was recorded for each household. What is the variable? How many observations are
in the data set?

Ans. The variable is the number of children per household. The data set contains 35 observations.

1.4 A national survey was mailed to 5000 households and one question asked for the number of
handguns per household. Three thousand of the surveys were completed and returned. What is
the variable and how large is the data set?

Ans. The variable is the number of handguns per household and there are 3000 observations in the data
set.

1.5 The number of hours spent per week on paper work was determined for 200 middle level
managers. The minimum was 0 hours and the maximum was 27 hours. What is the variable?
How many observations are in the data set?

Am. The variable is the number of hours spent per week on paper work and the number of observations
equals 200.

QUANTITATIVE VARIABLE: DISCRETE AND CONTINUOUS VARIABLE

1.6 Classify the variables in problems I .3, 1.4, and 1 .S as continuous or discrete.
CHAP. 13 INTRODUCTION 9

Ans. The number of children per household is a discrete variable since the number of values this
variable may assume is countable. The values range from 0 to some maximum value such as 10 or
15 depending upon the population.
The number of handguns per household is countable, ranging from 0 to some maximum value and
therefore this variable is discrete.
The time spent per week on paper work by middle level managers may be any real number
between 0 and some upper limit. The number of values possible is not countable and therefore this
variable is continuous.

1.7 A program to locate drunk drivers is initiated and roadblocks are used to check for individuals
driving under the influence of alcohol. Let n represent the number of drivers stopped before the
first drunk driver is found. What are the possible values for n? Classify n as discrete or
continuous.

Ans. The number of drivers stopped before finding the first drunk driver may equal 1, 2, 3, . . . , up to
an infinitely large number. Although not likely, it is theoretically possible that an extremely large
number of drivers would need to be checked before finding the first drunk driver. The possible
values for n are all the positive integers. N is a discrete variable.

1.8 The KSW computer science aptitude test consists of 25 questions. The score reported is
reflective of the computer science aptitude of the test taker. How would the score likely be
reported for the test? What are the possible values for the scores? Is the variable discrete or
continuous?

Ans. The score reported would likely be the number or percent of correct answers. The number correct
would be a whole number from 0 to 25 and the percent correct would range from 0 to 100 in steps
of size 4. However if the test evaluator considered the reasoning process used to arrive at the
answers and assigned partial credit for each problem, the scores could range from 0 to 25 or 0 to
100 percent continuously. That is, the score could be any real number between 0 and 25 or any
real number between 0 and 100 percent. We might say that for all practical purposes, the variable
is discrete. However, theoretically the variable is continuous.

QUALITATIVE VARIABLE

1.9 Which of the following are qualitative variables?

( a ) The color of automobiles involved in several severe accidents

( b ) The length of time required for rats to move through a maze
( c ) The classification of police administrations as city, county, or state
(d)The rating given to a pizza in a taste test as poor, good, or excellent
( e ) The number of times subjects in a sociological research study have been married

Am. The variables given in (a), (c), and (d)are qualitative variables since they result in nonnumerical
values. They are classified into categories. The variables given in ( b ) and ( e ) result in numerical
values as a result of measuring and counting, respectively.

1.10 The pain level following surgery for an intestinal blockage was classified as none, low,
moderate, or severe for several patients. Give three different numerical coding schemes that
might be used for the purpose of inclusion of the responses in a computer data file. Does this
coding change the variable to a quantitative variable?
10 INTRODUCTION [CHAP. 1

Am. The responses none, low, moderate, or severe might be coded as 0, 1 , 2, or 3 or 1 , 2, 3, or 4 or as

10, 20, 30, or 40. There is no limit to the number of coding schemes that could be used. Coding
the variable does not change it into a quantitative variable. Many times coding a qualitative
variable simplifies the computer analysis performed on the variable.

NOMINAL, ORDINAL, INTERVAL, AND RATIO LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

1.11 Indicate the scale of measurement for each of the following variables: racial origin, monthly
phone bills, Fahrenheit and centigrade temperature scales, military ranks, time, ranking of a
personality trait, clinical diagnoses, and calendar numbering of the years.

