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  • GS COMPLETE For PR

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    Hammad AHMED
    157 views246 pages
    This document provides a table of contents for a book on gender studies. The table outlines 40 chapters covering topics such as the introduction to gender studies, feminism and feminist theory, social construction of gender, nature vs nurture, status of women in Pakistan, gender and governance, and theories of violence against women. The preface expresses that writing this book for CSS aspirants was not an easy task due to differences in requirements but efforts were made to address the needs of both CSS candidates and gender studies students. The author is grateful to teachers and friends for their guidance and support during the writing process.

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    GS COMPLETE for PR

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    This document provides a table of contents for a book on gender studies. The table outlines 40 chapters covering topics such as the introduction to gender studies, feminism and feminist theory, social construction of gender, nature vs nurture, status of women in Pakistan, gender and governance, and theories of violence against women. The preface expresses that writing this book for CSS aspirants was not an easy task due to differences in requirements but efforts were made to address the needs of both CSS candidates and gender studies students. The author is grateful to teachers and friends for their guidance and support during the writing process.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    157 views246 pages

    GS COMPLETE For PR

    Uploaded by

    Hammad AHMED
    This document provides a table of contents for a book on gender studies. The table outlines 40 chapters covering topics such as the introduction to gender studies, feminism and feminist theory, social construction of gender, nature vs nurture, status of women in Pakistan, gender and governance, and theories of violence against women. The preface expresses that writing this book for CSS aspirants was not an easy task due to differences in requirements but efforts were made to address the needs of both CSS candidates and gender studies students. The author is grateful to teachers and friends for their guidance and support during the writing process.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    of 246

    GENDERSTUDI

    ES

    ForCSS

    AmanUl
    lahGondal
    TABLEOFCOTENTS

    1. I
    ntr
    oduct
    iont
    oGenderSt
    udi
    es 05

    2. Di
    ff
    erencebet
    weenGenderandWomenSt
    udi
    es 06

    3. Mul
    ti
    -di
    sci
    pli
    nar
    ynat
    ureofGenderSt
    udi
    es 12

    4. Evol
    uti
    onofGenderSt
    udi
    esasaDi
    sci
    pli
    ne 14

    (
    WestandUSA)

    5. St
    atusofGenderSt
    udi
    esi
    nPaki
    stan 18

    6. Soci
    alConst
    ruct
    ionofGender 32

    7. Pr
    obl
    emat
    izi
    ngt
    hecat
    egor
    yof“
    Sex”
    :Queer 42

    Theor
    y

    8. Nat
    urevsNur
    tur
    e 45

    9. Femi
    nism 51

    10. Femi
    nistTheor
    y 53

    11. Li
    ber
    alFemi
    nism 54

    12. Radi
    calFemi
    nism 57

    13. Mar
    xist
    /Soci
    ali
    stFemi
    nism 61

    14. Psychoanal
    yti
    calFemi
    nism 64

    2|Page
    15. Post
    moder
    nFemi
    nism 67

    16. WavesofFemi
    nism 70

    17. Fi
    rstWaveFemi
    nism 71

    18. SecondWaveFemi
    nism 73

    19. Thi
    rdWaveFemi
    nism 76

    20. Femi
    nist
    sMovement
    sInPaki
    stan 80

    21. Uni
    tedNat
    ionConf
    erencesonWomen 84

    22. GenderAppr
    oachest
    oDevel
    opment
    : 94

    23. Womeni
    nDevel
    opment(
    WID)
    ,WomenandDevel
    opment(
    WAD)
    , 96

    24. GenderCr
    it
    iqueofSt
    ruct
    uralAdj
    ust
    mentPol
    ici
    es(
    SAPs) 106

    25. Gl
    obal
    izat
    ionandGender 117

    26. St
    atusofWomeni
    nPaki
    stan 125

    27. 1.St
    atusofWomeni
    nEducat
    ion 131/
    134

    2.St
    atusofWomen’
    sheal
    thi
    nPaki
    stan

    28. GenderandGover
    nance 139

    29. GenderI
    ssuesi
    nPol
    it
    ics 149/
    156

    i
    mpactofPol
    it
    icalQuot
    ainPaki
    stan

    30. TheProbl
    emsFacedByWomenAsVot
    ers,
    Candi
    dat
    esAndPol
    it
    ical 164
    Repr
    esentat
    ives

    3|Page
    31. Suf
    fragi
    stMovement 170

    32. GenderBasedVi
    olence 175

    Def
    ini
    ngGenderBasedVi
    olence

    33. Theor
    iesofVi
    olenceagai
    nstWomen 179

    34. St
    ruct
    uralandDi
    rectFor
    msofVi
    olence 185

    35. St
    rat
    egi
    est
    oEl
    imi
    nat
    eVi
    olenceagai
    nstWomen 191

    36. CaseSt
    udi
    esof
    : 204

    1.Mukht
    aranMai

    37. 2.Mal
    lal
    aYousafZai 211

    38. 3.Sher
    minUbai
    dChi
    noy 215

    39. Gl
    ossar
    y 218

    40. GenderSt
    udi
    esPaper2016 226

    4|Page
    PREFACE

    Tomet
    hedi
    sci
    pli
    neofGenderst
    udi
    esandgenderr
    elat
    edconcept
    sbecameasour
    ceof
    i
    nter
    estwhenIst
    art
    edmyM Phi
    lresear
    chonGenderbasedv
    iol
    ence,
    i
    tnotonl
    ygav
    e
    meanoppor
    tuni
    tyofst
    udy
    inggenderatl
    engt
    hbutal
    soenabl
    edmet
    owr
    it
    ethi
    sbook
    f
    orCSSaspi
    rant
    swhi
    chi
    sequal
    l
    yusef
    ulf
    ort
    hest
    udent
    sofgenderst
    udi
    esaswel
    l
    .

    I
    twasnotant
    askt
    owr
    it
    ethi
    smanuscr
    iptf
    ort
    heCSSaspi
    rant
    sbecauseofsheer
    di
    ff
    erencei
    nther
    equi
    rement
    sofCSScandi
    dat
    esandst
    udent
    sofGenderSt
    udi
    es,
    so
    ef
    for
    tshav
    ebeenmadet
    oaddr
    esst
    hef
    eltneedsoft
    hebot
    h.

    Her
    eIam i
    ndebt
    edt
    oal
    lthet
    eacher
    sandf
    ri
    endswhower
    esour
    ceofgui
    danceand
    encour
    agementdur
    ingt
    hecour
    seofwr
    it
    ingt
    hisbook

    Iam t
    hankf
    ult
    oDrFar
    zanaBar
    iforherconcer
    nindesi
    gni
    ngsuchacompr
    ehensi
    ve
    out
    li
    neandr
    ecommendi
    ngbooksandmat
    eri
    alwi
    tht
    hehel
    pofwhi
    chi
    tbecamef
    easi
    ble
    t
    ocompi
    l
    ethi
    sbookf
    orCSSaspi
    rant
    s.

    Im t
    hankf
    ullt
    oMrAt
    ifAl
    i
    ,CEONOAPubl
    i
    sher
    sIsl
    amabadf
    orhi
    ski
    ndconsi
    der
    ati
    on
    andconsi
    stentmot
    ivat
    iont
    owar
    dswr
    it
    ti
    ngt
    hisbook.

    AmanUl
    l
    ahGondal

    (
    M.Phi
    l)
    Soci
    alSci
    ences
    For
    eignSer
    viceofPaki
    stan

    5|Page
    Whati
    sGender
    ?
    Ori
    ginall
    y'gender 'i
    sagr ammaticalter
    m borrowedf rom li
    nguist
    ics;itisthecoll
    ecti
    ve
    ter
    mf ort hecat egori
    esofmascul i
    neorfemi ni
    neorneut erintowhi chnounsofmany
    l
    anguagesar eal l
    ocated.Anthr
    opologybor r
    owedt hetermt odiscusst hesocialrol
    es
    occupiedbymal esandf emalesinsociet
    y.Thegender edrolesinsocietywereassumed
    tobet he‘natural’r
    esultofone’ssex,butcross-cul
    turalst
    udiesdemonst r
    atet
    hatwhi l
    e
    sexisauni versalconditi
    onofhumans, genderrolesvaryacrossculture.

    “Genderisseenast heprocessbywhi chindiv


    idualswho arebornint
    o bi
    ological
    categor
    iesofmaleorf
    emalebecomet hesoci
    alcategor
    iesofmenandwoment hrough
    theacquisi
    ti
    onofl
    ocal
    ly
    -def
    inedat
    tri
    butesofmasculi
    nit
    yandfemini
    nit
    y”

    Genderref er
    stotheat t
    it
    udes,feeli
    ngs,andbehav i
    orsthatagivencult
    ureassociat
    es
    withaper son’
    sbiol
    ogicalsex
    .Behav iorthatiscompati
    blewi
    thcult
    uralexpect
    ati
    onsis
    ref
    erredtoasgender -
    normative;behaviorsthatar
    eviewedasincompatibl
    ewiththese
    expectat
    ionsconsti
    tut
    egendernon- conformity.

    Di
    ff
    erencebet
    weenSexandGender

    Theterms‘sex'and‘ gender'areclosel
    ylinked,y
    ettheyarenotsynonyms.RobertStoll
    er,
    i
    nt he1960s,hasdr awnt hedi st
    incti
    onbet weenthem.Hesuggestedthatthewor d‘sex'
    beusedt orefertot hephy sicaldiff
    erencesbetweenmenandwomen,whi l
    ethet erm
    ‘
    gender'beusedi nconnect i
    ont ot hebehav i
    ourandcul t
    uralpract
    icesofmenand
    women.Thi sdist
    inct ionist
    hebasi sf orallt
    hedefini
    ti
    onsof‘sex'and‘gender'
    thatare
    provi
    dedinthelit
    erat urenowaday s.

    Sexreferstoaperson’
    sbiologi
    calst
    atusandisty
    pical
    l
    ycat egori
    zedasmal e,f
    emal e,or
    i
    ntersex(i.
    e.t
    ypicalcombinati
    ons.Ther
    eareanumberofi ndi
    catorsofbiol
    ogicalsex,
    i
    ncluding sex chromosomes,gonads,i nt
    ernalreproductive organs,and ex t
    ernal
    genit
    alia.

    Somet i
    mesi tishar dtounder standexact l
    ywhati smeantbyt heterm‘gender’andhow
    i
    tdi f
    fer
    sf rom theclosel
    yr elat
    edt erm‘sex’.Understandi
    ngoft hesoci
    alconstr
    ucti
    onof
    genderst art
    swi thexplaini
    ngt hetwoconcept s,i
    .e.
    ,genderandsex.Of tenthesetwo
    termsar eusedi nt
    erchangeabl y:howev er,theybeardiff
    erentmeaningsasconcept s.
    “Sex”referst ot hebiologicalandphy siologi
    calcharact
    erist
    icsthatdefinemenand
    women.I tisdef i
    nedast heanat omi
    calandphy si
    ologi
    calcharact
    eri
    sti
    csthatsigni
    fyt
    he
    biol
    ogicalmal enessandf emal enessofani ndivi
    dual.

    WhatGenderr
    efer
    sto.
    .?

    “
    Gender
    ”ref
    erst
    othesoci
    all
    yconst
    ruct
    edr
    oles,behav
    iour
    s,act
    ivi
    ti
    es,andat
    tr
    ibut
    es

    6|Page
    thatagivensociet
    yconsi
    der sappr
    opriatef ormenandwomen.Genderemphasizes
    thatmascul
    ini
    tyandfemi
    nini
    tyareproductsofsocial
    ,cul
    tur
    alandpsy
    chol
    ogi
    cal
    fact
    ors
    andareacquir
    edbyanindi
    v i
    duali
    nthepr ocessofbecomingamanorwoman.

    ‘
    Gender’i
    sthet
    erm widelyusedt orefertothoseway sinwhichacul t
    ureref
    ormulat
    es
    whatbegi
    nsasafactofnat ure.Thebiol
    ogicalsexesareredef
    ined,
    represent
    ed,v
    alued,
    andchannel
    edi
    ntodi
    fferentrolesinvari
    ouscultural
    l
    ydependentway s.

    Sexasdef inedearli
    eristheconceptt hatemergesfrom anat omicalandphy siol
    ogical
    character
    isticsthatdiff
    erent
    iat
    esmal esandf emalesbiological
    lywhereasgendercan
    beseenasasoci alconst
    ructmani
    festedbymascul i
    neandf emi ni
    ner ol
    esprevalentina
    cul
    tureorasoci et
    y .Thusgendercanbeseenasanar ti
    factofsoci al
    ,culturaland
    psychologicalfactorswhi chareattainedduringthepr ocessofsoci al
    izat
    ionofan
    i
    ndividual
    .

    Whatisthesigni
    ficanceoft heconcept‘
    gender
    ’?Int
    alki
    ngaboutt
    hesocialandcult
    ural
    constr
    ucti
    onofmascul ini
    tyandf emi
    nini
    ty,
    genderal
    l
    owsust oseethesedimensi
    onsof
    humanr ol
    esandper sonali
    tiesasbasednotonnat urebutonsocialfact
    ors.I
    tthen
    al
    lowsust oaddr essissuesl i
    kesubordi
    nati
    onanddi scr
    imi
    nat
    ionasi ssueswhere
    changeispossi
    ble.

    Theref
    oret
    hemeaningofsexandgender,f
    emini
    nit
    yandmasculi
    nit
    yfl
    uctuat
    eswit
    hin
    soci
    eti
    esandcul
    tur
    esacrosst
    heglobe.Thekeydif
    fer
    encesbet
    weenthesetwoter
    ms
    are:

    SEX GENDER
    Thet erm ‘sex'i
    seasyt o under
    stand.I t" Genderr ef
    erst ot he cul
    tur
    al,sociall
    y-
    simplyr ef
    erst ot he natur
    albiological constr
    ucteddi f
    ferencesbetweent het wo
    dif
    ferencesbetweenmenandwomen,f or sexes.Itr efer
    st ot he way a soci ety
    exampl e,the di
    ffer
    ences inthe organs encour agesandt eachest hetwosexest o
    rel
    atedt or
    eproducti
    on. behave i n di f
    ferent way s t hrough
    soci
    ali
    zat
    ion.
    "

    I
    tisnat
    ural I
    tisasoci
    alconst
    ruct
    .

    I
    ti s biol
    ogical
    .It denotes to vi
    sibl
    e I
    tisasocio-cultural
    constr
    uctanditr
    efers
    di
    ff
    erences i n geni
    tali
    a and r el
    ated
    to mascul i
    ne and f emi ni
    ne qual
    it
    ies,
    di
    ff
    erencesinprocr
    eat
    ivefunct
    ion
    behavior patterns, r
    elated rol
    es and
    responsi
    bil
    i
    ty,etc

    I
    tisauni
    ver
    sal
    ter
    m. I
    tisv
    ari
    abl
    eitchangesundert
    hei
    nfl
    uence

    7|Page
    oftime,geogr
    aphi
    caland soci
    o-cul
    tur
    al
    set
    ti
    ngs.

    Pol
    ici
    es r
    espond t
    o sex dif
    fer
    ences i
    n Pol
    ici
    escanrespondtogenderst
    ereot
    ype
    ar
    eastodowitht
    hephysi
    calbody. andtr
    adi
    ti
    onalgenderr
    oles.

    Dif
    fi
    cul
    ttochange(
    wear
    ebor
    nmal
    eor Canbechangedsi
    ncegenderi
    dent
    it
    yis
    femal
    e)
    det
    ermi
    nedbysociet
    y

    Throughouthistor
    yand acr
    oss cul
    tur
    es, Atdi
    ffer
    enttimesi
    nhi st
    oryandindi
    ffer
    ent
    sexdiff
    erencesexi
    st.
    soci
    eti
    es,genderr
    olesaredif
    fer
    ent.

    InGenderst udi
    esthet er
    m genderi susedt or ef
    ert oproposedsocialandcult
    ural
    construct
    ions ofmascul init
    ies and femi ni
    nit
    ies.Int his cont
    ext,genderexpli
    cit
    ly
    excludesr efer
    enceto biologicaldif
    ferences,tof ocusoncul t
    uraldi
    ffer
    ences.This
    emer gedfrom anumberofdi f
    fer
    entar eas:i
    nsoci ologyduringthe1950s;from t
    he
    theori
    esoft hepsychoanal
    y st
    ; andi
    nthewor koffeminists.

    Def
    ini
    ngGenderSt
    udi
    es
    1.Gender St udies inv
    esti
    gates the actual( physicaland biologi
    cal) gender
    differ
    encesbet weenwomenandmen,butt hinksespecial
    lycri
    ti
    calaboutwhat
    these diff
    erences mean in a soci
    o-cul
    turalcont ext
    .Genderi s a classi
    fyi
    ng
    principl
    einsoci et
    yandcul tur
    e.Itisar emar kablediscr
    imi
    natingtooli nthe
    distri
    buti
    on ofl abour,care,possession,i ncome,educat i
    on,or ganizat
    ional
    qual i
    ti
    esordiseases.

    Opi ni
    onsaboutwhati smal eandwhati sfemalecolourmater
    ialandi
    mmat eri
    alhuman
    products,f
    rom clothesandcomput erdesigntotheimageofgodandmy t
    hology.Soci
    al
    andcul tur
    algenderpat t
    ernsar ei nt
    ernali
    zedto anextentwher eourself-
    imagei s
    parti
    all
    ydeter
    mi nedbyt hef actthatwear emaleorfemale.Academicschol
    arswhodo
    researchonpeopl eorthei
    rpr oductscannotnegl
    ectgender.

    2.Women’ sandGenderSt udiesisaninter


    discipli
    naryfi
    eldthatexaminesgenderas
    asocialandcult
    uralconstruct
    ion.Drawinguponacademi careassuchashi st
    ory
    ,
    psychology
    ,popularcul ture,li
    ter
    ary cri
    ticism,and ant hropol
    ogy,the major
    crossesandblendstheboundar i
    esoft r
    aditi
    onal di
    sci
    plines.

    8|Page
    3.Theacademicdisci
    pli
    newhichanalysesconst
    ruct
    ionsofgenderi
    nsociet
    y,of
    ten
    wit
    hrefer
    encetoclass,r
    ace,sexual
    i
    tyandothersociol
    ogi
    calchar
    act
    eri
    sti
    cs.

    Under
    standi
    ngGenderSt
    udi
    es
    Genderstudi
    esl ooksatt hemanneri nwhi cht
    henor msandpat t
    ernsofbehav i
    or
    associ
    atedwit
    hmascul i
    nit
    yandf eminini
    tycomeint
    obei ng.I
    tst udi
    est hefeat
    uresof
    thesenormsandpat t
    erns–whi chtrai
    tsareconsi
    deredmasculine,whichfemini
    ne,and
    why ?Howdost ereot
    ypicalmodelsofmenandwomendev el
    op?Howdot heychange
    overti
    me,andwhatf actorscontri
    butetochanges?Also,andv er
    yimpor t
    antl
    y,what
    i
    mpactdosuchst ereotypeshaveuponact ual
    l
    yexi
    sti
    ngmenandwomen?

    GenderSt
    udi
    esal
    soFocuses….

    Genderst udiesalsohasaf ocusuponact uall


    yexistingmenandwomen–i ssignif
    icant
    becausewi thingenderst udies,thereisar ecogniti
    ont hatmenandwomendonotexi st
    i
    ni solat
    ionfrom theirothersoci alrol
    esandposi t
    ions.Awomeni snotonl yawoman–
    withinoursociety,shealsohasacer t
    ainclassposi t
    ion,cast
    epositi
    on,rel
    igiousidentit
    y,
    sexualidentity
    ,andmanymor e.Al lofthesef actorsimpactherl i
    fe–t her ef
    orewhi le
    studyingherl i
    fe,allt
    hesef actorsneedt obet akeni nt
    oconsiderat
    ion.Anot herfeature
    ofgenderst udiesi sthatitexami neshow t hewor l
    di sgendered.Someexampl escan
    explainthi
    sconcepti nmor ecl earterms.

