Lec. No.

5 2020-2021

Image Characteristics

• Electromagnetic energy may be detected either photographically

or electronically.
• It is important to know the difference between the terms images
and photographs in remote sensing.
• An image is a general term for any pictorial representation,
regardless of what wavelengths or remote sensing device has
been used to detect and record the electromagnetic energy.
• A photograph refers specifically to images that have been
detected and recorded on photo-sensitive film.
• The photographic process uses chemical reactions on the surface
of light-sensitive film to detect and record energy variations over
the photographic remote-sensing band (0.3 µm to 1.3 µm).
• Based on these definitions, we can say that all photographs are
images, but not all images are photographs. Therefore, unless we
are talking specifically about an image recorded photographically,
we use the term image.

• A photograph could also be represented and displayed in a digital

format by scanning and subdividing the photograph into small
equal-sized and shaped areas, called picture elements or pixels,
and representing the brightness of each area with a numeric
value or digital number.

• The figure below is actually a digital image of the original

photograph. The photograph was scanned and subdivided into
pixels with each pixel assigned a digital number (DN)
representing its relative brightness.
Image Brightness
• The EM radiation that is reflected or emitted by an object on the
surface is detected by remote-sensing systems.
• Variations in intensity of EM radiation from the terrain are
commonly displayed as variations in brightness on black-and-
white images.
• Brightness is the magnitude of the response produced in the eye
by light.
• Brightness variations may be calibrated with a gray scale.
Image Contrast
• It is the ratio between the brightest and darkest parts of the image.
• Images with high, medium and low contrast are show in Figure 1.5.
• Contrast ratio, CT, is widely used and is defined as:
Bmax is maximum brightness of the image
Bmin is minimum brightness of the image

• On a brightness scale of 0 to 10, scenes in Figure 1.5 have the

following contrast ratios:
Contrast ratio is also used to describe the ratio of brightness between
an object and the adjacent background on an image.
Resolution
• Resolution refers to the number of pixels in an image.
• In RS, the Resolution is the minimum separation between two objects
at which the objects appear distinct and separate on an image.
• Objects spaced closer together than the resolution limit appear as a
single object on the image.

For example, the three images show the differences between a 1 m,

10 m, and 30 m resolution (or pixel dimension) for the same area.
High-resolution satellite imagery
• A number of satellite sensors now provide imagery at resolutions
that rival aerial photography and with other features, such as
elevations.
• The availability of these high-resolution satellite products is still
limited due to high costs and licensing restrictions
• Some of these sensors are:

WorldView-3 Image, 30 cm resolution

WorldView-2 Image, 50 cm resolution GeoEye-1 Image, 50 cm resolution

QuickBird Image, 60 cm resolution IKONOS Image, 80 cm resolution

 Elements of Visual Interpretation
• Visual image interpretation is one of the oldest methods of
extracting information from remote sensing data.
• Analysis of remote sensing images involves the identification of
various targets in an image.
• Recognizing targets is the key to interpretation and information
extraction.
• Targets may be environmental or artificial features which consist
of points, lines or areas.
• Observing the differences between targets and their backgrounds
involves comparing different targets based on any, or all, of the
visual elements of tone, shape, size, pattern, texture, shadow
and association.
• The nature of each of these interpretation elements is described
below:
1- Tone
• Tone relates to the reflective characteristics of objects in an image
• Some objects reflect sunlight and so have a lighter color on the
image while other objects absorb sunlight and therefore give a
dark color
• Tone can be defined for a single pixel.
2- Texture

• Texture relates to the arrangement and frequency of tonal

variation in particular areas of an image.
• Texture may be described by terms such as, smooth or rough,
coarse or fine, even or uneven, mottled, granular, linear, etc.
• Texture is defined for a group of adjacent pixels, not for a single
pixel.
• Texture can be useful for identifying differences in types of
vegetation as well as breaks within the features such as a footpath
across a grassy area.
• Texture is one of the most important elements for recognizing
features in radar imagery
• Rough (course) textures consist of a mottled tone where the grey
levels change suddenly in a small area.
• A target with a rough surface and irregular structure, such as a
forest canopy, results in a rough textured appearance.
• Smooth (fine) textures would have very little tonal variation.
• Smooth textures are the result of uniform, even surfaces, such as
water bodies or grasslands.
3- Pattern

• Pattern refers to the spatial arrangement of related features or

objects.
• Pattern shows the characteristic repetition of certain forms or
relationships.
• Typically an orderly repetition of similar tones and textures will
produce a distinctive and recognizable pattern.
• Pattern can be described by terms such as concentric, radial, etc.
• Examples include different irrigation types, regularly spaced
houses in the town, the hydrological system (river with its
branches) and patterns related to erosion.
• Some land uses have specific and characteristic patterns when
observed from the air or space.
Regularly spaced houses
4- Shape
• Shape refers to the general form or outline of individual objects
visible in the image.
• Many objects can be identified on the basis of their shapes, such
as built-up areas, roads and railroads, agricultural fields, etc.
• Straight edge shapes typically represent urban or agricultural
(field) targets, while natural features are generally more irregular
in shape, such as forest edges, except where man has created a
road or clear cuts.
5- Size
• Size of objects in an image is a function of scale. It is important to
assess the size of target in a relative to other objects in the image.
• For example, if an interpreter had to identify an area with a
number of buildings in it, large buildings such as factories would
suggest commercial property, whereas small buildings would
indicate residential use.
• The width of a road can be estimated by comparing it to the size
of the cars, which is generally known. Also, the width determines
the road type, e.g., primary road, secondary road, etc.
6- Shadow/Height

• Shadow is helpful in interpretation as it may provide a profile

view and relative height of targets which may make identification
easier.
• Shadows can reduce interpretation in their area of influence.
• Shadow is useful for enhancing or identifying topography and
landforms particularly in radar imagery.
• Height differences are important for recognizing between
different vegetation types, building types, etc.
• Elevation differences are important for geomorphological
mapping.
7- Association
• Association takes into account the relationship between objects
or features in proximity to the target of interest.
• The identification of features that one would expect to associate
with other features may provide information to help identification.
• For example, a lake is associated with boats.
• A forest in the mountains is different from a forest close to the sea
or near the river in the lowland.