Am. racial origin: nominal time: ratio

monthly phone bills: ratio ranking of personality trait: ordinal
temperature scales: interval clinical diagnoses: nominal
military ranks: ordinal calendar numbering of the years: interval

1.12 Which scales of measurement would usually apply to qualitative data?

Am. nominal or ordinal

SUMMATION NOTATION

1.13 The following values are recorded for the variable x: X I = 1.3, x2 = 2.5, x3 = 0.7, x4 = 3.5.
Evaluate the following summations: Ex, Zx2, (Ex)*, and E(x - S).

A ~ s . CX = X I + ~2 + x j + ~4 = 1.3 + 2.5 + 0.7 + 3.5 = 8.0

Cx2 = x I 2 + ~2~ + ~3~ + :X = 1.32+ 2.5’ + 0.72+ 3S2 = 20.68
= (8.0)2= 64.0
(CX)~
C(X - . 5 ) = ( X I - . 5 ) + ( ~ -2 .5) + (xj - .5) + ( ~ -
4 . 5 ) = 0.8 + 2.0 + 0.2 + 3.0 = 6.0

1.14 The following values are recorded for the variables x and y: X I = 25.67, x2 = 10.95, x j = 5.65,
yl = 3.45, y2 = 1.55, and y j = 3.50. Evaluate the following summations: Zxy, Cx2y2, and
c x y - cxcy.

AIZS. Cxy = x l y l + x2y2 + x3y3 = 25.67 x 3.45 + 10.95 x 1.55 + 5.65 x 3.50 = 125.31

Cx2y2= x12y12+ XY; ; +~ 3 = 25.672

~ ~ x 3.452
3 +~ 10.952x 1 .552 + 5.652 x 3.502= 8522.26
CXY- CXZY= 125.31 - 42.27 x 8.50 = -233.99

1.15 The sum of four values for the variable y equals 25, that is, Cy = 25. If it is known that y l = 2,
y2 = 7, and y3 = 6, find y4.

Ans. Cy = 25 = 2 + 7 + 6 + y4, or 25 = 15 + y4. From this, we see that y4 must equal 10.
CHAP. 11 INTRODUCTION 11

Supplementary Problems
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS AND INFERENTIAL STATISTICS: POPULATION AND SAMPLE

1.16 Classify each of the following as descriptive statistics or inferential statistics.

( a ) The Nielsen Report on Television utilizes data from a sample of viewers to give estimates of average
viewing time per week per viewer for all television viewers.
(6) The U.S. National Center for Health Statistics publication entitled Vital Statistics of the United
States lists the leading causes of death in a given year. The estimates are based upon a sampling of
death certificates.
( c ) The Omaha World Herald lists the low and high temperatures for several American cities.
(d) The number of votes a presidential candidate receives are given for each state following the
presidential election.
( e ) The National Household Survey on Drug Abuse gives the current percentage of young adults using
different types of drugs. The percentages are based upon national samples.

Ans. ( a ) inferential statistics ( b ) inferential statistics (c) descriptive statistics

(d)descriptive statistics ( e ) inferential statistics

1.17 Classify each of the following as a sample or a population.

(a) all diabetics in the United States

(6) a group of 374 individuals selected for a New York TinzedCBS news poll
(c) all owners of Ford trucks
( d ) all registered voters in the state of Arkansas
( e ) a group of 22,000 physicians who participate in a study to determine the role of aspirin in preventing
heart attacks

Am. ( a ) population ( b ) sample ( c ) population ( d ) population (e) sample

VARIABLE, OBSERVATION, AND DATA SET

1.18 Changes in systolic blood pressure readings were recorded for 325 hypertensive patients who were
participating in a study involving a new medication to control hypertension. Larry Doe is a patient in the
study and he experienced a drop of 15 units in his systolic blood pressure. What statistical term is used to
describe the change in systolic blood pressure readings? What does the number 325 represent? What term
is used for the 15-unit drop is systolic blood pressure'?

Arts. The change in blood pressure is the variable, 325 is the number of observations in the data set, and
15-unit drop in blood pressure is an observation.

1.19 Table 1.8 gives the fasting blood sugar reading for five patients at a small medical clinic. What is the
variable? Give the observations that comprise this data set.

Table 1.8
Patient name Fasting blood sugar reading
Sam Alcorn 135
Susan Collins I57
Larry Halsey 168
Bill Samuels 120
Lana Williams 160