    As a f ield,Women’ s and GenderSt udies [WGS]i ntegrat


    es f emi ni sttheories and
    practi
    cest o chall
    engesocio-
    economi c,philosophical,repr
    esent ational,and pol itical
    hier
    archi es.WGS bot h contests multipl
    ef or ms of oppr ession and t ransforms
    knowl edges,instit
    uti
    ons,poli
    cies,representat
    ions,and soci alrel ations.Vi a diverse
    met hodol ogi
    calpract
    ices,
    WGSschol arsinvestigatehowgenderr el ationsandpr actices
    areembeddedi n,andshapedby ,awider angeofsoci al,pol
    i
    tical
    ,mat er i
    al,andcul t
    ur al
    real
    iti
    es.

    Whati
    sWomenSt
    udi
    es?
    Women'sst udi
    esisani nt
    erdi
    scipli
    naryacademicfielddevotedtot opi
    csconcerning
    women,f emini
    sm,gender ,and pol i
    ti
    cs.Itoftenincludesfeministtheory,women's
    hi
    story(
    e.g.ahist
    oryofwomen' ssuf f
    rage)andsoci
    al hi
    stor
    y,women'sf i
    cti
    on,women's
    heal
    th,f
    eministpsychoanal
    ysisandt hefemini
    standgenderstudies-i
    nfl
    uencedpract
    ice
    ofmostofthehumani ti
    esandsoci alsci
    ences.

    Earl
    yoncoursesdrew especi
    all
    yonhist
    ory
    ,lit
    erature,andsociol
    ogy,buttheyquickl
    y
    expandedt
    otheotherhumaniti
    es(phi
    l
    osophy,rel
    igiousstudi
    es,comparat
    iveli
    ter
    ature,

    9|Page
    art
    ,musi c)and the soci
    alsciences (
    anthropol
    ogy,pol
    iti
    calscience,economics,
    psychol
    ogy,geography)
    .Science and technol
    ogy have been sl
    owert o embrace
    women'sstudi
    es.

    Hi
    stor
    yandEv
    olut
    ion

    Women'sst
    udi
    esisater
    m usedt
    oref
    ert
    othet
    heor
    yandpr
    act
    iceoff
    emi
    nistr
    esear
    ch
    andt
    eachi
    ngint
    heacademy.

     Thef i
    rstwomen'sstudi
    escour seispur portedtohavebeencr eatedbyAmerican
    hi
    stori
    anMar yRit
    terBeard,whoi n1934const r
    ucteda54- pagesy l
    labusfora
    coursetit
    led"AChangingPoliticalEconomyasi tAffectsWomen"Al t
    houghthe
    coursewasnev ertaught
    ,itprepar edthef oundati
    onf orthedevelopmentofthe
    fi
    rstWomen' sStudi
    esprogram int heUnitedStates:

    Dev
    elopmentofWomen’
    sst
    udi
    es

    DevelopmentofWomen’ sstudi
    es,asanar eaofacademi cst udy
    ,camei nt
    obei ng
    during t
    he emergence offemini
    sm’ ssecond wav e and a new dawn ofpol it
    ical
    act
    iv i
    sm.Thefi
    rstcoursesweredevelopedint hel
    ate1960si nt heUSA,andalthough
    somecour seswer epresentinadul
    tandhi ghereducat i
    onint heUK,itwasn’tunt i
    l
    1980t hatthefi
    rstMA i nwomen’ sst udi
    eswasof feredatt heUniver
    sit
    yofKent ,
    fol
    lowedbyothermaster’sandundergraduatedegreeselsewhere

    SanDi egoStateUni v
    ersit
    y'
    sprogram formallyapprovedin1970.Thisgrowt h
    i
    nacademi cpr ogr
    amshasbeenpar al
    l
    eled,andper hapsexceeded,byat remendous
    growt
    hi nthepublishedl i
    ter
    atureonwomen' sstudies,muchofwhi chhasdealtwi th
    descr
    ipti
    onsandanal ysesoft heemergingfiel
    d.Atpr esent,t
    heconsensusist hat
    women'sst udiesi
    s,andhasal waysbeen,inter
    discipl
    inary,afi
    eldaki
    ntoAmer ican,
    bl
    ack,urban,andethnicstudies.

    Since the 1970s,schol ars ofwomen' s studi


    es hav et aken post -
    moder n
    approaches to under standing genderas i tinter
    sects wi t
    hr ace,cl ass,ethnici ty
    ,
    sexuali
    ty,rel
    igion,age,and( di
    s)abi
    lit
    yt oproduceandmai ntai
    npowerst ructur es
    withi
    nsoci et
    y.Wi tht hi
    st urn,therehasbeenaf ocusonl anguage,subj ect
    ivit
    y,and
    socialhegemony ,andhowt hel i
    vesofsubjects,
    howev ertheyidentif
    y,areconst i
    tut ed.
    Atthecor eoftheset heoriesisthenot i
    onthathowev eroneidentif
    ies,gender,sex, and
    sexuali
    tyarenoti nt
    ri
    nsic,butar esociall
    yconstr
    ucted.

    SecondWav
    eFemi
    nism anddev
    elopmentasacademi
    cDi
    sci
    pli
    ne

    Women’sst
    udi
    es,asanar
    eaofacademi
    cst
    udy
    ,cameintobei
    ngdur
    ingt
    heemer
    gence
    off
    emini
    sm’ssecondwav
    eandanewdawnofpol
    it
    ical
    acti
    vi
    sm.

    10|Page
     Thefirstcour
    seswer edevelopedinthelat
    e1960si nt heUSA,andal t
    hough
    somecour seswerepresentinadultandhighereducati
    onint heUK,itwasn’
    t
    unt
    il1980thatthefi
    rstMAi nwomen’sstudieswasofferedattheUniv
    ersit
    yof
    Kent,
    foll
    owedbyothermaster ’
    sandunder
    graduat
    edegreeselsewher
    e.

    Sincethelate1980si tbecamemor ecommont of i


    ndt heterm‘women’sstudi
    es’
    contestedandatt i
    mesr eplacedinfavourof‘genderstudi
    es’,t
    herati
    onal
    ebeing
    thatfemini
    sttheor
    ieshadopenedupt hewiderpossibi
    l
    ityoftheanal
    ysi
    sofgender
    diff
    erenceanditsmaintenance,sothatmasculi
    nit
    yandmal esocialr
    olesmightbe
    oflegit
    imat
    econcer n.

    Alt
    hought het erm genderstudiesinanacademi carenamayseem t obei ncl
    usive,
    moreat t
    ractiv
    et omal estudentsandacademi cs,formanyf emi niststhet erm
    women’sst udiesmakesaf armor eimportantpoli
    ti
    calpointtor emi ndust hat
    womenandt heircontr
    ibuti
    onst oknowledgewerelargel
    yneglect
    edint heacademi c
    i
    nsti
    tuti
    onf orsomanyy ears,anditspresencegoessomewayt oremi ndusthati n
    t
    hepastt radit
    ional.di
    scipl
    inarydivi
    sionsinacademiami ghtbereferredtof r
    om a
    f
    eministvi
    ewpoi ntas‘men’sst udi
    es’
    .

    Evenifoneholdst hev i
    ew t
    hatwomen’ sstudieslastsonl
    yasl ongasi
    ttakesfor
    femini
    stperspectives t
    o be suf
    fici
    entlyabsorbed int
    o exi
    sti
    ng di
    sci
    pli
    nes,the
    debatehasn’treacht hecri
    ti
    calpointatwhi chsuchadeci sionismade,andi s
    unli
    kel
    yt odosof oranumberofy ears.Thi
    sfactinitsel
    fof
    fer
    scompelli
    ngreasons
    forret
    aini
    ngwomen’ sst
    udi
    esasasepar ati
    stareaofstudy.

    Emer
    genceofMen’
    sSt
    udi
    es

    Asar el
    at i
    velynewf i
    eldofstudy,men'sstudieswasf ormedl argelyinresponset o,and
    asacr i
    tiqueof ,anemergingmen' sri
    ghtsmov ement,andassuch,hasbeent aughtin
    academicset t
    ingsonlysi ncethe1970s.I n manyuni versit
    ies,men' sstudiesi sa
    corr
    elat
    iont owomen' sstudiesorpartofal argergenderstudiespr ogr
    am,andassuch
    i
    tsfacul
    tyt endst obesympat het
    ict
    o,orengagedi n,advocacyoff eministpol
    it
    ics.

    Dev
    elopmentofMen’
    sSt
    udi
    es

    Then itbecame est abli


    shed as special
    ized areas ofacademicinqui
    ry,br
    oader
    theor
    eti
    caldevelopmentsbegantoundermi nethei
    rveryrat
    ional
    e.I
    npost
    moderni
    stand
    post-
    str
    uctur
    ali
    sm appr oaches,t
    hev er
    yi deaof‘ women’and‘ men’asdi
    scret
    eand
    unit
    arycat
    egoriesischall
    enged.

    Def
    ini
    ti
    on

     (Men'
    sstudi
    esi
    sani nt
    erdi
    sci
    pli
    naryacademicfi
    elddevotedtotopi
    csconcerni
    ng
    men,mascul
    i
    sm,gender
    ,andpol
    it
    ics.I
    toft
    enincl
    udesfeministt
    heor
    y,men'
    shistor
    y

    11|Page
    andsocialhist
    ory
    ,men'sfi
    cti
    on,men'sheal
    th,f
    emi
    nistpsy
    choanal
    ysi
    sandt he
    femi
    nistandgenderstudi
    es-
    inf
    luencedpr
    act
    iceofmostoft hehumanit
    iesand
    soci
    alsci
    ences)

    Thei ndividualstat
    usandposi t
    ionoft hosewegr oupt oget
    herandcal l‘women’andof
    thosewecal l‘men’ arearguedtovarysogr eat
    lyov erti
    me,spaceandcul turethatthere
    i
    sl it
    tl
    ej usti
    fi
    cationf ortheuseofthesecollect
    ivenouns.Similar
    ly,i
    npost -
    struct
    urali
    sm
    analysis,‘women’ and‘ men’areregar
    dedasconst r
    uctionsorrepresentati
    ons,achieved
    throughdi scourse,performanceandr epeti
    ti
    onratherthanbeing‘r
    eal’enti
    ti
    es.

    Fr
    om WomenSt
    udi
    esandMen’
    sSt
    udi
    est
    o“GenderSt
    udi
    es”
    ‘
    Genderst udi
    es’i
    sseenbymanyt ofurt
    heropenupthefiel
    dofwomen’sstudi
    es,
    beyonditsbegi
    nningsinthepoli
    ti
    csoftheWomen’sLi
    ber
    ati
    onMovement
    .Atthesame
    ti
    met hatwomen’sstudiesand,
    later
    ,men’
    sstudi
    es

    Sincet helate1980sitbecamemor ecommont ofindtheterm‘ women’sst udi


    es’
    contestedandatt i
    mesr epl
    acedinfavourof‘genderstudi
    es’
    ,therat
    ionalebeingthat
    feministtheori
    es had opened up the wi
    derpossibil
    it
    yoft he analysi
    s ofgender
    diff
    erenceandi t
    smaintenance,sothatmasculi
    nit
    yandmal esocialrol
    esmi ghtbeof
    l
    egiti
    mat econcern.

    Althought heterm genderst udi


    esinanacademi carenamayseem t obei nclusi
    ve,
    mor e
    attracti
    vet omal est udentsandacademi cs,formanyf eminist
    st het erm women’ s
    studiesmakesaf armor eimpor t
    antpolit
    icalpointtoremi ndust hatwomenandt hei
    r
    cont r
    ibuti
    onst oknowl edgewer el ar
    gelyneglectedint heacademi ci nsti
    tuti
    onforso
    manyy ears,anditspr esencegoessomewayt oremindust hati
    nt hepastt r
    adi
    ti
    onal
    di
    sci pli
    narydivi
    sionsi nacademi ami ghtber ef
    err
    edt ofrom af emi nistviewpoi
    ntas
    ‘
    men’ sstudi
    es’.

    Eveni fonehol dst hev i


    ew thatwomen’ sstudieslast
    sonlyasl ongasi ttakesfor
    feministperspect
    ivestobesuf fi
    cientl
    yabsorbedi nt
    oexist
    ingdiscipl
    i
    nes,thedebate
    hasn’treachthecri
    ticalpointatwhi chsuchadeci si
    onismade,andi sunl
    i
    kelytodoso
    fora numberofy ears.Thi sfacti nitsel
    fof f
    erscompelli
    ng reasonsforr et
    aini
    ng
    women’ sstudiesasasepar ati
    stareaofst udy.

    GenderSt
    udi
    esasal
    lincl
    usi
    ve

    Together,thesetheor eti
    calapproacheshavehadagr eati
    mpactonf eminism, women’s
    studi
    esandmen’ sst udi
    es,andhav ebeenakeydr iveroftheincr
    easedr ecognit
    ionof
    di
    v er
    sit
    yanddi fference.Inequalit
    iesanddifferences,notjustbetweengender sbut
    withi
    ngender s,basedoncl ass,sexual
    it
    y,et
    hnicit
    y,age,disabi
    li
    ty,nati
    onal i
    ty,r
    eli
    gion,
    andci t
    izenshipst atus,forexampl e,arenow at t
    endedt o.Inthiscont ext,‘women’s

    12|Page
    studi
    es’ and ‘ men’s studi
    es’ have become i ncreasi
    ngl
    y cont
    ested terms. As
    understandi
    ngsofgenderhav e devel
    oped asa compl ex,mul
    ti
    -f
    aceted and mul
    ti-
    disci
    pli
    naryarea,i
    nvolv
    ingthestudyofrel
    ati
    onshipswi t
    hinaswel
    lasbetweengenders,
    theterm‘genderstudi
    es’hasgai
    nedcurrency,al
    beitnotuncont
    est
    ed.

    Gr
    owt
    hofGenderSt
    udi
    es

    Forsomewomen’ sstudi espr oponents,


    ‘theri
    seofgenderst udi
    escant aketheform of
    makingwomenpersei nvi
    siblei nthestudyofmascul i
    nit
    yormal e/femal erel
    ations’
    Concurr
    entwi t
    ht hisist hesenset hatt
    hef actofwomen’ scontinuedsoci ali
    nequalit
    y
    becomesobl it
    erated,resultingi nt hedepoli
    ti
    cisati
    onofasubj ectthatgr ew outof
    contr
    oversyand pol i
    ticalr adicali
    sm.Women’ s studi
    es have had to acceptt hata
    monolit
    hicalmodelof‘ woman’ canexcl
    udeandaf f
    irminequal
    it
    y,andgenderst udiesis
    onewayofaddr essingt hisconcer n.

    Feat
    uresoft
    heDi
    sci
    pli
    ne

    Whateverlabelgi
    ventotheacademicstudyofgenderrel
    ati
    onsi
    nthet
    went
    y-f
    ir
    st
    cent
    ury
    , t
    hereareanumberoff
    eat
    urest
    hathaveendur
    ed.

     Fir
    st,thest
    udyofgenderr
    emainsresol
    utel
    ymultiandi
    nter
    -di
    sci
    pli
    nar
    yandthat
    i
    si tskeystrengt
    h,andhashadt hemostpr of
    oundimpactoncont empor
    ary
    theoryandatt
    it
    udestot
    heproduct
    ionofknowl
    edge.

     Second,al
    ongsi
    dethemor efocused,i
    fv ar
    ied,constel
    lat
    ionoftexts,knowledge
    andt heor
    izi
    ngonandaboutgendert hatconstitut
    esgenderst udies,gender
    i
    ssuescont i
    nuetopenetr
    atemai nst
    ream discipl
    inesmor ewidely( t
    houghnot
    al
    way swit
    hease)andareent
    husiasti
    call
    yembr acedbyst udent
    s.

     Thi
    rd,
    femi
    nism r
    emai
    nsacent
    ral
    per
    spect
    ivef
    ort
    hest
    udy
    .

    Furthermore,manywomen’ s/genderstudiesacademicsnowi nt heacademyconst i


    tute
    the fir
    stgener ati
    on to be educat ed in genderas st udentst hemselves and are
    correspondinglydistantfr
    om t heheadypol i
    ti
    csandcampusact i
    vi
    sm oft he1960sand
    1970s.Whi l
    echal l
    engescanbemadef rom withi
    nt hei nst
    ituti
    onf rom agender ed
    perspecti
    ve,t hesear eper formed withanawar enesst hatgender /women’sstudies
    remainsitselfdependentupont heacademy( andthemeansbywhi chitrecei
    vesfunds)
    forsurviv
    alandf orthesupportoffeministandgender-r
    elatedresearch.

    Toconcl
    ude,

    Asbot
    hwomen’
    sandgenderst
    udi
    es,f
    emi
    nistwor
    kcont
    inuest
    obeunder
    takenwi
    thi
    n

    13|Page
    theacademi cinst
    it
    uti
    onandt hepublicati
    onspr oduced,conf
    erencesorganisedand
    opportuni
    ti
    es forcommuni cat
    ion bet
    ween f emi ni
    sts ar
    ev alued as par tof the
    maintenanceofathri
    vi
    ngfemini
    stschol
    ar ship.Thesy st
    em,asRichcynical
    lysuspected,
    doespr ovi
    deindivi
    dual
    swi thaccesst or esourcesandev enwhent hepositi
    onof
    women’ sstudi
    esseemsembat tl
    ed(asi tdoesi nt heUK current
    ly)
    ,thewor kf r
    om
    femini
    stacademicsconti
    nuestopushforwar dtheboundar i
    esoffemini
    stthinki
    ng.

    Justassomeoft headvocatesofthir
    dwavefemini
    sm aretheproductofa‘ f
    emini
    st’
    educati
    on,sotheot
    heri
    ndivi
    dual
    swhocar r
    yfemini
    stideasi
    ntoeducati
    on,soci
    alwork,
    poli
    cymaki
    ngandmai nstr
    eam poli
    ticshel
    ptocontinuetobringfeministi
    deastoa
    wideraudi
    ence.

    I
    twast hegoalofmanyf eministscholar
    st oquest i
    onorigi
    nalassumpt i
    onsr egar
    ding
    women’ sand men’ sat t
    ri
    butes,to actuall
    ymeasur ethem,and t or epor
    tobser ved
    dif
    ferences between women and men.I nit
    ial
    ly,these progr
    ams wer e essenti
    all
    y
    feminist
    ,designedtorecogni
    zecont r
    ibuti
    onsmadebywomenaswel lasbymen.Soon,
    menbegant olookatmasculinityt
    hesamewayt hatwomenwer elookingatfemini
    nity,
    anddev elopedanareaofstudycalled“men’sstudies.”

    Itwasnotunt ilthelate1980sand1990st hatscholarsrecognizedaneedforstudyin


    thef i
    eldofsexuali
    ty.Thi
    swasduet otheincr
    easinginteresti
    nl esbi
    anandgayr i
    ghts,
    andschol ar
    sfoundt hatmosti ndi
    vi
    dualswil
    lassociatesexuali
    tyandgendertogether,
    ratherthanasseparateentit
    ies.Sothe“GenderStudies”addressedallt
    oget
    heratone
    place.

    14|Page
    Ev
    olut
    ionandDev
    elopmentofWomen/
    GenderSt
    udi
    es

    asaDi
    sci
    pli
    ne
    I
    ntr
    oduct
    ion

    Devel
    opmentofWomen’sstudi
    es,asanareaofacademi
    cst
    udy,camei
    ntobei
    ng
    dur
    ingtheemergenceoffemini
    sm’ssecondwav eandanew dawnofpoli
    ti
    cal
    act
    ivi
    sm.

    TheBegi
    nni
    ng1960si
    ntheUSA

    Thefi
    rstcoursesweredev elopedint helate1960si ntheUSA,andal though
    somecourseswer epr
    esentinadultandhighereducati
    onintheUK,itwasn’tunt
    il
    1980t
    hatthef i
    rstMAi nwomen’ sstudieswasofferedattheUniv
    ersit
    yofKent ,
    fol
    l
    owedbyot hermaster’
    sandunder gr
    aduatedegreeselsewher
    e.

    SanDi
    egoSt
    ateUni
    ver
    sit
    y's1970

    SanDiegoStat
    eUniver
    sit
    y'
    sprogram formal l
    yappr
    ovedin1970.Thisgrowt
    hin
    academic pr
    ograms has been par al
    leled,and perhaps exceeded,by a
    tr
    emendousgrowthi
    nthepubl
    ishedli
    teratureonwomen'sstudi
    es.
    15|Page
    SecondWav
    eFemi
    nism andDev
    elopmentOfAcademi
    cDi
    sci
    pli
    ne

    Theacademi cstudyofgenderhasar elativ


    elyshorthi
    stor
    y.Itsemer gencecanbedat ed
    asrecentl
    yast helate1960s,anditsdev el
    opmentt ri
    gger
    edbysecondwav efemini
    sm.
    Alongwithdev el
    opingacr i
    ti
    queofgenderi nequali
    ti
    es,i
    nbot hper sonalrelati
    onshi
    ps
    and in socialpositi
    oning (especi
    all
    y economi call
    y and polit
    ically)
    ,second wav e
    femini
    sm begant odrawattenti
    ontotheway si
    nwhi chacademi cdiscipli
    nesandsetsof
    knowledgeactedt oexcludet heexperiences,int
    erestsandi dentit
    iesofwomen.For
    example,pri
    ortot he1970s,thesocialsciencesingeneral,andsoci ologyinparti
    cul
    ar,
    l
    argelyi
    gnoredgender .

    The‘peopl
    e’itstudiedweremai nl
    ymenandt hetopi
    csitfocusedonwereaspect
    sof
    t
    hesocialworldespecial
    l
    ysignifi
    cantformen,suchaspaidwor kandpoli
    ti
    cs.Women
    were al
    mosti nv
    isiblein pr
    e-1970s’gender-bl
    i
    nd soci
    ology,onlyfeat
    uri
    ng i
    nthei
    r
    t
    radi
    ti
    onalrol
    esaswi v
    esandmot herswithi
    nfamili
    es.

    Diff
    erencesandi nequali
    tiesbet weenwomenandmenatt histimewer enotr ecognised
    asani ssueofsoci ol
    ogicalconcer nandwer enotseenaspr oblemst obeaddr essed.In
    thecontextofsecondwav ef emi ni
    stcr i
    ti
    ques, however,anumberofdi scipli
    nesacr oss
    thesocialsciences,t
    hear tsandhumani ti
    esbegant opayi ncreasingattenti
    ont ogender .
    Thus,insociologydur i
    ngt he1970s,di ff
    erencesandi nequal it
    iesbet weenwomenand
    men came t o be regarded,especi al
    lybywomen soci ologists,aspr oblemst o be
    examined and expl ai
    ned.I nit
    iall
    y,studies wer ef ocused on ‘ fil
    l
    ing int he gaps’i n
    knowledgeaboutwomen, gapsl eftbyt hepriormal ebias.Attentiongraduallymov edt o
    thoseaspect sofexper i
    encesespeci all
    ysi gnif
    icanttowomen,i ncl
    udingpai dwor k,
    housewor k,motherhoodandmal ev i
    olence.

    TheHi
    stor
    yanddev
    elopmentofWomen'
    sSt
    udi
    es

    Thefirstwomen'
    sstudiescour seispurport
    edt o hav
    ebeencreat
    edbyAmerican
    hi
    stor
    ianMaryRit
    terBeard,whoi n1934construct
    eda54-pagesy
    ll
    abusf
    oracourse
    ti
    tl
    ed"AChangi
    ngPolit
    icalEconomyasitAffect
    sWomen"

    Women’
    sSt
    udi
    esi
    nCol
    legesandUni
    ver
    sit
    iesi
    nUSA

    Therewerehundredsofwomen'sstudiescoursesoff
    eredatcol
    legesanduniv
    ersi
    ti
    esin
    theUnit
    edStat
    esi nt
    helate1960s,
    andby1970f or
    mal women'sstudi
    esprogr
    amswer e
    l
    aunched,thefir
    staccredit
    edwomen' sst udi
    escoursewashel din1969atCor nel
    l
    Univ
    ersi
    tyinNewYor kandatSanDi egoStateUniv
    ersi
    tyinCal
    if
    ornia.

    Ever
    yy earaf
    terthatsawanincr
    ease,fr
    om 276programsin1976to680in1999.Most
    oftheseprogramsof fer
    edminors,cer
    ti
    fi
    cat
    es,concent
    rat
    ions,ormaj
    ors.ACampus
    Tr
    endsr eportfortheAmericanCouncilonEducationin1984f oundthatwomen's

    16|Page
    studiescourseswer eof
    feredatamaj ori
    tyoffour
    -yearcoll
    egesanduni
    versi
    tiesandat
    25 per centofcommuni tycolleges;there ar
    e more now.Women' sstudiesatt he
    beginningoft hetwenty-
    fi
    rstcenturyenrol
    ledthelargestnumberofstudent sofany
    i
    nterdiscipl
    i
    naryfi
    eld.

    TheDepar tmentofEducat
    ionestimatesthat12percentofallundergraduat
    estudent
    s
    i
    nt heUnitedStat
    eshavereceiv
    edcr edi
    tforawomen' sstudi
    escour se.Butthegrowt
    h
    i
    nf ormalprogr
    amsdoesnott el
    lthewholestory
    ; manymor estudent
    senr ol
    li
    nseparat
    e
    coursesthanchoosetomajorormi nori
    nthefi
    eld.

    Thefi
    rstPh.
    D.pr
    ogr
    am i
    nWomen'
    sSt
    udi
    eswasest
    abl
    i
    shedatEmor
    yUni
    ver
    sit
    yin
    1990.

    Thefir
    stscholarl
    yjour
    nalinint
    erdi
    sci
    pli
    narywomen'sst
    udi
    es,Femini
    stSt
    udies,began
    publ
    ishi
    ngin1972.TheNat i
    onalWomen' sStudi
    esAssoci
    ati
    on(oftheUni
    tedSt ates)
    wasestabl
    ishedin1977.Thef ir
    stPh.
    D.pr ogr
    am i
    nWomen'sStudi
    eswasest abli
    shed
    atEmoryUniversi
    tyin1990.

    Asof2012,ther
    ear
    e16inst
    it
    ut i
    onsofferi
    ngaPh.D.inWomen'sStudi
    esintheUni
    ted
    St
    ates.Cour
    sesinWomen'
    sSt udiesi
    nt heUni
    tedKingdom canbefoundthr
    oughthe
    Uni
    versi
    ti
    esandCol
    l
    egesAdmissionsServi
    ce

    "Whenwespeakoft he‘evoluti
    on’
    ofWomen’sStudi
    es,
    iti
    simport
    anttoemphasi
    zet
    hat
    thi
    si samulti
    facet
    edpr ocess.Women’sStudi
    eshavediff
    eredwidel
    yoverti
    me,and
    acrossi
    dent
    it
    ies,di
    sci
    plines,andi
    nst
    it
    uti
    ons.
    ”

    TI
    MELI
    NE

     1953:Ri
    seoft
    hesecond-
    wav
    eoff
    emi
    nism br
    oughtonwi
    tht
    hehel
    poft
    heEngl
    i
    sh
    t
    ransl
    ati
    onofSi
    mondeBeauv
    oir
    ’sbookTheSecondSex.

     1970:
    Fir
    stof
    fi
    ci
    alwomen’
    sst
    udi
    espr
    ogr
    am wasatSanDi
    egoSt
    ateUni
    ver
    sit
    y.

     1970s:Men’
    s St
    udi
    es,somet
    imes known as mascul
    i
    nit
    y st
    udi
    es,emer
    ges i
    n
    r
    esponset
    oper
    cei
    vedadv
    ant
    agesbr
    oughtt
    owomenbyf
    emi
    nistpol
    i
    tical
    act
    ion.

     “
    Women’
    sSt
    udyt
    rul
    yisandal
    way
    swi
    l
    lbeaf
    iel
    dinmot
    ion.
    ”(
    Bonni
    eZi
    mmer
    man,
    pr
    esi
    dentofNat
    ional
    Women'
    sSt
    udi
    esAssoci
    ati
    on)

     1972:TheWomen’
    sSt
    udi
    esQuar
    ter
    lyandFemi
    nistSt
    udi
    esj
    our
    nal
    sar
    efoundedas
    i
    nter
    disci
    pli
    nar
    yfor
    umsf
    ort
    heexchangeofemer
    ging per
    spect
    iveson women,

    17|Page
    gender
    ,andsexual
    i
    ty.

     1974:TheWomen’
    sEducat
    ionalEqui
    tyAct(
    WEEA)i
    sest
    abl
    i
    shedt
    ofundr
    esear
    ch,
    pr
    ofessi
    onaldev
    elopment
    ,andav
    ari
    etyofr
    esour
    cest
    oschool
    stobr
    ingat
    tent
    iont
    o
    genderequi
    tyi
    ssues.

     1977:
    TheNat
    ional
    Women’
    sSt
    udi
    esAssoci
    ati
    on(
    NWSA)i
    scr
    eat
    ed.

     1978:Congr
    essi
    ncl
    udeseducat
    ionalser
    vicesi
    ntheCi
    vi
    lRi
    ght
    sActdesi
    gnedt
    o
    el
    i
    minat
    esexbi
    asi
    nschool
    andsoci
    ety
    .

     1979:Thef
    ir
    stmeet
    ing oft
    heNat
    ionalWomen’
    sSt
    udi
    esAssoci
    ati
    on (
    NWSA)
    di
    scussest
    hesubj
    ectofwhet
    herwomen’
    sst
    udi
    eswer
    eadi
    sci
    pli
    nei
    nit
    sownr
    ight
    .

     1980s:Women’
    sst
    udi
    esunder
    goesani
    ntensel
    ysel
    f-
    ref
    lect
    iveper
    iodasi
    tgr
    appl
    es
    wi
    tht
    hei
    ssuesofhow t
    oident
    if
    ytheconceptof“
    women,
    ”whi
    chhadl
    argel
    ybeen
    def
    ined as whi
    te,mi
    ddl
    e-cl
    ass,het
    erosex
    ual
    ,Chr
    ist
    ian,educat
    ion women of
    pr
    ivi
    l
    ege.
    (Bet
    tyFr
    iedan)

     1980:The Nat
    ionalI
    nst
    it
    ute of Educat
    ion commi
    ssi
    ons a ser
    ies of ei
    ght
    monogr
    aphs on women’
    s st
    udi
    es as wel
    las t
    he Women’
    s St
    udi
    es Ev
    aluat
    ion
    Handbook.

     1983:
    TheTaskGr
    oupofMen’
    sSt
    udi
    esi
    sfor
    med.

     1984:TheNat
    ionalOr
    gani
    zat
    ionf
    orChangi
    ngMen(
    NOCM)i
    nst
    it
    utest
    he“
    Men’
    s
    St
    udi
    esNewsl
    ett
    er.
    ”

     “
    Women’
    s st
    udi
    es wi
    l
    lone dayf
    il
    lli
    brar
    ies and cr
    eat
    e whol
    e new cour
    ses i
    n
    psy
    chol
    ogy
    ,soci
    ology
    ,andhi
    stor
    y.”
    –Bet
    tyFr
    iedan,
    aut
    horoft
    heFemi
    nineMy
    sti
    que

     1990s:Dev
    elopmentof“
    queert
    heor
    y”mov
    es t
    oincl
    ude sexual
    i
    ty st
    udi
    es i
    n
    women’
    s/genderst
    udi
    es.

     1990:Ri
    seoft
    hir
    d-wav
    eoff
    emi
    nism seekst
    ochal
    l
    engeorav
    oidwhati
    tdeemst
    he
    secondwav
    e's"
    essent
    ial
    i
    st"def
    ini
    ti
    onsoff
    emi
    nini
    tyandusesapost
    -st
    ruct
    ural
    i
    st

    18|Page
    i
    nter
    pret
    ati
    onofgenderandsexual
    i
    tyasi
    tscent
    ral
    ideol
    ogy
    .

     1991:
    TheAmer
    icanMen’
    sSt
    udi
    esAssoci
    ati
    on(
    AMSA)i
    sfounded.

     1992:TheCour
    aget
    oQuest
    ion:Women’
    sSt
    udi
    esandSt
    udentLear
    ningi
    spubl
    i
    shed
    af
    terTheFundf
    orI
    mpr
    ovementofPost
    secondar
    yEducat
    ion(
    FIPSE)f
    unded a
    compr
    ehensi
    veev
    aluat
    ionofwomen’
    sst
    udi
    espr
    ogr
    ams.

     2000s:
    Thegr
    eatnami
    ngdebat
    eov
    erWomen’
    sSt
    udi
    esv
    ersusGenderSt
    udi
    es*
    *.

    Someoft hemostpr edomi nanti


    nst
    it
    uti
    onstohavewomen'sst
    udiesprogr
    amsatt he
    undergr
    aduateorgr aduateleveli
    ncl
    udetheUniver
    sit
    yOfCalif
    orniasyst
    em,Emor y
    Univ
    ersi
    ty, and universi
    ti
    es in Michi
    gan,Wisconsi
    n, New Jersey
    , Connect
    icut
    ,
    Pennsyl
    vani
    a, andNewYor k.

    AtPr
    esent

    Manywomen' sstudi
    escoursesar edesignedtoexpl
    oret
    hei nt
    ersect
    ional
    it
    yofgender
    and othert
    opics.Forexampl e,in genderand sci
    ence r
    esearch,the sci
    encesar e
    expl
    oredandcr i
    ti
    quedthr
    oughf emini
    sm,aswhenAnneFaust o-
    Ster
    li
    ng,Professorof
    Biol
    ogyatBr
    ownUni ver
    sit
    y,exploresbi
    ologythr
    oughthef
    eministl
    ens.

    Presentl
    y,Women’sstudi
    esisengagedi naheat eddebateoverthemov etoeli
    mi nate
    theterm womenandreplaceitgender
    .Thechanget ogenderst
    udiessuggest
    sthatt he
    fi
    eldneedstobepay i
    ngattenti
    ontotherelat
    ionshipsbetweenmenandwomenr ather
    thanfocusi
    ngpredominant
    lyonwomen’ sexperi
    encesandknowl edgei
    tsel
    f.

    Themai nargumentagainstthechanget oGenderSt udiesist


    hecl ai
    mthatthi
    sshif
    twil
    l
    undot hepastfort
    yyearsinbr ingi
    ngwomenandwomen’ sstandpoi
    ntst
    othef or
    efr
    ont
    i
    nr esearch,
    knowledge,andcul tur
    alproducti
    on.Buttherearealsomanyargumentsfor
    thechanget oGenderSt udies.Onei st hatiti
    samor eappropri
    ateti
    tl
    easi talso
    i
    ncludesgay ,l
    esbi
    an,andtransgenderedindivi
    dual
    s.

    Anotheri
    st he t
    houghtthatthe ti
    tle change wi
    l
    lopen up t
    he women’s studi
    es
    envir
    onmentt
    oincl
    udeMenwhowi llfeelmor ecomf
    ort
    abl
    einsomet
    hingcal
    l
    edgender
    studi
    es.I
    ntheend,though,t
    hechangef r
    om women’sst
    udiest
    ogenderstudieswill

    19|Page
    ul
    ti
    mat
    elybeupt
    otheuni
    ver
    sit
    iesandcol
    l
    egesi
    nwhi
    cht
    heyar
    eof
    fer
    ed.

    GenderSt
    udi
    esi
    nUK

    Atthi
    st i
    mei nthe1960sandear l
    y1970s,thesheernumberofwomenconcentratedin
    thehumani t
    iesincompar
    isontootheracademicfi
    eldsmadeitanareari
    peforfemini
    st
    cri
    ti
    que,sincewomen’ sexist
    enceinsuchnumber sherewasi tsel
    ftheresul
    toft he
    genderedlogicofthewor
    kplace.

    Itisatt
    hisstage,duri
    ngthelat
    e1960sintheUSandf rom themid-tolat
    e1970sinthe
    UK,thatwomen’ sstudi
    esasaspeciali
    sedareaofacademicinter
    estbegantodevel
    op,
    aswel lasr api
    dlyspreadi
    ngelsewherearoundthegl obe(thefi
    rstBrit
    ishwomen’s
    studi
    esprogrammeswer eallt
    aughtMAs,emergi
    ngf i
    rstinKent(1980)andthenYork
    andWar wick).

    Thuswomen’sstudiesasadiscr
    etear
    eaofst udywasborn,eventhought
    heear
    lydays
    werechar
    acteri
    sedbyahuger ushofenergy,where‘
    suchcoursesbegantobetaught
    ,
    qui
    tespontaneousl
    yandwithoutsubstant
    ialpri
    ororgani
    zati
    on,atmanyUScol l
    eges
    anduni
    versi
    ti
    esbeginni
    ngi
    n1969’

    Itwasasi milarstor
    yi ntheUKandi twasonl yret
    rospectiv
    elythatteachersinthefi
    eld
    communi catednat i
    onall
    yandi nter
    nati
    onall
    yanddebat edwhatwomen’ sstudieswas
    andcoul dbe( thefirstnati
    onalwomen’ sstudi
    esconf erenceint heUKt ookpl acein
    1976).Earl
    yont helinktofeministpoli
    ti
    cswast angible–t heseschol ar
    swer eoften
    foundbey ondt heacademy ,inwomen’ sli
    berati
    onnewsl et
    ters,atconferencesand
    gener
    allynetworkingwi t
    hli
    ke-mindedthi
    nkers.

    They saw women’ s st


    udies as notonly chal
    lengi
    ng t
    he boundaries ofexist
    ing
    knowledgeanddev el
    opi
    ngnew ar easofstudy,butalsoasl egi
    ti
    mizi
    ngthedi f
    fer
    ing
    socialandcult
    uralexper
    iencesofwomen.Manywomen’ sstudiescour
    sescontai
    neda
    consciousnessraisi
    ng(CR)componentwher etheexperi
    encesandi denti
    ti
    esoft he
    studentsthemselv
    esdeterminedthedynami
    csoft hecl
    assr
    oom.

    Fi
    rmlyi nt
    erdiscipli
    nar
    yi n perspect
    ive,women’ s studi
    es i
    nit
    ial
    l
    yr esi
    ded mainl
    y(if
    uneasil
    y)withint hedisci
    pli
    nesofEngl i
    sh,hist
    oryandsoci ol
    ogy,andwasdependent
    upont heenergiesofsomet i
    mesi sol
    atedindiv
    idualsworki
    ngwi t
    hinageneral
    lymale-
    ori
    entedcurri
    culum.

    Oncewomen’ sstudiespr ogrammesemer ged,oft


    engat her
    ingt ogetherthewor kof
    scholar
    sacrossthediscipli
    nesint
    oonecent erorast hecoret eam ofamast er’
    sor
    undergr
    aduatedegree,thear eadevelopedacl eareridentit
    y.Rat hert hanseei
    ngi t
    s
    majorroleascasti
    ngacr i
    ti
    caley
    eov erthetradi
    tionaldiscipl
    i
    nes,women’ sstudi
    es
    couldbecomemor ebroadlyacont est
    ationofknowl edgeunderpat r
    iarchyandall
    owa

    20|Page
    r
    eval
    uat
    ionofknowl
    edge,ar
    tandexper
    iencet
    hathadf
    ormedt
    hebasi
    sofwomen’
    s
    l
    i
    ves.

    Eventhoughthe‘women’sstudi
    es’identi
    tysuggestsadegr eeofempower mentf or
    femi
    nistknowl
    edge,i
    tisal
    wayspull
    edi ntwodirect
    ions–asacr it
    iquethatt
    ransfor
    ms
    exi
    sti
    ngdisci
    pli
    nesandasaspeci
    ali
    st,evenseparat
    ist,
    areaofacademicconcern.

    Ot
    herPar
    tsoft
    heWor
    ld

    BecauseAmer i
    caneducationali
    nsti
    tuti
    ons,especi
    all
    ynewer,l
    ess-
    tr
    adit
    ionalones,are
    veryfl
    exi
    bleincurr
    icularchange,women'sst udi
    esgrew andexpandedint heUnited
    Stat
    esmor equi
    ckl
    yt hananywhereelse.

    Butverysoontherewerewomen'sst udiesprogr
    amsi nJapan,Aust
    ral
    i
    a,NewZealand,
    Fi
    nland,Sweden,Indi
    a,SouthKorea,EwhaUni versi
    tyi
    nSeoul,SouthKoreabeganit
    s
    fi
    rstWomen’sStudiespr
    ogram i
    n1977, TaiwanandthePhil
    ippi
    nes.

    Byt he1980st her


    ewer eprogramsi nal
    lcount
    ri
    esinWester
    nEur ope,pl
    usThailand,
    South Afri
    ca,China,t he Caribbean,and Uganda.Fi
    nall
    y,afterthe change from
    communi sm in Eastern Europe,pr ogr
    ams wereinst
    it
    uted i
    n Slovaki
    a,the Czech
    Republi
    c,Russi
    a,Ukraine,andothers,inaddi
    ti
    ontoMal
    aysi
    a,Vi
    etnam, andot
    herAfr
    ican
    nat
    ions.

    Two ser i
    esofi nternati
    onalconf erencesgav eimpet ust othegr owth ofwomen' s
    studies,bot hwi t hi
    nuni versiti
    esandi ncommuni t
    y-basedorganizationswor ldwide.The
    InternationalInt erdisci
    pli
    nar yCongr essonWomenbegani nHai fa,Israel,i
    n1981and
    hasmetev eryt hreey earssi nce—int heNet herl
    ands( 1984),inIreland( 1987),inNew
    Yor k(1990) ,inCost aRi ca( 1993),inAust rali
    a( 1996),inNor way( 1999),inUganda
    (2002) ,andi nSout hKor ea( 2005).Twot ot hr
    eet housanddel egates,most l
    ywomen,
    bot h academi cs and communi t
    y organizers,at t
    end t o pr
    esentt heirwor k.Each
    conf erencedr awsespeci all
    yont hatcont i
    nent '
    spr acti
    ti
    oners.Thust heCost aRica
    conf erencebr oughtt ogethermanyi ndigenouswomenf rom CentralAmer icaaswel las
    LatinAmer icandel egates.Languagest haty earwer eSpanish,English,andav ari
    etyof
    Indiolanguages.Thatt hi
    scongr esscontinuest omeet ,wit
    houtgov ernment alorformal
    organizat i
    onalsuppor t
    ,ist esti
    monyt otheper sonalimpor t
    ancet owomenal loverthe
    wor l
    dofgl obal schol ar
    shiponwomen.

    TheUni t
    edNat i
    onshassponsor edf ourinternati
    onalconfer
    encesasapar tofi t
    s
    "DecadeforWomen, "inMexicoCi t
    y( 1975),Copenhagen( 1980)
    ,Nai
    robi(1985),and
    Beij
    ing(1995).Thenongov er
    nment alorganizati
    ons( NGO)forumshel
    di nconjuncti
    on
    witheachconf erencebroughttogethert housandsofact i
    vist
    sandwomen' sst udi
    es
    groupsfrom allovertheworld,t
    husr emindingt hosefrom t
    hedevel
    opedwor l
    doft he

    21|Page
    connect
    ionsbet
    weeneducat
    ionandbr
    oadersoci
    alj
    ust
    icei
    ssues.

    I
    ndiaestabl
    ishedvi
    gorousWomen’sStudi
    esresearchint heearl
    y1970sandbecame
    oneoft hemostacti
    vecountr
    iesintheworl
    dtoi nvest
    igatewomen’sexperi
    enceand
    thought
    .Eventhi
    sphenomenalgrowt
    hhardl
    ycapturestheexcit
    ementthatcont
    inuest
    o
    mot i
    vat
    ethoseinWomen’sSt
    udies.

    In2015atKabulUniv
    ersi
    tyt
    hef
    ir
    stmast
    er'
    sdegr
    eecour
    sei
    ngenderandwomen'
    s
    studi
    esi
    nAf
    ghanist
    anbegan.

    Thef oundi
    ngofWomen’ sStudi
    eswasf ul
    lofdrama,ast
    heposit
    iveener
    gyoft
    hefir
    st
    studentsandt eacher
    smetwi t
    hdisappr
    ovalf
    rom maleadmi
    nistr
    ator
    s,mal
    eauthor
    s,
    andmal eleadersofestabl
    i
    sheddepartment
    sintheWest.

    Somegov er
    nmentspushedf orWomen’ sSt
    udi
    espr
    ogramsaspartofgener
    all
    ymov
    ing
    thei
    rcountr
    iesf
    orward,whil
    et hedecadesoft
    he1970sand1980ssawwomenatt he
    grassr
    ootsfi
    ght
    ingestabl
    i
    sheddi ct
    ator
    s.

    Itwas al so a t i
    me when celebr
    ated West er
    ni ntell
    ectualsin sociobi
    ology and
    anthr
    opologywer easser
    ti
    ngwomen’ sbi
    ologicalandintell
    ectuali
    nfer
    iori
    tyasscienti
    fi
    c
    factandpoi nt
    ing,incontr
    ast,t
    ot herisk-
    takingandi nt
    ellect
    ualorigi
    nali
    tyofmen.
    Women’sSt udi
    eswer eaf ad,ot
    hernaysayersclaimed,andonewi t
    houtthesl i
    ght
    est
    i
    ntell
    ect
    ualmerit.

    Resear
    chandPubl
    icat
    ion

    Scholar
    lyjournal si
    nwomen' sstudieswer ebegunint heUni
    tedSt at
    esearlyon( 1972
    forFemini
    stSt udi
    es;1975f orSigns: AJournalofWomeni nCultureandSoci ety
    ;butnot
    unti
    l1988f ort heNationalWomen' sSt udi
    esAssoci
    ationJour
    nal) ,andsoont herewere
    j
    ournalspubl ishedar oundt hewor ld.In1999ani nfor
    malInt er
    nationalNetwor kof
    Women' sSt udiesJour nal
    s( nowt heFemi nistJour
    nalsNetwork)wasf ormed,meet i
    ng
    fi
    rstinTromso,Nor way ,theninHal if
    ax,Canada,i
    n2001andi nKampal a,Uganda,in
    2002.

    Thirt
    yeditor
    sf r
    om twenty
    -sevenj ournalsintwenty-
    onecount r
    ieswerer epresentedin
    themember shipintheearl
    yt went y
    -fi
    rstcentury
    .Jointpubli
    shi
    ngpr oj
    ects,includi
    nga
    bookser i
    esbyZedPr ess,reprinti
    ngofar ti
    clesfrom j
    ournal
    sint he"economi csouth"
    (devel
    opingnati
    ons)byjournalsint he"economicnorth"(i
    ndustri
    ali
    zednations,mostly
    i
    nt henorthbutincl
    udi
    ngAust rali
    a),aWebsi te,andalist
    servtomakemember sawar e
    ofcurrenti
    ssuesareal
    lpartoft hei
    rwor k.

    El
    len Messer
    -Davi
    dow sur
    vey
    ed t
    he numberofbooks and schol
    arl
    y monographs
    av
    ail
    ableinEngl
    ishbet
    ween1980and1998andest
    imat
    edthat10,200femi
    nistbooks

    22|Page
    werepubli
    shedduri
    ngt hatperi
    od.Asshesay s,theprintknowl edgeissov oluminous
    t
    hatscholar
    scannotkeeptrack,muchlessreadi tal
    l.Andt hetopicsaresuperabundant
    :
    "
    everyt
    hingandanyt
    hingisgendered,genderi
    ngi snarrated,quantif
    ied,ormodeled,and
    '
    gender'
    asananalyt
    icalcategor
    yisint
    errogat
    ed"

    Concl
    usi
    on

    Women’sstudiesprogrammes, coursesormodul eshavealsodev el


    opedacrossEurope
    Austr
    ali
    a,Asiaandt heMi ddl
    eEast ,unt
    ilithasbecomei nMar yMay nard’
    swor ds,
    ‘
    something ofa gl obaleducationalphenomenon’ev en though the scope oft he
    fr
    amewor kofsuchcour seswilldependoncul t
    uralcontextandsocialandinsti
    tuti
    onal
    att
    it
    udes tothefiel
    d.Becausesecondwav efemi ni
    sm focusedmuchmor eont heway
    i
    deasandknowl edgei t
    sel
    fexcludewomen’sinterestsandidenti
    ty,t
    heestabli
    shmentof
    women’sstudies

    Asof2012,ther
    ear
    e16inst
    it
    ut i
    onsofferi
    ngaPh.D.inWomen'sStudi
    esintheUni
    ted
    St
    ates.Cour
    sesinWomen'
    sSt udiesi
    nt heUnit
    edKingdom canbefoundthr
    oughthe
    Uni
    versi
    ti
    esandCol
    l
    egesAdmissionsServi
    ce.

    Moreov
    er,muchasst udentsst i
    llfl
    ocktowomen’ sst udi
    esclassrooms,iti
    salsotr
    ue
    t
    hatmanyseekt hesecurit
    yoft heestablisheddiscipli
    neswheni tcomestonaming
    t
    hei
    rdegrees,suspect
    ing,perhapsright
    lythatfutur
    eempl oy
    ersmaybemor ewill
    i
    ngto
    t
    akeongraduateswithqualif
    icat
    ionsindiscipl
    inesthattheyrecognizeandwhoseval
    ue
    t
    heyunderst
    and.

    23|Page
    Gender
    /Women’
    sSt
    udi
    esi
    nPaki
    stan
    I
    ntr
    oduct
    ion

    Accor dingtoRubi naSaogol,Gender /


    Women’ sSt udies,asasoci aldiscipli
    ne,ar ose
    withinwomen’ smov ementsandf eministstrugglesthatragedacrosst hegl obeov ert he
    l
    astt wocent uri
    es.Al
    thoughthediscipl
    ine,asaf i
    eldofstudy ,
    hasonl ybeenest ablished
    i
    nt hel astthr
    eeorf ourdecades,buti thasahi storythatgoesbackmuchf urther.
    Womenhav ebeenexpr essi
    ngtheirwant s,needs,desi r
    es,sorrows,joys,loveandhat e
    forcent uri
    es,thr
    ought heoralt
    raditi
    onsofst oryt
    ell
    ing,singi
    ngandl ull
    abies,howev er
    systemat icstudi
    esofwomeni nr el
    ationt ot hewor ldgobackt ot he18t hcent ury
    Enlightenmentera.

    St
    atusofGenderSt
    udi
    esi
    nPaki
    stan/
    Dev
    elopmentofGSi
    nPaki
    stanasanacademi
    c
    di
    scipl
    ine

    TheMi nist
    ryofWomen’ sDev elopment( MoWD)i nPaki stani scommi t
    tedt otheov eral
    l
    dev elopmentofwomen,i ncludi
    ngt heireducation.Theai msandobj ect
    ivesoft he
    mi nistr
    yaretoenhancewomen’ slit
    eracyrates,improv eattainmentlevel sofwomenat
    alleducat i
    onall
    evel,tor educegendergapbyr eori
    entingcur rentcurr
    icul aandmaki ng
    them gendersensitive.Fur thermore, theNationalCommi ssionont heSt atusofWomen
    alsoai msatencour agingt hegener ati
    onofi nformation,analysisandst udiesr elat
    ingt o
    womenandgenderi ssues.Bot hthesei nsti
    tuti
    onar ethusi ntegral
    l
    yrelat edtot hest ate
    ofwomen’ s st
    udies a s a di scipli
    ne and has a st r
    ong base i n act ivism and
    i
    mpl ementati
    on.

    Nat
    ionalPl
    anofAct
    ion:

    Thenat ionalpl
    anf oractionwasendor sedbygovernmentin1998,al sorecommended
    the promot i
    on ofi nert
    -discipl
    inaryfield ofWomen’ sStudiesin publi
    cand pr i
    vate
    educationalandt rai
    ninginst i
    tuti
    ons.Oneoft hemainactionsrecommendedwast he
    fundingoft heWomenSt udiesCent er
    satf i
    veuni
    versi
    ti
    esthroughoutPakistan,should
    beensur edthrought hemi nistr
    yofEducat ionandHigherEducati
    onCommi ssion.I
    twas
    alsosuggest edt hattheremustbeal i
    nkageandexchangeofi nformati
    onbet ween
    priv
    ateandpubl icWomenSt udiesini
    ti
    at i
    ves.

    WomenSt
    udi
    esCent
    ers:

    TheWomenSt
    udi
    esCent
    ersi
    nPaki
    stancanbedi
    vi
    dedi
    ntopubl
    i
    cwhi
    char
    efundedby

    24|Page
    thegov er
    nmentandpr i
    vat
    esecot
    rswhicharefundedbyint
    ernat
    ionaldonorsonly
    .In
    1989,theMinist
    ryofWomen’sDev
    elopmentest
    abli
    shedWomenst udiesCent
    ersinfi
    ve
    univ
    ersiti
    es,ini
    ti
    all
    y as a f
    iveyearproj
    ect.The aims and objecti
    ves ofthese
    depart
    ment sare

     Cr
    it
    icalexami
    nat
    ionofallf
    actor
    swhichwereresponsi
    blef
    orr
    ender
    ingwomen
    i
    nvi
    sibl
    einsci
    ent
    ifi
    cinv
    esti
    gat
    ionanddev
    elopment

     Reor
    ient
    ati
    on of exi
    sti
    ng cur
    ri
    culat oi
    ncl
    ude knowl
    edge on women and
    cont
    ri
    buti
    onsmadebyf emal
    ewrit
    ers.

     Cr
    eat
    ingawar
    enessofwomen’
    sissues.

     Dev
    elopmentofi
    ntr
    oduct
    orycour
    sesf
    ort
    hest
    udent
    sofuni
    ver
    sit
    ies.

    1.Women’
    sSt
    udi
    esDepar
    tmentatAl
    lamaI
    qbalOpenUni
    ver
    sit
    y:

    TheWomen’ sStudi
    esdepar t
    mentatAIOPwasest abl
    ishedi
    n1997wi ththefunding
    from theMoWD.I tintr
    oducedWomenst udi
    esasanacademi cdi
    scipl
    i
    nethrought he
    distantl
    ear
    ningprogram.Ital
    socreat
    edawarenessandsensi
    ti
    zat
    ionofgenderissues
    throughseminar
    sandwor kshops.

    Cour
    sesandt
    rai
    nings:

    Thecour sesof f
    eredatAIOUi ncl
    udeacourseont hepsychol
    ogyofwomen,t heroleof
    women wr it
    ersi n Paki
    stanili
    ter
    atur
    e,research methods in women’
    s studies and
    feministtheori
    es.ThedepartmentalsohaspreparedTVpr ogr
    amsasapar tofitdist
    ant
    l
    earninginiti
    ati
    ve.

    2.Women’sresear
    chandResour
    ceCent
    eratt
    heFat
    imaJi
    nnahwomenUni
    ver
    sit
    y,
    Rawal
    pindi
    :

    TheWomenResear chandr esourceCentr


    eatFJWUwasest abl
    i
    shedi n1999.Ital
    so
    aimedatcr eat
    ingawar enessespeciall
    yamongt hestudent
    soft hi
    suniversi
    tyand
    enhanci
    ngeducationalandempl oymentoppor
    tuni
    ti
    es.I
    temphasizedonr esear
    chin
    vari
    ousgenderandsocialissues.

    Cour
    sesandt
    rai
    nings:

    The WRRCC offer


    sv ari
    ous courses on women and dev elopment,women i n
    managementandselfesteem andmentalheal
    th.Apartfr
    om t heseacour secal
    l
    ed
    Stat
    usofWomeninPakist
    anisoffer
    edforPhDcandi
    datesoftheuni v
    ersi
    ti
    es.

    TheWRRCoft
    heFat
    imahJi
    nnahUni
    ver
    sit
    yhasdev
    elopedanMAi
    nGenderSt
    udi
    esi
    n

    25|Page
    co-
    ordi
    ant
    ionwi
    thUni
    ver
    sit
    yofGl
    asssgow.

    3.I
    nst
    it
    uteofWomenDev
    elopmentSt
    udi
    esatUni
    ver
    sit
    yofSi
    ndh,
    Jamsor
    o:

    Thisinsti
    tutewasest abl
    ishedin1994byt heUniversi
    tyofSindh, Jamshoro.Theaim of
    thi
    sinstit
    ut eistoreplacetheout dat
    edsystem val
    uesy stem wit
    ht henewonebasedon
    equalit
    yand mut ualr espectforbot hsexesand al so tor emov edispar
    it
    iesinthe
    provi
    sionofeducat ionalfacil
    i
    ties.However,thisinsti
    tuteconflatedthedisci
    pli
    neof
    women st udieswi t
    h HomeEconomi cswhi ch recr
    eatesand r einf
    orcesthegender
    divi
    sionofl abor
    .

    Cour
    sesandTr
    aini
    ngs:

    Theonl ycour sesoffer


    edi nthisinsti
    tutewer ebasedoncommuni t
    ydev elopment,
    homeeconomi cs,i
    ncomegenerati
    onact iv
    iti
    esincludingfabricpainti
    ng,potpainti
    ngti
    e
    anddy e,f ancyar t
    sandcr aft
    s.Similar
    ly,thecour sesonupl if
    tofr uralwomenand
    enhancingl i
    teracyrat
    eandest abl
    ishi
    ngbet terhealthfacili
    ti
    esr ef
    lectasocialwelfar
    e
    approachr atherthanradi
    calapproachofwomenst udies.Thereforecoursesinhome
    economi cs,flowermaking,embroideryaregener all
    ynotconsi deredapar tofwomen
    studi
    essubj ectmat t
    er.

    Atpr
    esent
    ,thi
    sinst
    it
    uteof
    fer
    sanMAi
    nWomen’
    sSt
    udi
    es.

    4.Women’
    sSt
    udi
    esCent
    eratQuai
    d-e-
    Azam Uni
    ver
    sit
    y,I
    slamabad:

    This Centeriniti
    all
    yof fered t
    hree cer t
    ifi
    cate cour
    ses which wer
    e attended by64
    students.Thecour seswer eint
    erdiscipli
    naryinnature.TheCentr
    eini
    ti
    all
    ypr oposedto
    i
    ntegrateWomen’ sst udiesint
    oot hersocialsciencedepartmentsoft heuniversi
    ty.
    Howev er,afull
    -f
    ledgedCent r
    eofExcel lenceGenderSt udi
    eshasbeenestabli
    shedinthe
    univer
    sitywhichof f
    ersM. SCprogram t ostudent
    s.

    5.Cent
    reofExcel
    lencef
    orWomenSt
    udi
    espr
    ogr
    am atKar
    achiUni
    ver
    sit
    y:

    This centr
    er ef
    lectsa comprehensi
    ve approach initscour se content
    s.Ther e are
    i
    ntroductorycoursesi
    nWomen‘ sStudiesal ongwi t
    hcour sesonf eministtheori
    es,
    feministresear
    ch methods,women’shi st
    oryi n South Asi
    a,soci alconstr
    uction of
    genderandgenderanddev el
    opment.

    I
    n 1994 and 1992,CEWS atKar achiUni v
    ersityoff
    ered t
    wo cer t
    if
    icate cour
    sesi n
    preparat
    ionfortheDegreeprogram.I n1996,firstbat
    chofst udentswasadmi t
    tedfor
    theful
    ltwoy earsMAcourses.In2002i talsolaunchedtheMPhi landPhDpr ogr
    amsi n
    women’ sstudies. I
    n2002Cent reinit
    iatedM. Phil/Ph.Dprogramme.I n2004i thas
    i
    ntroducedWomen' sStudi
    esasasubsi diarycourseatFir
    stYear(Hons.)level
    .

    26|Page
    Fr
    om 2007BS(Hons.
    )4year
    sprogr
    ammewasl aunchedandfr
    om 2009MS/Ph.D
    cl
    asseshav
    est
    art
    ed.I
    n2010M.A(
    Eveni
    ng)pr
    ogr
    ammewasal sostar
    ted.

    6.WomenSt
    udi
    esCent
    re,
    Uni
    ver
    sit
    yofBal
    ochi
    stani
    nQuet
    ta:

    Thiscentr
    ewasest abli
    shedin1989andst ar
    tedfunctioni
    ngi n1994.Unfortunat
    ely
    ther
    ehasbeensof arnoteachi
    ngacti
    v i
    tyatt
    hiscentre.Afewcer t
    if
    icat
    ecourseswer e
    conduct
    ed earl
    i
    er.Itof f
    ersfew semi narcourses on issues such as t
    he social
    empowermentofwomen,I sl
    amic,l
    egalandconst i
    tuti
    onalright
    sofwomen,women
    workandeducati
    on,andwomendecisionmaking.

    7.Depar
    tmentofWomen’
    sSt
    udi
    es,
    Punj
    abUni
    ver
    sit
    y:

    Thecent
    reofWomen’
    sSt
    udieswasmadeadepart
    mentatthei
    nit
    iat
    iveoft
    heuni
    ver
    sit
    y
    i
    n2001andoffer
    saMast
    ersprogr
    am i
    nWomen’sStudi
    es.

    8.Depar
    tmentofWomen’
    sSt
    udi
    es,
    Uni
    ver
    sit
    yofPeshawar
    :

    Thi
    scentr
    ehasalsobecomeaful
    l-
    fl
    edgeddepar
    tmentofwomen’
    sandgenderst
    udi
    es
    off
    eri
    ngcer
    ti
    fi
    cat
    eanddipl
    omaprograms.

    9.Gov
    ernmentFat
    imaJi
    nnahCol
    l
    ege,
    ChunnaMandi
    ,
    Lahor
    e

    Gover nmentFatimaJinnahCol lege,ChunnaMandii spioneerincoll


    egesofPunjabwho
    i
    ntroducedgenderst udiesasasubj ectatgraduati
    onandpostgr aduati
    onlevel
    .Gender
    Studiesdepar t
    mentbecomef unct i
    onalin2004wi tht
    heef f
    ortsofthenpr i
    nci
    palMr s.
    ShamaSal manKhal i
    q.Mr s.Musar taKalanchiservedasfir
    stheadofdepar tment.The
    UniversityofPunjab appr ov
    ed i ts aff
    il
    iat
    ion i
    n 2005.Since then,itisr emar
    kabl y
    fl
    ourishing.Genderstudiesal soai mst odev elopequali
    tyamonggender swithant i
    hostil
    itytoeachother.

    10.TheGenderandDev
    elopmentSt
    udi
    esDepar
    tmentatLCWU

    TheGenderandDev el
    opmentSt udiesDepar t
    mentatLCWUst artedfuncti
    oningin2004.
    The majorobjecti
    ve oft he establi
    shmentoft his depart
    ment ,besides i
    mpar ti
    ng
    educati
    oninanewlyemer gingdiscipl
    ine,i
    stoinculcateawareness,asserti
    veness,self
    confi
    dence,andent
    repreneuri
    alzealinthestudents.Todayourst udentsareabat chof
    acti
    vecit
    izenswhohaveadopt edaschool foreducati
    ngchildlabor.

    Cour
    sesandDegr
    eesOf
    fer
    ed

    All
    thesei
    nst
    it
    utesar
    eoff
    eri
    ngv
    ari
    etyofcoursesanddegr
    eesi
    ncl
    udi
    ngBS,
    MSc,
    M.Phi
    l
    andPhDinGenderSt
    udi
    esandv
    ari
    ouscerti
    fi
    catecour
    ses

    Resear
    chPubl
    icat
    ions:

    27|Page
    TheGenderStudi
    esdepar tmenthaspr eparedadi r
    ectoryoft hesesongenderissues.It
    hasalso cont
    ri
    buted researcharti
    clesand t wo bookswer epubli
    shed i
    nUSA and
    Canada. TheCEWSatKar achiUniversit
    yasal socompl etedmanymaj orandmi nor
    studi
    esonsocio-
    economi c,legal
    ,healthandenv ir
    onmenti ssues.Simil
    arl
    y.Thecent re
    ofwomen’sstudi
    esandgenderst udiesdepar tmentatv ari
    ousuni v
    ersi
    ti
    esinPaki stan
    has est
    abli
    shed a plethora ofar ti
    cles,thesis and journals on women’si ssues,
    devel
    opment,wor
    ksofwomen’ swri
    tersandot herr
    elatedmat ters

    Pr
    ofessi
    onalAssoci
    ati
    ons:

    Theideaofset t
    ingupaPaki stan’sWomen’ sStudi
    esAssociat
    ionwasf ir
    stconceivedby
    SabheehaHaf eezin1987.Theai m oft hisassociati
    onwast ointr
    oduceandest abl i
    sh
    thediscipl
    ineofWomen’ sSt udiesbypr ovi
    dingaf or
    um forexchangeofideasamong
    experts,poli
    cymaker s,programmer s,NGOs,t eachers,ot
    herconcernedorganizat i
    ons
    andt hegener alPubli
    c.Howev er,t hisi deacouldnotbemat eri
    ali
    zedduet opr ev i
    ous
    commi t
    mentsofv ar
    iousmember s.I n1992,Paki st
    anWomen’ sStudi
    esAssoci ati
    on
    was setup byTahi r
    a Af t
    ab,pr of essorofHi storyand Dir
    ectorofCEWS Kar achi
    Universi
    ty.TheAssoci at
    ionhasor gani zedsemi narsandalsobr oughtoutajour nal.It
    hasalsopubl i
    shedotherwor ks.

    Fundi
    ng:

    Ini
    ti
    all
    y,theWomen’sst
    udiesCantr
    einQuaid-
    e-Azam Univ
    ersi
    tyrecei
    vedfundi
    ngfr
    om
    governmentwhichwasnotful
    l
    ydisbur
    sedandasr esutt
    heacti
    vit
    iesoftheCentr
    ewere
    severel
    yaffect
    ed.

    TheCEWSKar chiwassetupbygov ernmenti n1989asr esearchcent r


    e.Itsini
    tial
    fundingcamef rom Universi
    tyGrantsCommi ssiont hroughtheMoWD.I tsubsequently
    receivedfundsf r
    om Uni t
    edNat i
    onsDev el
    opmentpr ogr ams,I
    LO, CanadianInter
    nati
    onal
    Dev el
    opmentAgency and UNCEF.The sour ce off undi
    ng fort he departmentof
    Women’ sStudies,PunjabUni v
    ersit
    y’i
    st hegov ernmentandt hefundingi dchanneled
    throughHi gherCommi ssi
    onofPaki stan.TheUni versityofPehawarhast akenupt he
    recurri
    ngbudgetoft heDepar t
    mentofGenderSt udies.Thewomen’ sSt udi
    escentrein
    Balochistanisfederal
    lyfundedthroughMoWDandHEC.

    TheWRRCoft heFatimaJi nnahWomenUni ver


    sit
    y,hasbeenf undedforit
    scapacit
    y
    buil
    dingprogr
    ammesbyCI DA,USI S,t
    heBr i
    ti
    shCouncilandDFID.Thesedonorshave
    fundedt hehi
    gherstudyoff acult
    yabr oadaswel lastheorganisingofworkshops,
    seminarsandconferences.TheI WDSoft heUni
    versit
    yofSindh,Jamshoro,i
    sfunded
    pri
    mar il
    ybytheUniv ersi
    tyofSi ndh,howeverfundingforspecif
    icprogr
    ammeswas
    suppliedbyt
    heMoWD.

    28|Page
    GenderSt
    udi
    esasMul
    ti
    disci
    pli
    nar
    yinNat
    ure

    I
    ntr
    oduct
    ion
    Thisgrowthinacademi cprogr
    amshasbeenpar all
    eled,andper hapsexceeded,bya
    tremendousgrowthinthepubli
    shedli
    ter
    atur
    eonwomen' sstudies,muchofwhichhas
    dealtwit
    hdescri
    pti
    onsandanalysesoftheemergingfield.Atpresent,t
    heconsensusis
    thatwomen'sstudi
    esis,andhasalwaysbeen,i
    nterdi
    scipli
    nary,
    af iel
    dakint
    oAmer ican,
    black,
    urban,
    andethnicstudi
    es.

    Textbooks,progr am descr ipt


    ions,andcoursesyll
    abiproclai
    mt hi
    swi t
    ht her egul
    arit
    yof
    afinelytunedSwi sscl ock.Asearlyas1976, Fl
    orenceHowe, inherintr
    oduct iontoHigh
    SchoolFemi nistSt udies,announcedt hat"
    allwomen'sstudiescoursesar e,bytheirver
    y
    natureinter
    disciplinary.By1991,t heterm wasstil
    lusedpr ominentl
    y;forexampl e.The
    NationalWomen' sSt udiesAssoci at
    ionannouncedt hatyearthatwomen' sstudi
    esand
    women' sstudiespr ogramsar efundamentall
    yint
    erdisci
    pli
    nary.

    I
    nter
    disci
    pli
    nar
    yChar
    act
    erofGS

    Butifthepr ofessioni
    ssoconv i
    ncedofi tsint
    erdi
    scipl
    inarychar acter
    ,whybot herto
    Women' sst udi
    es,emergingast heacademi car m ofthewomen' smov ementi nthe
    1960s,exist
    si ntandem wit
    hf eministschol
    arshi
    p,which,asMar i
    anLoweandMar gar
    et
    LoweBenst onexpl ai
    n,hasf uncti
    onedt odev el
    opawoman- orientedunder standingof
    theworld,toseekoutexpl anationsforwomen' soppression,andt oident
    if
    yst rategi
    es
    forchange.Women' sstudieshasoper atedasoneoft hesest r at
    egiesf orchange,
    pri
    maril
    yasawayofdi ssemi nati
    ngi nf
    ormationand"educat i
    ngf orchange, "basedon
    theact
    ual experi
    encesandl anguagesofwomen

    WhatI
    tTr
    iesToExpl
    ore?

    Women’ sandGenderSt udiesexploreswomen’ spastandpr esentcont ri


    buti
    onst o
    soci
    etiesasper sons,cr
    eatorsandt hinker
    s.Italsoexploresthecul t
    ural,raci
    al,and
    economi cdiver
    sityofwomen’ sexperi
    encesaswel lasthescholarshi
    pconcer nedwith
    thefactorsthataf f
    ectwomen'sandmen' sli
    ves.Themi norpreparesstudentstot hi
    nk
    cri
    ti
    call
    yabouti ssueswit
    hwhi chtheywi l
    lbefacedallofthei
    rli
    ves.Thus,Women’ sand
    GenderSt udi
    esisanessent i
    alcomponentofal iber
    al ar
    tseducati
    on.

    29|Page
    Rel
    ati
    onshi
    pwi
    thOt
    herDi
    sci
    pli
    nes

    Women’ sandGenderSt udiesdr awsuponmet hodsandcont entfrom awi der angeof


    disci
    plines,incl
    udi
    nganthropology,lit
    eratureandthearts,biology,economi cs,histor
    y,
    polit
    icalscience,psychol
    ogy ,reli
    gion and sociol
    ogy.Itseeks t o extend students’
    i
    nt el
    lectualdevel
    opmentbyhelpingthem t ounderst
    andwomen’ saccompl i
    shment sand
    capabi l
    it
    ies,andbyl
    ookingbey ondthel i
    mi t
    softr
    adit
    ionalgender -
    diff
    erenti
    atedr ol
    es.

    Themi ssionofWomen’ sSt udiesistost udywomenandgenderf rom af emi


    nist
    perspective,recognizi
    ngwomen’ sexperi
    encesandambi ti
    onsbyplacingwomenatt he
    centreofinqui r
    y.Thepr i
    mar yaim ofWomen’ sSt udi
    esistomakewomenv i
    sibleandt o
    seeksoci aljusticeforthemar gi
    nali
    zedsectionsoft hesociet
    y.St
    udent sinWomen’ s
    Studiesareexpect edtoadoptWomen’ sSt udiesasachange- makingexercise.Ital
    so
    seekst oengagest udentsinthepr oducti
    onofknowl edgethatemergesfrom f emi
    nist
    cri
    ti
    queofsoci al,cult
    uralandi nsti
    tut
    ionalst r
    uctur
    est hatpromoteandst rengt
    hen
    patri
    archy, f
    ortheel i
    minati
    onofgenderbi ases.

    Thef i
    eldofgenderst udiesexpl
    orestheway sthatfemi ninityandmasculini
    tyaf fectan
    i
    ndividual’
    sthoughtpr ocess.Thisisr el
    evanti nav arietyofr ealms,suchassoci al
    organizati
    ons and i nsti
    tuti
    ons,interper
    sonalr elat
    ionshi ps,and under st
    andi ngs of
    i
    dentityandsexual i
    ty. Genderst
    udiesi sadiscipli
    necr eatedor igi
    nall
    ybyactivists,and
    thosewhost udyi ttodayseei tast heirmissiontoident if
    y ,analy
    ze,andcorrectsoci al
    i
    nequi t
    iesbot
    hl ocal
    lyandgl obal
    ly.

    GenderSt
    udi
    esEncompassesI
    nter
    disci
    pli
    nar
    yFi
    elds

    Women’ s/
    Genderstudi
    esisrel
    evanttoever
    ydiscipl
    ine–andtov i
    rt
    uall
    yeveryaspectof
    yourli
    fe.Aminorinwomen’sstudiesdoesnottieyoutoasinglecareerpat
    h,butgives
    youtoolsandi
    nsightst
    hatcanbeusedi nanycareeronechooses.

    Women'sandgenderst udiescul
    ti
    vatesacr i
    ti
    calawar enessoft hecont ri
    buti
    onsof
    womenandt hei mpactofgenderinourli
    ves,bothhistori
    call
    yandint hecontemporary
    worl
    d.Ourint
    erdisci
    pli
    naryscopei
    ncludesexaminingtheseissuesfrom theperspect
    ive
    ofpol
    it
    ics,
    anthropol
    ogy,sociol
    ogy
    ,psychol
    ogy,philosophy,ar
    t,andl
    iterat
    ure.

    GenderStudiesexpl orespowerasi trel


    atest ogenderandot herfor msofi denti
    ty,
    i
    ncludi
    ngsexualit
    y ,race,cl
    ass,reli
    gion,andnat i
    onal
    it
    y.GenderSt udi
    esencompasses
    i
    nterdi
    sci
    pli
    naryfields,whichincludeexpl orat
    ionofthehistor
    iesandexper i
    encesof
    di
    versewomenandmenaswel lasst udiesofsexuali
    ti
    es,mascul i
    nit
    ies,f
    emininit
    ies,
    andgendersystemsi nsociety
    .

    Italsoanal
    yzeshow genderplaysouti npol
    i
    tics,i
    nti
    mateli
    fe,cul
    tur
    e,t
    heworkpl
    ace,
    at
    hleti
    cs,t
    echnol
    ogy
    ,health,science,andinthev er
    yproducti
    onofknowledgeit
    sel
    f.

    30|Page
    Coll
    egecour sesemphasi zecri
    ti
    calt hi
    nking and anal ysi
    sal ong with socialjustice
    acti
    vism.Thesecour sesteachinterdi
    scipl
    i
    narymet hods,r elatedebatesint hef i
    eldt o
    key intel
    lectualand soci almovement s,explor eintersecti
    ons off emi ni
    stst udi es,
    mascul i
    nity studies,and queer st udi
    es,and assi st students wi t
    h pr ofessi
    onal
    development .GenderSt udies emphasis on t he r
    elationships bet
    ween genderand
    societyhistori
    call
    yandcr oss-
    cult
    urall
    y,andont hechangesnowoccur r
    ingint her oles
    ofwomenandmen,ont heparti
    cipati
    onofwomeni nt hemaj orinst
    it
    utionsofsoci ety,
    andonwoment hemselv
    es.

    GenderSt
    udi
    esi
    sMul
    tiCont
    ext
    ual

    Genderi sthenunder st
    oodasnotaf reest
    andingcat egory,butr at
    heronet hatt akes
    shapet hroughitsintersecti
    onwi thotherrelat
    ionsofpower ,incl
    udingsexuality
    ,r ace,
    ethnici
    ty,class,nat ional
    it
    y,and r eli
    gion.I tof fer
    s hi stori
    cal,contempor ary,and
    transnati
    onalanalysesofhowgenderandsexualf ormat i
    onsar iseindi
    fferentcontexts
    suchascol onial
    i
    sm, nati
    onali
    sm, andglobal
    izati
    on.Gl obalizati
    onunderstandst heway s
    thatgenderoperatesi ndif
    ferentnati
    onalandcul t
    uralcont exts.

    Thr oughthisunderstanding,manygr aduat esgetadv anceddegr eesinapr ofession


    suchasl aw orbusi ness.Graduatesr eportwor king inar angeofar easi ncluding
    communi cati
    onsandmedi a,art
    sandeducat ion,business,poli
    ti
    csandgov er
    nment ,the
    l
    aw,heal t
    h,and non- profi
    tsector.In addi t
    ion toi tsf ocus on the history and
    achievementsofwomen,genderschol arshi
    phasi nspiredresearchandcur ri
    culat hat
    addressmen’ sli
    ves,mascul i
    nit
    y,andthel iv
    esofpeopl ewhoi denti
    fyasGay ,Lesbian,
    BisexualorTransgender.

    Theincr easingglobalconcernabouttheequalr i
    ghtsofsexes,thei
    robli
    gati
    onsand
    opportuniti
    es in allf i
    elds and at al
    ll ev
    els of devel
    opment warrant fi
    rst t
    he
    understandingoft hepr esentstateofwomenwi threfer
    encetot heinequal
    iti
    esin
    vari
    ousspher esoflif
    est ar
    ti
    ngf r
    om basi
    chumanr i
    ghtsoffood,heal
    th,cl
    othi
    ngand
    education to women accessand par ti
    cipat
    ion i
    n economicand poli
    ti
    calact i
    vi
    ti
    es,
    deci
    sionmaki ngandothermat t
    ers.

    Communi
    tyWor
    kandPr
    obl
    em Sol
    vi
    ng

    Womenst udiesprogr amsar einv ol


    vedi nsoci
    aljusti
    ceanddesi gncurriculathatare
    embeddedwi ththeor yandal soact i
    vism out
    sideoft hecl assroom.SomeWomen
    Studiesprogramsof ferinternshipst hatarecommuni ty-basedal lowingst udentsthe
    oppor t
    uni
    tytogainabet terunderstandingofhowoppr essiondi rectl
    yaffectswomen' s
    l
    ives.Thisexperience,informedbyt heoryfrom feministst udi
    es,queert heory
    ,black
    feministtheory,African studies,and many ot hertheor eti
    calf ramewor ks,allows
    studentstheoppor tunitytocr it
    icall
    yanalyzeexperienceaswel lascr eat ecreati
    ve

    31|Page
    sol
    uti
    onsf
    ori
    ssuesonal
    ocal
    lev
    el.

    Car
    eerDi
    ver
    sit
    y

    Women’ sandGenderSt udiespr ovi


    descr it
    icalt
    hinkingski
    ll
    sandanunder standingof
    women’ sdi versecont r
    ibutionstosoci ety,whichar ev al
    uablef orawi dev ari
    etyof
    career s.Women’ sandGenderSt udiesPr ogramsar ecommi t
    tedt oreal
    izingtheequal i
    ty
    ofwomenandmeni nallar
    easofl i
    fesot hatourrelati
    onshi
    ps, bot
    hper sonalandsoci al
    ,
    arechar acter
    izedbyt hef reedom andmut uali
    tywhi chcanonl yoccuramongequal s.
    Increasingly,special
    ist
    si nWomen’ sandGenderSt udiesar
    ebei ngusedasconsul tants
    i
    ni ndust ry,highereducat i
    on,insurancecompani esandper sonnelfir
    ms–ev enst ate
    and f eder algov ernmentagenci es require people who hav e specialtraini
    ng i n
    under standinggenderr el
    ations.

    GenderSt udiescant akestudent stor ewardingjobsi nav astar rayoff iel


    ds,f r
    om a
    careeri npoliti
    cs,t ohelpingmakeequi t
    ablepol i
    ciesandl awsi nwor kplacesandi n
    society,towor kingf orhumani tariancausesandchar i
    ti
    es,t oacar eeri nacademi a.
    Careerssuchast heseat testtothef i
    nancialvalueandwor ththathasbeendownpl ayed
    bytheDeanofAr ts.Studentswhohav eopt edtomakeGenderSt udiesthef ocusoft heir
    studieshav eexpr essed veryposi ti
    vef eedbacki nt hev al
    ueoft hedi scipli
    ne.The
    i
    ntersectionalandmul ti
    disci
    pli
    naryappr oachofGenderSt udiesi srelevanttoal lwalks
    ofli
    fe, al
    lfi
    eldsofst udyandal loccupat i
    ons.GenderSt udiesof fersauni quei nsi
    ghtinto
    thehumancondi t
    ionandi tsimpor tancei nallspher esout sideofacademi aisf ar-
    reachingandcannotbeunder stated.

    Nowt hi
    sdiscipl
    inei
    shelpful
    insustai
    nablegenderdev
    elopmentact
    ivi
    ti
    eswit
    hstr
    ong
    commi t
    mentf orhumanright
    s,f
    aithinthepotent
    ial
    ofwomen,complementar
    il
    yof
    genderrol
    es,andmut ual
    genderrespect.

    Si
    ngl
    eDi
    sci
    pli
    newi
    thFemi
    nistPer
    spect
    ive

    Majorit
    y ofcour ses offered in women' s studies programs,whi ch ar
    e general
    ly
    multi
    discipli
    naryinst r
    ucture,cross-
    li
    sti
    ngcour sesfrom sev eraldepart
    ments.These
    courses,whichar elowerandupperdi vi
    sion,oft
    enf ocusonwomen, butmayalsocenter
    onsexual it
    yandgender .Theyar estri
    ctlydiscipli
    naryoffer
    ingswhi chpresentasingle
    di
    scipli
    naryper specti
    vecombi nedwithfemi ni
    stanalysis.Thet opi
    coft hecourseisnot
    i
    nvestigatedthroughmor ethanonedi scipl
    inarylens,andsuchcour sesgenerallydonot
    employf acult
    yf r
    om mor ethanonediscipli
    ne.Exampl esinclude

     "
    WomenandLi
    ter
    aryI
    magi
    nat
    ion"(
    Engl
    i
    sh/
    TheUni
    ver
    sit
    yofWashi
    ngt
    on)
    ,

     "
    Womeni
    nAmer
    icanHi
    stor
    y"(
    Hist
    ory
    /TheUni
    ver
    sit
    yofCal
    i
    for
    nia,
    Sant
    aCr
    uz)
    ,

    32|Page
     "
    Psy
    chol
    ogyofWomen"(
    Psy
    chol
    ogy
    /TheUni
    ver
    sit
    yofWi
    sconsi
    n-Madi
    son)
    ,

     "
    Nat
    ureandSt
    atusofWomen"(
    Phi
    l
    osophy
    /Ober
    li
    nCol
    l
    ege)

     "
    Compar
    ati
    veSexual
    Poet
    ics"(
    Compar
    ati
    veLi
    ter
    atur
    e/TheCol
    l
    egeofWoost
    er)
    .

    Fut
    ureofGenderSt
    udi
    es

    Dur i
    ngt hepast15y ears,avigorousbodyofschol arshipinhumani ti
    es,soci al
    sciences and life sciences has begun t oi l
    luminatet he poli
    ti
    cal,cul tural,
    economi c,andsoci alr
    olesofwomen,t oassesst hecont ri
    buti
    onsofwoment o
    societyandcul t
    ure,andt oanalyzethefuncti
    onofgenderi nawi despect rum of
    societi
    es and cul tur
    es.Undert he broad r ubri
    c ofWomen' s Studies,t hat
    scholarshiphasbot hproducednewknowl edgeandr evisedourunder standingof
    establi
    shedi nf
    ormat i
    onandmodesoft houghtSchol arshav etappednegl ect ed
    resourcest hatrevealwomen' sexperi
    ences,andhav ebr oughttot hef orefront
    often forgott
    en texts and othercultur
    alpr oducts bywomen.The schol arly
    i
    nterestinwomenhasal sogeneratedi
    nnov at
    ive,oft
    eni nt
    erdi
    scipli
    naryinquiry.

    33|Page
    SOCI
    ALCONSTRUCTI
    ONOFGENDER

    A socialconst ructi
    onissomet hi
    ngthatdoesn'texistindependent
    lyinthe"natur
    al"
    worl
    d,buti sinsteadaninvent
    ionofsoci
    ety.Cul
    turalpracti
    cesandnor msgi
    ver i
    seto
    the existence ofsocialconstruct
    s and gover
    nt he practi
    ces,customs,and rul
    es
    concerningt hewaywev iewthem.

    Def
    ini
    ti
    onandConcept

    Genderi ssociall
    yconstructedandar esultofsocio-cul
    turalinfl
    uencesthroughoutan
    i
    ndiv i
    dual '
    sdev el
    opment.Thei deat hatgenderdi f
    ferencei ssociall
    yconstructedisa
    view accor dingtowhichsoci etyandcul turecreat
    egenderr oles,andtheser olesare
    prescribedasi dealorappr opr
    iatebehav i
    orforaper sonoft hatspecifi
    cgender .Some
    arguet hatthedi f
    fer
    encesi nbehav iorbetweenmenandwomenar eentir
    elysoci al
    conv entions,whereasothersbeliev
    et hatbehav i
    orisi nf
    luencedbyuni ver
    salbiologi
    cal
    factorst osomeext ent
    ,wi thsocialconv enti
    onshav i
    ngamaj oreff
    ectongender ed
    behav i
    or .

    GenderSoci
    ali
    zat
    ion

    Thisisthetheorythatboysandgirl
    sexperi
    enceapassi ve,sponge-
    li
    keabsorpt
    ionof
    messages,fr
    om model sofmascul
    ini
    tyandfeminini
    ty,
    whichismediatedt
    hroughsocial
    i
    nstit
    uti
    onssuchast hefami
    lyandschools.Behav i
    oursandidenti
    ti
    esareseent obe
    consist
    entandpr obl
    emsar edescri
    bedasapr oductofatti
    tudespassi
    velyacquir
    ed
    thr
    oughsocial
    izat
    ion.

    Social
    izat
    iontheor
    yact ual
    lyreinfor
    cesideasaboutdi
    ffer
    encebasedonbiol
    ogy.Sex
    rol
    et heoryisprobl
    emat i
    ci nt hesamewayt hatwedon’ttal
    kaboutessent
    ialand
    i
    mmut abl
    eraceorclassdif
    ferencesorracerol
    esorcl
    assrol
    esbecauset
    heexerci
    seof
    poweri nt
    heseareasofsocialli
    feismoreobv i
    ous.

    Thesoci
    ali
    zat
    ionexplanat
    ionalsofail
    stoaccountforindi
    vi
    dualagencyinchoosi
    ng
    i
    deasand behavi
    ours,ort he i
    nfl
    uence ofgender
    ed powerdif
    ferent
    ial
    sin di
    ver
    se

    34|Page
    envi
    ronments.Thatis,i
    tdoesnotexplainwhygenderedbehav i
    our
    sarenotconsi
    stent-
    whysomeboy sandgi r
    lsdonotexhibitthecharact
    eri
    sti
    csandbehaviour
    sascri
    bedt o
    thei
    rsex,orhow peoplear eabletoactdi f
    fer
    entl
    yaccordingtothei
    rchangi
    ngsocial
    context
    s,t
    hatis,dependinguponwheret heyareandwhot heyarewit
    h.Thisnoti
    onof
    choi
    ceoragencyi sasi gni
    fi
    cantgapint hesoci
    ali
    zati
    onexplanat
    ionf
    orbehavi
    ourand
    i
    saccountedforinthesocialconst
    ruct
    ionofgendermodel.

    GenderI
    dent
    it
    y

    Theideaofsoci al constructi
    onofgenderseessoci ety,notbiologi
    cal sexdiff
    erences, as
    the basisforgenderi dentity
    .Ther e are manydi f
    ferentpr ocesses bywhi ch the
    expectati
    onsassoci atedwi t
    hbei ngaboyoragi rlispassedont hroughsoci ety.For
    i
    nstanceonecoul dseet hi
    sf rom t hemomentachi ldcomesi nt othewor ldandf rom the
    factthathe/shehast of acea" blue"or" pi
    nk"real
    ity.Ir ecent
    lyattendedababyshower
    partyandIwasshockedf irstbyt heamountofi temsababyneedsandev enmor e
    aboutt hecolorchoi ceofeachi tem.Ev ery
    thingwaspi nk,asababygi rlwasexpect ed,
    andhonest lyInev eri magedhow manydi ffer
    entshadesofpi nkact ual
    lyexi stfor
    productssuchasbabycl othes.Thehousedecor ationwaspi nk,peopl ewer ewear ing
    pinkorpastelcol ors,allthegi ftwr apper spinkaswel last hegi f
    tst hemselves.Mygi f
    t
    wasoneoft hef ewi temsofadi fferentcolor,asIchosey el
    lowandl ightpurpleitems,
    whichwasact ual lyachal l
    engi ngt askt ofindasmostoft hei t
    emsi nthest or
    eI
    shoppedwer eblueorpi nk.

    Soci
    alExpect
    ati
    ons

    Thesoci alconst ructi


    onofgendercoul dbef urtherseenbyt hewaypar entsbehav eto
    thei
    rchi ldren, bytheirexpectationsabouthowt hei rchi
    ldrenshoul dbehav eandact ,and
    bythet oyst heybuyf orthem.Forexampl egirlsar esupposedt oplaywithdol lsandbe
    sweetand emot i
    onaland boy sar e supposed t o playwi th acti
    on figuresand be
    aggr essiveandr ati
    onal.Ther ef
    orecl othes, t
    oy s,andev ent helanguageusedwi t
    hy oung
    chil
    dr enf oll
    ow t het rendofst er eotypinggender .Childrenl earnbymodel i
    ngandt he
    messagest heyr eceiveandactaccor dingly
    .Anexampl esi milartothedr esscodewe
    havingf orchi l
    drencanal sobeseenwi thadul ts,par t
    icularl
    yi nthecolors,fabr i
    csand
    designsspeci fictoeachgender .Anot herexampl eisthesi t
    uationofaf emal ewor ki
    ng
    i
    nt he busi ness f i
    eldt hati s expect ed to dr ess i n mascul i
    ne wayi n or dert o be
    consi deredsuccessf ulandt obet akenmor eser iousl
    y .Thiscoul ddemonst rateagain
    how soci ali nfl
    uences af fectgenderexpect ations and shape behav iors and nor m
    regar di
    nggender .

    Fami
    lyandGenderSoci
    ali
    zat
    ion

    Apar
    tfr
    om t
    hef
    ami
    l
    y,whi
    chi
    sthef
    ir
    stagentofsoci
    ali
    zat
    ionandl
    ear
    ninggender

    35|Page
    i
    dent ity
    ,chil
    drenl ear
    nf r
    om ot hersour cessuchasschool .Start
    ingfr
    om t hefi
    rstyears
    ofschool ,includingdaycar ecent ery ears,childr
    enl ear
    nt hei
    rgenderi denti
    tyf r
    om
    playingandi nteracti
    ngwi t
    hot herchildrenandcar eprovi
    ders.Byv i
    sit
    ingachi ldcare
    progr am onemaynot i
    cethatt heenv ironmenti sarrangedinway stopr omotegender
    i
    dent ity
    .Mostl i
    kelytherewillbeanar east agedast hehousekeepingcornerwher egirl
    s
    thepl ayandther ewillbeanotherar eawi t
    hbui l
    dingblocksandtoolkiti
    temswher ethe
    boy splay.Howev eritisbeli
    ev edbysev eralthatthekindoftoysandr ol
    eschildrenplay
    affecttheirf
    utureandt heskill
    st heylear n.

    Playing wi th blocks i s consider ed giving exper i


    ence i n spat
    ialr elati
    ons and i n
    mat hemat icalconcept s,wher e pl aying wi th dolls and dr amaticr ol e play
    ing is
    associatedwi t
    hl earni
    ngt obeanur t
    urer.Aschi ldrengrow mor est ereotypeideasar e
    i
    nv olver egarding whi ch subject s ar
    ef avorable and sui t
    ableforeach gender .For
    i
    nst ancet hemostobv iousexampl eismat handpr obablyal lofushav ehear dthenotion
    thatboy sar ebet terinmat ht hangi rls.Ther ef
    oreonecoul dseet hatagai nsoci al
    i
    nfluenceaf f
    ectsper ceptionaboutgenderi denti
    tyandr oles.Howev erper cepti
    onssuch
    ast hiscanl eadt ost ereotypet hreadswhi charet hefearorner vousnesst hatone's
    behav i
    orwi l
    lexempl i
    fyanegat ivest ereotypeabouthi si
    n- gr
    oupandt herebyinessence
    conf i
    rmingt heaccur acyoft hest ereotype.

    Educat
    ionandSchool
    ing

    Apar tf rom t hef ami l


    y,whi chi st hef irstagentofsoci ali
    zat i
    onandl earninggender
    i
    dent ity,childrenl ear nfrom ot hersour cessuchasschool .Starti
    ngf rom t hef ir
    sty ear s
    ofschool ,includingdaycar ecent ery ears,chi l
    dr enl earnt heirgenderi dentityf r
    om
    playingandi nteract i
    ngwi thot herchi ldrenandcar epr ov i
    ders.Byv isit
    ingachi l
    dcar e
    progr am onemaynot i
    cet hatt heenv ironmenti sar rangedi nway st opr omot egender
    i
    dent ity.Mostl ikelyther ewi llbeanar east agedast hehousekeepi ngcor nerwher egi rls
    thepl ayandt herewi l
    lbeanot herar eawi t
    hbui ldi
    ngbl ocksandt oolki ti
    temswher ethe
    boy spl ay.Howev eritisbel i
    ev edbysev eralthatt heki ndoft oy sandr ol
    eschi l
    drenpl ay
    affectt hei rfutureandt heski l
    lst heyl earn.Pl ay i
    ngwi thbl ocksi sconsi deredgi v i
    ng
    exper iencei nspat ialrelationsandi nmat hemat i
    calconcept s,wher eplay i
    ngwi thdol ls
    anddr amat i
    cr olepl ayingi sassoci atedwi t
    hl earningt obeanur turer.Aschi l
    drengr ow
    mor est ereotypei deasar einv olver egar di
    ngwhi chsubj ectsar efav orableandsui t
    abl e
    foreachgender .Fori nst ancet hemostobv i
    ousexampl ei smat handpr obabl yallofus
    hav ehear dt henot iont hatboy sar ebet t
    erinmat ht hangi r
    ls.Ther eforeonecoul dsee
    thatagai nsoci alinf l
    uenceaf f
    ect sper cept i
    onaboutgenderi dent i
    tyandr oles.Howev er
    percept ions such as t his can l ead t o ster eotype t hreads whi ch ar et he f earor
    nervousnesst hatone' sbehav iorwi llexempl ifyanegat i
    vester eotypeabouthi si n-group

    36|Page
    andt
    her
    ebyi
    nessenceconf
    ir
    mingt
    heaccur
    acyoft
    hest
    ereot
    ype.

    Medi
    aAl
    soAf
    fect
    sandI
    nfl
    uencesGender

    Furthermoret he medi a also aff


    ect s and influences genderidentity
    .Fori nstance
    chil
    drenar econst antl
    ybombar dedwi thshowsdepi cti
    nggenderst er
    eotypemodel s
    from toysmar ketedasf orboy sorgi r
    ls,t
    ochi l
    dren'
    sTVpr ogramsandshows.I tis
    commonf orthechi l
    dren'sprogramst oemphasi zether ol
    eoft hemal e"hero"who
    savest heweakf emal e.Childr
    eni nterpretthesemessagesas" realli
    fe"whichshapes
    thei
    rr eal
    ity,behav i
    or,and expect ations oft heirgenderr ol
    e.Howev er,the social
    const r
    uct
    ionofgenderdoesnothappenonl yonceanddoesnotst opwi t
    hchildren.It
    continuesthroughoutt herestofourl ivesandi nfl
    uencesourper specti
    veandt heway
    wev i
    ew thingsandsi tuat
    ions.Regar dingthemedi aonei sabl
    et oseeanexampl eof
    genderstereotypi
    ngbyobser vi
    ngt hemessagesofadv ert
    isements.

    GenderRol
    e

    Agenderr ol
    ei sasetofsoci et alnormsdi ct at
    ingthet y
    pesofbehav i
    orswhi chare
    generall
    yconsi deredaccept able,appr opr
    iate,ordesi rableforpeopl ebasedont heir
    actualorperceivedsexorsexual it
    y.Genderr olesareusual lycenteredonconcept i
    ons
    off eminini
    ty and mascul i
    nit
    y,al though ther e ar
    e except ions and vari
    ati
    ons.The
    specif
    icsregardingt hesegender edexpectationsmayv arysubst anti
    all
    yamongcul t
    ures,
    whileotherchar acterist
    icsmaybecommont hroughoutar angeofcul t
    ures.Thereis
    ongoingdebat east owhatext entgenderr olesandt heirvariat
    ionsarebiologi
    call
    y
    determined,andt owhatext enttheyar esociallyconstr
    uct ed.

    Cul
    tur
    alandRel
    igi
    ousBel
    ief
    s

    Addi ti
    onal l
    ycult
    uralandr el
    igi
    ousbeliefsandat ti
    tudeshav easer iousi mpactongender
    i
    dent ityandi nmanycasespr omotest ereotypebel i
    efsagai nstwomenandl eadt o
    genderdi scri
    minati
    on.Wheni tcomest ocul t
    ureandr el
    igiousi nfl
    uencesi nasoci et
    y
    regar ding the vi
    ew ofgenderIbel ievet he conceptofi nstit
    utionali
    zed sexism is
    appr opr i
    atetodescr i
    bet hissit
    uati
    on.I nsti
    tuti
    onali
    zedsexi sm i st hesexistatti
    tudes
    thatar ehel dbyt hev astmajorit
    yofpeopl eliv
    inginasoci etywher ester
    eotypesand
    discrimi nat
    ionarethenor m.Whenasoci et
    yhasspeci fi
    cnor mspeopl elivi
    ngwithinthe
    societ ywi l
    ladapttothem andt heywi l
    ldot hesameev enf ordi scri
    mi nat
    orynorms.For
    i
    nst ancewhenasoci ety,duetoreli
    giousandcul t
    uralr
    easons,v i
    ewwomenasweakor
    i
    nf eri
    orpeopl elivi
    ng wi t
    hinthe societywi lldevelop the same v iewsand wi l
    lact
    accor dingly.Onecanseet hi
    sf orexampl ei nmanyMusl im count ri
    esandal sowi t
    h

    37|Page
    di
    ff
    erentrel
    igiousgr
    oups,eveninourowncount r
    y.Peoplet
    endtoconformt othei
    r
    gr
    oupandwi l
    ldothesameev enwhentheyengageindi
    scr
    imi
    nat
    orybehavi
    orsasthey
    wanttofi
    tinandbeacceptedbythei
    rgr
    oupwhi chi
    sknownasnor
    mativeconf
    ormit
    y.

    Cat
    egor
    izes

    Societyconst ruct sourgenderandcat egor i


    zesi t
    smember ssi mi l
    arasi tdoeswi t
    hage,
    ethnicity,
    race, socialcl assandst atus.Howev erthecat egorizat i
    onaccor di
    ngtogender
    i
    sanot herwayofmani pulat
    ingmember sofasoci et
    yandt opr omot ei nequali
    ti
    es.There
    areobv i
    ousbi ologicalandant hropol ogicaldi ff
    erencesbet weent het wosexesbutwe
    cannotuset hesedi fferencest oi nferconcl usionsandpr ov i
    dest ereotypedmodel s
    aboutgender .Asment i
    onedint hebegi nningsexi sm ist het ermt hataccount sfor
    genderdi scri
    mi nationand hasdi f
    ferentf or ms.Oneoft hem al readyment ioned i
    s
    benev olentsexi sm char acter
    ized by posi t i
    ve butst ereot yped v iews ofwomen.
    Cont r
    ar i
    ly anot her f orm i s host i
    le sexi sm whi ch i s char acteri
    zed by negat i
    ve
    stereotypicalviewst owar dswomen.Fori nst ancehost il
    esexi sm v i
    ewsofwomenar e
    centeredonbel iefsthatwomenar einferiortomenduet osuper fici
    al viewsthatonecan
    holdagai nwomen.Last lyanotherf orm ofsex i
    sm i sambi v alentsexi sm whichholds
    vi
    ewsofbot hhost il
    eandbenev olentsexi stattit
    udessi multaneousl y.

    Howev ernomat tertheform,sexi


    sm hasov erallnegati
    veconsequencesandr esultsin
    stereotyping women,and ev en prej
    udiceand di scri
    minati
    on.TheUni t
    ed Statesof
    Amer icaandot herdev el
    opedcount ri
    eshav ecomeal ongwayi ntryi
    ngt oeliminate
    discri
    mi nationagainstwomenbutt hereisst il
    lar oom forimpr ovement.Genderas
    ment i
    onedabov er esult
    sf r
    om socio-cul
    turalinfluences.Researchandt heor
    yder ived
    from soci alpsychologycouldbeabl et odev elopappr opri
    ateinterv
    entionsthatcoul d
    targetav astr
    angeofi ndivi
    dualsandi nst i
    tutionsi norderto promot eequal it
    yof
    gender sandel i
    minat egenderdi
    scri
    mi nati
    ons.

    Soci
    alI
    nter
    act
    ion

    Gender edrolesi nhet erosexualmar ri


    agesar elearnedt hroughi mitati
    on.Peopl elearn
    whatsoci etyv iewsasappr opriategenderbehav iorsf rom imi tati
    ngt herepetit
    ionof
    actionsbyone’ sr ol
    e-modelorpar entoft hesamebi ol
    ogicalsex.I mitati
    oni nt he
    phy si
    calwor ldt hati mpact sone’ sgender edr olesof tencomesf rom role-model i
    ng
    parent s,peer s,t eachers,and ot hersi gnifi
    cantf i
    gur esi n one’sl i
    fe.In amar ri
    age,
    oftentimeseachper son’sgender edr olesar edet ermi nedbyt heirparents.Ifthewi fe
    grew upi mitatingt heact i
    onsoft r
    aditionalpar ents,andt hehusbandnon- tr
    aditi
    onal
    parent s,theirv i
    ewsonmar i
    talroleswoul dbedi fferent.Onewaypeopl ecanacqui re
    thesest er
    eot ypicalrolesthroughar ewar dandpuni shmentsy stem.Whenal i
    ttl
    egi rl
    i
    mi tateshermot herbyper formingt hetraditionaldomest icdutiesshei softenrewar ded
    bybei ngt oldshei sdoingagoodj ob.Nont raditi
    onal l
    y,ifal i
    tt
    leboywasper f
    ormingt he

    38|Page
    samet askshewoul
    dmoreli
    kel
    ybepuni
    shedduetoact
    ingf
    emi ni
    ne.Becausesoci
    ety
    hol
    dstheseexpect
    edrol
    esf
    ormenandwomenwi t
    hinamarr
    iage,i
    tcreat
    esamol dfor
    chi
    ldr
    ent ofol
    l
    ow.

    Soci
    etyconst
    ruct
    sourgenderandcat
    egor
    izes

    Societ yconst ruct sourgenderandcat egor izesi t


    smember ssi mi l
    arasi tdoeswi thage,
    ethnicity,race, socialcl assandst at us.Howev erthecat egor izat i
    onaccor dingt ogender
    i
    sanot herwayofmani pulat
    ingmember sofasoci et
    yandt opr omot ei nequal i
    ti
    es.Ther e
    areobv i
    ousbi ol ogi
    calandant hropol ogicaldi ff
    erencesbet weent het wosexesbutwe
    cannotuset hesedi fferencest oi nf erconcl usionsandpr ov i
    dest ereot y
    pedmodel s
    aboutgender .Asment i
    onedint hebegi nni ngsexi sm ist het ermt hataccount sfor
    genderdi scrimi nationand hasdi fferentf or ms.Oneoft hem al readyment ioned is
    benev olentsexi sm char acter
    ized by posi ti
    ve butst ereot yped v iews ofwomen.
    Cont rari
    ly anot her f orm i s host ile sexi sm whi ch is char acter i
    zed by negat i
    ve
    stereot y
    picalv iewst owar dswomen.Fori nst ancehost ilesexi sm v iewsofwomenar e
    center edonbel iefsthatwomenar ei nferiort omenduet osuper ficial viewst hatonecan
    holdagai nwomen.Last lyanotherf orm ofsex i
    sm i sambi v alentsexi sm whi chhol ds
    vi
    ewsofbot hhost il
    eand benev ol entsexi stat ti
    tudessi mul taneousl y.Howev erno
    mat terthef orm,sexi sm hasov erallnegat iveconsequencesandr esul tsinst ereot y
    ping
    women, andev enpr ejudiceanddi scr i
    mi nat ion.TheUni tedSt atesofAmer i
    caandot her
    developedcount ri
    eshav ecomeal ongwayi nt ryingt oeliminat edi scr iminat i
    onagai nst
    womenbutt her ei sst i
    llar oom fori mpr ov ement .Genderasment ionedabov er esul
    ts
    fr
    om soci o-cult uralinfluences.Resear chandt heor yder ivedf rom soci alpsy chology
    couldbeabl et odev elopappr opriat eint erv enti
    onst hatcoul dt ar getav astr angeof
    i
    ndi vi
    dual sandi nstit
    ut i
    onsi nordert opr omot eequal ityofgender sandel i
    mi nategender
    discriminat i
    ons.

    Theor
    iesofSoci
    alConst
    ruct
    ionofGender

    Somet heori
    eswhichar
    ecoll
    ect
    ivel
    ytermedsocialconst
    ruct
    iont
    heor
    iescl
    aimt
    hat
    genderbehavi
    ori
    smostl
    yduet
    osocialconv
    ent
    ions.

    Mostchi ldrenlearntocategor i
    zethemsel vesbygenderbyt heageoft hree.From bi rth,
    childr
    enl earngenderst ereotypesandr ol
    esf r
    om t hei
    rpar entsandenv ir
    onment .Ina
    tradit
    ionalv i
    ew,mal es l
    earnt o mani pulatet hei
    rphy si
    caland soci alenv i
    ronment
    throughphy sicalstr
    engthordext eri
    ty,whil
    egirlslearnt
    opr esentt hemselvesasobj ects
    to be v iewed.Soci alconst ructi
    onists clai
    m f orexampl et hatgender -segregat ed
    childr
    en'sactivit
    iescreat
    et heappear ancethatgenderdifferencesi nbehav i
    orreflectan
    essent i
    alnatureofmal eandf emalebehav ior.

    1.GenderRol
    eTheor
    y

    39|Page
    "Treatsthesediff
    eri
    ngdistri
    buti
    onsofwomenandmeni nt
    orol
    esast hepri
    mar yori
    gin
    of sex-diff
    erent
    iat
    ed socialbehav i
    or,t
    hei
    ri mpacton behav i
    or is mediated by
    psy chol
    ogicalandsocialprocesses.
    "Accor
    dingtoGilber
    tHerdt,genderr
    olesar ose
    from correspondentinf
    erence,meaningt
    hatgener
    allabourdi
    visi
    onwasext endedt o
    genderroles.

    Social
    ly const
    ruct
    ed gender rol
    es are consi
    dered to be hier
    archical
    ,and ar e
    charact
    eri
    zedasamal e-
    advant
    agedgenderhierar
    chybysocialconstructi
    oni
    sts.The
    ter
    m patri
    archy
    ,accordi
    ngtoresear
    cherAndrewCherli
    n,defi
    nes"asocialorderbased
    onthedomi nat
    ionofwomenbymen, especi
    all
    yinagri
    cul
    tur
    alsoci
    eti
    es".

    Accor
    dingtoEagly,theconsequencesofgenderr
    olesandstereoty
    pesaresex-
    typed
    soci
    albehavi
    orbecauser ol
    esandst er
    eot
    ypesarebothsociall
    yshareddescr
    ipti
    ve
    normsandprescr
    ipti
    venorms

    Judi
    thButlerinworkssuchasGenderTroubleandUndoingGender,
    contendsthatbeing
    femal
    eisnot" nat
    ural
    "andthati
    tappearsnaturalonl
    ythr
    oughrepeat
    edper f
    ormances
    ofgender;theseperformancesi
    nturn,r
    eproduceanddefinethetr
    adi
    tionalcategor
    ies
    ofsexand/orgender .

    2.Funct
    ional
    istAppr
    oachTal
    cot
    tPar
    sons'
    View

    Thef uncti
    onal
    istper spect i
    veofgenderi nequali
    tywasmostr obustlyarti
    cul
    atedint he
    1940sand1950s, andl argelydevelopedbyTal cottParsons'model ofthenuclearfami l
    y.
    Thist heor
    ysuggest st hatgenderi nequali
    ti
    esexi stasanef fi
    cientwayt ocr eatea
    divi
    sion oflabor,orasa soci alsy stem in which parti
    cularsegment sar e clearl
    y
    responsibl
    eforcertain,respectiveact soflabor.Thedivi
    sionoflaborwor kstomaxi mize
    resourcesandeffi
    ciency .Astructuralfuncti
    onali
    stv i
    ewofgenderi nequali
    tyappli
    est he
    divi
    sionoflabortov i
    ewpr edefi
    nedgenderr olesascompl ement ary:woment akecar e
    ofthehomewhi l
    emenpr ovi
    defort hef amil
    y.Thusgender ,l
    i
    keot hersociali
    nsti
    tutions,
    contri
    butestothest abili
    tyofsocietyasawhol e.

    Thisv i
    ew hasbeencr iti
    cizedforr ei
    fyi
    ng,ratherthanrefl
    ecti
    ng,genderr ol
    es.Whi le
    genderr ol
    es,accordi
    ngt ot hef unct
    ionali
    stperspecti
    ve,arebenef i
    cialinthatt hey
    contr
    ibutetostablesocialrelat
    ions,manyar guethatgenderr ol
    esar ediscr
    iminatory
    andshoul dnotbeupheld.Thef emi ni
    stmov ement,whichwasont heriseatthesame
    ti
    met hatfunct
    ional
    ism begant odecli
    ne,takesthepositi
    onthatfunct
    ionali
    sm neglects
    thesuppressi
    onofwomenwi t
    hinthefamilystr
    ucture.

    40|Page
    3.Femi
    nineandMascul
    i
    neCul
    tur
    eGeer
    tHof
    stede'
    svi
    ews

    Dutchresearcherandsoci al
    psychologistwhodedi catedhimselftot
    hestudyofculture,
    seescult
    ureas" br
    oadpat ter
    nsoft hi
    nking,feel
    ingandact i
    ng"inasociet
    yI nHofst
    ede’s
    vi
    ew,mascul i
    nityandf emini
    nit
    ydi ff
    erint hesocialrolesthatareassociatedwit
    ht he
    biol
    ogi
    calfactoftheexi st
    enceoft hetwosexes:mascul i
    nit
    yandf emini
    nit
    yr ef
    ert
    ot he
    dominantsexr ol
    epatterninthev astmaj ori
    tyofbotht r
    adit
    ionalandmoder nsoci
    eties,
    malesbeingmor eassertiv
    eandf emalesmor enurt
    uring.

    Femini
    nit
    y:"
    Femi
    nini
    tyst
    andsforasoci
    etyi
    nwhi chsoci
    algenderrol
    esover
    lap:Both
    menandwomenar esupposedtobemodest
    ,tender
    ,andconcernedwit
    hthequali
    tyof
    l
    ife.
    "

    Mascul
    ini
    ty:"
    Mascul
    ini
    tyst
    andsforasociet
    yinwhi chsoci
    algenderr
    olesareclearly
    di
    sti
    nct
    :Menar esupposedtobeasser
    ti
    ve,tough,andfocusedonmat er
    ialsuccess;
    womenaresupposedtobemoremodest
    ,tender,
    andconcernedwit
    hthequali
    tyofli
    fe."

    Infemi ni
    necultures,modestyandrelati
    onsar eimpor
    tantchar
    acteri
    stics.Thi
    sdi
    ff
    ers
    fr
    om i nmascul i
    necultur
    es,wher eself-
    enhancementleadstoself
    -esteem.Masculi
    ne
    cultur
    esar eindiv
    idual
    ist
    ic,andfemininecultur
    esaremor ecoll
    ecti
    vebecauseoft he
    signif
    icanceofpersonalr
    elati
    onshi
    ps.

    '
    The domi
    nantvalues i
    n a masculi
    ne soci
    ety ar
    e achiev
    ementand success;t
    he
    domi
    nantv
    aluesi
    naf emini
    nesoci
    etyarecari
    ngforother
    sandqual
    i
    tyofl
    i
    fe'

    5.But
    ler
    'sGenderPer
    for
    mat
    ivi
    ty

    Socialconst r
    uct iv
    istsproposet hatther ei snoi nher
    enttruthtogender;i
    tisconst r
    ucted
    bysoci alexpect ati
    onsandgenderper formance.But ler'
    smostknownwor ki sGender
    Trouble:Femi nism andt heSubv ersi
    onofI dentit
    y,publi
    shedin1991,whi char guesfor
    gender per f
    or mat i
    vit
    y.The r epet i
    tious per formances of " male"and " femal e"in
    accordancewi thsoci alnor msr ei
    fiest hecat egori
    es,creati
    ngt heappear anceofa
    natural
    izedandessent ialbinary
    .Genderi snev erastabledescri
    ptorofanindividual,
    but
    an indivi
    duali s al ways" doing"gender ,perf or
    ming ordev i
    ati
    ng fr
    om t he sociall
    y
    accepted perf ormance ofgenderst ereotypes.These per formances normal i
    ze the
    essential
    ism ofgendercat egori
    es.

    7.Doi
    ngGenderZi
    mmer
    man'
    stheor
    y

    Anotherper specti
    ve on gendersocial
    izat
    ion i
    si nfl
    uenced by Zi
    mmer man.This
    per
    specti
    ve,genderi sunder
    stoodascreatedandmai nt
    ainedwhil
    eact
    orsassumeand
    pl
    ayoutrolesi nsociet
    y.Her
    e,emphasi
    sisplacedont hefactt
    hatmanyrol
    esandtasks
    i
    nsoci et
    yt endt obegender ed.Doi
    ngy ardwork,cookinginthekit
    chen,cari
    ngfor

    41|Page
    chil
    dren,wor ki
    ngonapr esentationforone’
    sboss—activi
    tiessuchast heseoftencarry
    somef orm ofgenderedmeani ng, bot
    hforactorsper
    formingtheset asksandf orothers
    observingt hem.Whenact orsf ulf
    ilt
    heexpectati
    onsandscr iptsforthese“ gendered”
    tasks t hey are actual
    ly“ doi
    ng gender ”
    .Gendert hus i s somet hi
    ng created and
    mai nt
    ainedi npract
    ice;doingat askassoci
    atedwi t
    haspeci fi
    cgendercr eat esand
    perpetuat esmeaningsthatdefinewhoonei sandwhati tmeanst obeamanorwoman,
    ormascul ineorfemi
    nine.

    WestandZi mmer mandev elopedani nteracti


    onistperspecti
    veongenderbey ondits
    constructionas"roles.
    "Forthem,genderi s" t
    hepr oductofsocialdoingsofsomesor t
    undertakenbymenandwomenwhosecompet enceasmember sofsoci et
    yishost age
    toitspr oducti
    on".Theyar guet hattheuseof" rol
    e"todescr i
    begenderexpect at
    ions
    concealst heproduct i
    onofgendert hr oughev erydayactivi
    ti
    es.Furthermore,rolesare
    sit
    uatedi denti
    ti
    es,suchas" nurse"and" student,
    "developedast hesituati
    ondemands
    whilegenderi samast eri
    denti
    tywi thnospeci fi
    csiteoror ganizati
    onalcontext.For
    them," conceptual
    izinggenderasar olemakesi tdiff
    icul
    ttoassessi t
    sinfluenceon
    otherr oles and reduces it
    s explanat oryusef ul
    ness in di
    scussions ofpowerand
    i
    nequal i
    ty".

    Westand Zimmer man consi


    dergenderan indivi
    dualproduct
    ion t
    hatr
    efl
    ect
    s and
    const
    ruct
    sint
    eract
    ional
    andinsti
    tut
    ional
    genderexpect
    ati
    ons.

    8.GenderSchemaTheor
    ybySandr
    aBem

    Def
    ini
    ti
    on:

    Genderschemat heoryr
    efer
    stot hetheorythatchi
    ldr
    enlearnaboutwhati tmeansto
    bemaleandfemalefrom t
    heculturei
    nwhi chtheyl
    iv
    e.Accordi
    ngtothi
    st heory,
    chi
    ldr
    en
    adj
    ustt
    heirbehav
    iortofi
    tinwit
    ht hegendernormsandexpectati
    onsoftheircul
    tur
    e.

    How do chi
    l
    dren l
    ear
    n genderdif
    ferences? Ar
    et hese char
    act
    eri
    sti
    cs bi
    ologi
    cal
    l
    y
    pr
    ogr
    ammedordoessociet
    yexertagreateri
    nfl
    uence?

    Genderschemat heor
    ysuggest sthatcul t
    uralinfluenceslargel
    yi nf
    luencehowchi ldren
    developtheiri
    deasaboutwhati tmeanst obeamanorwoman.Thet heorywasf i
    rst
    i
    ntroduced duri
    ng the earl
    y1980sbypsy chologistSandr a Bem.Bem’ st heor
    ywas
    i
    nfluencedbyt hecogniti
    ver evoluti
    onoft he1960sand1970sandbyherdesi ret o
    remedywhatshev i
    ewedast heshor tcomi ngsoft hepsychoanaly t
    ic,developmental
    ,
    andsociallear
    ningtheori
    es.Freudiantheories,shesuggest ed,wer etoof ocusedont he
    i
    nfluenceofanatomyongenderdev el
    opment .I
    nst ead,sheproposed, achil
    d’scognit
    ive
    developmentcombi nedwithsoci etali
    nfluenceswaswhatl edtot hedev elopmentof
    genderschema.

    42|Page
    Cul
    tur
    alI
    nfl
    uencesonGenderSchema

    Bem suggest
    edt hatchil
    drenf
    rom thei
    rgenderident
    it
    iesf
    rom theassoci
    ati
    onsthey
    devel
    opfrom thei
    rcultur
    e.Soci
    ety'
    sbeli
    efsaboutwhatconsti
    tutes"
    maletrai
    ts"and
    "f
    emaletr
    ait
    s"infl
    uencethi
    sdevel
    opmentofagenderschema.

    Thesegenderschemast henhav eani mpactnotonl yonhow peopl epr ocesssoci al


    i
    nf ormat i
    on,butalso on theiratt
    itudes,bel
    iefs,and behav iors.Peopl e engage i n
    behav iorsthatare consist
    entwi t
    ht heirschema forgenderappr opriate behav ior.
    Accor dingtoBem, i
    ndivi
    dualsobserv
    et hepeopleandculturear oundt hem, learni
    ngt he
    variousassociati
    onswithmasculini
    tyandf emini
    nit
    y.Thisincludesnotj ustt hephy sical
    differ
    encesbet weenmenandwomen,butal sothesocietalrolest hatmenandwomen
    take,thechar act
    eri
    sti
    csofeachgender ,andhow societ
    yt reatseachgender .Cultural
    i
    nf l
    uencest hatcanhaveanef f
    ectongenderschemasi ncludepeer s,school s,parenting,
    andt hemedi a.

    8.SexRol
    eTheor
    y

    Thisisthetheorythatboysandgirl
    sexperi
    enceapassi ve,sponge-
    li
    keabsorpt
    ionof
    messages,fr
    om model sofmascul
    ini
    tyandfeminini
    ty,
    whichismediatedt
    hroughsocial
    i
    nstit
    uti
    onssuchast hefami
    lyandschools.Behav i
    oursandidenti
    ti
    esareseent obe
    consist
    entandpr obl
    emsar edescri
    bedasapr oductofatti
    tudespassi
    velyacquir
    ed
    thr
    oughsocial
    izat
    ion.

    Social
    izat
    iontheor
    yact ual
    lyreinfor
    cesideasaboutdi
    ffer
    encebasedonbiol
    ogy.Sex
    rol
    et heoryisprobl
    emat i
    ci nt hesamewayt hatwedon’ttal
    kaboutessent
    ialand
    i
    mmut abl
    eraceorclassdif
    ferencesorracerol
    esorcl
    assrol
    esbecauset
    heexerci
    seof
    poweri nt
    heseareasofsocialli
    feismoreobv i
    ous.

    9.Er
    ikson’
    spsy
    chosoci
    alt
    heor
    yofsoci
    aldev
    elopment

    Eri
    kson’ spsychosocialtheoryofdev el
    opmentconsi der
    st heimpactofext ernalfactors,
    parents and soci ety on per sonali
    ty dev elopmentf rom chi ldhood to adulthood.
    Accor ding t
    o Erikson’st heor
    y,ev eryper son mustpasst hrough a seri
    esofei ght
    i
    nterrelatedstagesov ert heenti
    relif
    ecy cl
    e.Dur ingthef i
    rstorsecondy earofl i
    fe,the
    majoremphasi si sont hemot herandf at her’
    snurtur
    ingabi l
    ityandcar ef orachi ld,
    especi all
    yintermsofv isualcontactandt ouch.Thesecondst ageoccur sbetween18
    mont hsand3y ears.Att hispoi
    nt,thechildhasanoppor tunit
    yt obuil
    dself-
    esteem and
    autonomyasheorshel ear nsnewski l
    lsandr ightfr
    om wr ong.

    Duri
    ngt hi
    sper i
    odweexper ienceadesiretocopytheadult
    sar oundusandt ake
    i
    niti
    ati
    veincreat
    ingplaysi
    tuati
    ons.Dur
    ingthi
    sst
    age,oft
    encal
    ledtheLat
    ency,weare
    capabl
    eofl ear
    ning,cr
    eati
    ngandaccompl i
    shi
    ngnumerousnew ski
    ll
    sandknowledge,

    43|Page
    thusdev el
    opingasenseofi ndustr
    y.Thisisalsoaverysocialstageofdev el
    opmentand
    i
    fweexper i
    enceunr esolvedfeeli
    ngsofinadequacyandi nfer
    iorit
    yamongourpeer s,we
    canhav eser i
    ouspr oblemsi nter
    msofcompet enceandsel f-
    esteem.Upunt ilthi
    sfift
    h
    stage,developmentdependsonwhati sdonet oaper son.Att hispoint
    ,development
    now dependspr imar i
    l
    yuponwhataper sondoes.Anadol escentmustst ruggleto
    discoverandf indhisorherowni denti
    ty,whil
    enegoti
    atingandst r
    uggli
    ngwi thsocial
    i
    nt er
    acti
    onsand“ fit
    tingin”,
    anddev elopi
    ngasenseofmor ali
    tyandr i
    ghtfr
    om wr ong.

    Atthey oungadul tstage,peopletendt oseekcompanionshi


    pandlove.Someal sobegi
    n
    to“settl
    edown”andst artf
    ami l
    i
    es, al
    thoughseemstohav ebeenpushedbackf art
    heri
    n
    recenty ears.Young adul tsseekdeep i nt
    imacyand sati
    sfyi
    ng r
    elati
    onships,butif
    unsuccessf ul
    ,isolation mayoccur .Signi
    fi
    cantrel
    ati
    onshi
    psatt hisst age ar
    e wit
    h
    mar i
    talpartnersandf ri
    ends.Car eerandwor karethemosti mportantthingsatthi
    s
    stage,alongwi thf amily
    .Mi ddl
    eadul thoodisalsothetimewhenpeopl ecant akeon
    greaterresponsibil
    i
    t i
    esandcont rol.
    Fort hisst age,wor ki
    ng to establi
    sh st abi
    li
    tyand Er ikson’sidea ofgenerati
    vel
    y–
    att
    empt i
    ngt opr oducesomet hi
    ngt hatmakesadi fferencet osoci
    ety.Inact
    ivi
    tyand
    meani nglessnessar ecommonf earsduringthisstage.Maj orli
    feshi
    ft
    scanoccurdur i
    ng
    thi
    sst age.Forexampl e,chi
    ldrenleavet hehousehol d,careerscanchange,andsoon.
    Somemayst r
    ugglewi thfi
    ndingpur pose.Signif
    icantrelati
    onshipsarethosewithi
    nthe
    family,wor kpl
    ace,localchurchandot hercommuni t
    ies.Eriksonbeli
    evedthatmuchof
    l
    ifei spr epari
    ngf ort hemi ddleadul t
    hoodst ageandt hel astst
    agei nvol
    vesmuch
    ref
    lection.Asol deradul t
    s,somecanl ookbackwi thaf eeli
    ngofintegri
    ty— thatis,
    content mentandf ul
    fi
    llment
    ,hav i
    ngl edameani ngfulli
    f eandv al
    uablecontri
    buti
    onto
    society.

    Concl
    usi
    on

    Thewaysoci etyi staughttobesoci ali


    zedissal ientandgoesunnot iced,thereforeitis
    vali
    dt o claim thatgenderi ssoci all
    yconst ructed t hr
    ough ourev ery
    daypr acti
    ces,
    whetherwear eawar eoft heconst ructi
    onornot .Wi thsoci alizationbegi nningt he
    i
    nstantachi l
    di sbor n,theprocessi scont i
    nuoust hroughoutadol escenceandv aries
    dramati
    callyacr osst het wogenders.Wi t
    hgui dancef r
    om i nstit
    ut i
    onsandar enassuch
    aseducat ion,spor ts,musicandt hemassmedi agenderseemst obecoer ced,asi t
    comeswi thascr i
    ptedsetofbehav i
    or sandat t
    itudes.Thei ssuesoci etyfacesnowcan
    berecognizedt hr oughpeoplewhocl earlydon’tfitthedef i
    ni t
    ion, whichinf actaccount s
    formanypeopl e.I nasensepeopl ear eliv
    ingi nawor ldtheysi mplydon’ tfitinto,t
    hey
    aremar ginali
    zed,andbecauseoft hesenar row def i
    niti
    onsi tseemsr i
    ghtt hatthey
    shouldbe.Toal tersoci eti
    esvi
    ewschangesmustbemadeandt hesoci alconstructi
    ons
    ofgendert hatt akepl aceonadai lybasismusti ncludeal ternativest othei doli
    zed
    hegemoni cmal eandf emale.

    44|Page
    QueerTheor
    y

    Def
    ini
    ti
    onofQueerTheor
    y:

    “
    Anappr
    oacht
    oli
    ter
    aryandcul
    tur
    alst
    udyt
    hatr
    eject
    str
    adi
    ti
    onalcat
    egor
    iesofgender
    andsexual
    i
    ty”

    Queert
    heor
    yisasetofi
    deasbasedar
    oundt
    hei
    deat
    hati
    dent
    it
    iesar
    enotf
    ixedanddo
    notdet
    ermi
    newhowear
    e.I
    tsuggest
    sthati
    tismeani
    ngl
    esst
    otal
    kingener
    alabout
    '
    women'oranyot
    hergr
    oup,asi
    dent
    it
    iesconsi
    stofsomanyel
    ement
    sthatt
    oassume
    t
    hatpeopl
    ecanbeseencol
    l
    ect
    ivel
    yont
    hebasi
    sofoneshar
    edchar
    act
    eri
    sti
    ciswr
    ong.
    I
    ndeed,i
    tpr
    oposest
    hatwedel
    i
    ber
    atel
    ychal
    l
    engeal
    lnot
    ionsoff
    ixedi
    dent
    it
    y,i
    nvar
    ied
    andnon-
    predi
    ctabl
    eway
    s.

    QueerTheor
    yor
    igi
    nat
    edi
    n Judi
    thBut
    ler
    ' GenderTr
    s1990book  oubl
    e andwasf
    ir
    st
    descr
    ibedwi
    tht
    het
    ermi
    nCase(
    1971)
    .Thei
    mmedi
    ateef
    fectofQueerTheor
    yist
    o
    dest
    abi
    l
    izeal
    lot
    hernot
    ionsofgenderandsexual
    i
    ty.Ev
    env
    ari
    ousf
    ormswhi
    char
    e
    commonl
    yseenasper
    ver
    sionmaybef
    ramedast
    empor
    arydest
    inat
    ions.

    But
    lerwas i
    nfl
    uenced by
     Mi
    chelFoucaul
    t,who ar
    gued t
    hathomosexual
    i
    ty was
    a 
    subj
    ect
     posi
    ti
    onwi
    thi
    ncul
    tur
    e,r
    athert
    hanaper
    sonal
    i
    tyt
    ypeperse.Hear
    guedt
    hat
    t
    hisposi
    ti
    ondev
    elopedwi
    thi
    n19t
    hcent
    urypsy
    chol
    ogi
    cal
    sci
    ences.

    Tounder
    standqueert
    heor
    y,onemustf
    ir
    stunder
    standwhati
    smeantbyqueerand

    45|Page
    bi
    sexual
    .Eachoft
    heset
    ermsdenot
    esahi
    stor
    ythati
    satoncepol
    i
    ticalandacademi
    c.
    Fur
    ther
    ,bot
    hwor
    dsar
    edi
    ff
    icul
    ttopi
    ndownasbot
    hlacksi
    ngul
    arorsi
    mpl
    edef
    ini
    ti
    on.

    Queercanbe,andi
    s,usedi
    nmul
    ti
    pledi
    ff
    erentway
    s,i
    nacademi
    aandi
    nWest
    ern
    cul
    tur
    e.Mostobv
    iousl
    y,i
    tcan be used as a der
    ogat
    ory noun oradj
    ect
    ivef
    or
    homosexual
    i
    tyoref
    femi
    nacy
    .Rel
    atedl
    y,i
    tcanal
    sobeusedt
    odescr
    ibesomet
    hingt
    hat
    i
    ssomehow outoft
    heor
    dinar
    yornotqui
    ter
    ight
    .Int
    hel
    ate1980sandear
    ly1990s,
    queerwas“
    takenback”byact
    ivi
    stsconcer
    nedwi
    thgenderandsexualf
    reedom and
    becameawor
    dthatdescr
    ibedapar
    ti
    cul
    art
    ypeofpol
    i
    tics.Gr
    oupsl
    i
    keQueerNat
    ion
    pr
    act
    iceda“
    pol
    i
    ticsofpr
    ovocat
    ion,onei
    nwhi
    cht
    hel
    i
    mit
    sofl
    i
    ber
    alt
    oler
    ance[
    wer
    e]
    const
    ant
    lypushed”

    But
    leri
    soneoft
    hemosti
    mpor
    tantf
    igur
    esi
    nqueert
    heor
    y.Queert
    heor
    yemer
    gedf
    rom
    gay
    /lesbi
    anst
    udi
    es,
    whi
    chi
    ntur
    nemer
    gedf
    rom genderst
    udi
    es,
    int
    he1980s.Unt
    ilt
    he
    1980s,t
    het
    erm“
    queer
    ”hadader
    ogat
    ory connot
    ati
    on,meani
    ng“
    odd”or“
    pecul
    i
    ar”or
    “
    outoft
    heor
    dinar
    y.”Howev
    er,queert
    heor
    ist
    s,i
    ncl
    udi
    ngBut
    ler
    ,appr
    opr
    iat
    edt
    hist
    erm,
    i
    nsi
    sti
    ng t
    hatal
    lsexualbehav
    ior
    s,al
    lconcept
    sli
    nki
    ng sexualbehav
    ior
    sto sexual
    i
    dent
    it
    ies,andal
    lcat
    egor
    iesofnor
    mat
    iveanddev
    iantsexual
    i
    tiesar
    esoci
    alconst
    ruct
    s,
    whi
    chcr
    eat
    ecer
    tai
    nty
    pesofsoci
    almeani
    ng.

    I
    n shor
    t,“
    sexi
    s a nor
    m”.Thus,t
    he under
    gir
    ding emphasi
    sin al
    lthese pr
    oject
    s
    (
    gay
    /lesbi
    an,queer
    ,femi
    nist
    )ist
    hatt
    hecat
    egor
    iesofnor
    mat
    iveanddev
    iantsexual
    behav
    iorar
    enotbi
    ologi
    cal
    l
    ybutr
    athersoci
    all
    yconst
    ruct
    ed.I
    ncont
    rastt
    othosewho
    seesexual
    i
    tyasbi
    ologi
    calandgenderasasoci
    alconst
    ruct
    ion,But
    lerseessexasno
    mor
    eanat
    uralcat
    egor
    ythangender
    .Sheconcept
    ual
    i
    zesgendernor
    msasst
    ruct
    uri
    ng
    bi
    ologyandnott
    her
    ever
    se,
    whi
    chi
    nfor
    mst
    hemor
    econv
    ent
    ional
    view.

    But
    lerdoesnotdenycer
    tai
    nki
    ndsofbi
    ologi
    caldi
    ff
    erences,
    butsheseekst
    oexpl
    aint
    he
    di
    scur
    siv
    e and i
    nst
    it
    uti
    onalcondi
    ti
    ons under whi
    ch cer
    tai
    n ar
    bit
    rar
    y bi
    ologi
    cal
    di
    ff
    erencesbecomesal
    i
    entchar
    act
    eri
    sti
    csofsex.Sheemphasi
    zest
    hatsexual
    i
    tyi
    sa
    compl
    exar
    rayofi
    ndi
    vi
    dualact
    ivi
    tyandi
    nst
    it
    uti
    onalpower
    ,ofsoci
    alcodesandf
    orces,
    whi
    chi
    nter
    act t
    oshapet
    hei
    deasofwhati
    snor
    mat
    iveandwhati
    sdev
    iantatany
    par
    ti
    cul
    armoment
    ,andwhi
    cht
    henr
    esul
    tincat
    egor
    iesast
    o“nat
    ural
    ,
    ”“essent
    ial
    ,
    ”

    46|Page
    “
    biol
    ogi
    cal
    ,
    ”or“
    god-
    giv
    en.
    ”

    Sheseekst
    oshowhowanor
    m canact
    ual
    l
    ymat
    eri
    ali
    zeabody
    —thati
    s,howt
    hebodyi
    s
    notonl
    yinv
    est
    edwi
    thanor
    m,butal
    soi
    nsomesenseani
    mat
    edbyanor
    m orcont
    our
    ed
    byanor
    m.Speci
    fi
    cal
    l
    y,But
    lerdescr
    ibesahet
    erosexualmat
    ri
    xinwhi
    ch“
    propermen”
    and“
    properwomen”ar
    eident
    if
    iedashet
    erosexual
    .

    Sheshowst
    hatt
    heessent
    ialuni
    tybet
    weenbi
    ologi
    calsex,genderi
    dent
    if
    icat
    ion,and
    het
    erosexual
    i
    tyi
    snotdi
    ctat
    edbynat
    ure;i
    ndeed,t
    hisuni
    tyi
    sani
    l
    lusi
    onmedi
    ated
    t
    hrough cul
    tur
    alsy
    stems ofmeani
    ng t
    hatunder
    li
    e ourunder
    standi
    ng ofmat
    eri
    al,
    anat
    omi
    caldi
    ff
    erences.Accor
    dingt
    oBut
    ler
    ,het
    erosexualnor
    mat
    ivi
    ty“
    oughtnott
    o
    or
    dergender
    ”.The subv
    ersi
    on ofgenderper
    for
    mances (
    e.g.
    ,dr
    ag per
    for
    mances)
    i
    ndi
    cat
    es not
    hing aboutsexual
    i
    ty orsexualpr
    act
    ice.“
    Gendercan be r
    ender
    ed
    ambi
    guouswi
    thoutdi
    stur
    bingorr
    eor
    ient
    ati
    onnor
    mat
    ivesexual
    i
    tyatal
    l
    ”

    Thus,
    fori
    nst
    ance,
    But
    lerpoi
    ntsoutt
    hatdi
    scr
    imi
    nat
    ionagai
    nstgay
    sisaf
    unct
    ionnotof
    t
    hei
    rsexual
    i
    ty,butr
    atheroft
    hei
    rfai
    l
    uret
    o per
    for
    m het
    erosexualgendernor
    ms.
    Becausehet
    erosexual
    i
    tyi
    sbasedonabi
    nar
    ydi
    ff
    erencebet
    weenmal
    eandf
    emal
    e(a
    per
    soni
    sei
    theroneort
    heot
    her
    ),t
    her
    eisasoci
    all
    yconst
    ruct
    edgenderi
    nwhi
    ch
    het
    erosexual
    i
    tyi
    scent
    ral
    ,whi
    chi
    nfor
    msourunder
    standi
    ngofbi
    ology
    .Int
    erest
    ingl
    y,
    t
    hen,aki
    nto Har
    old Gar
    fi
    nkel
    ’
    s“br
    eachi
    ng”exper
    iment
    s,whi
    ch exposed t
    aken-
    for
    -
    gr
    ant
    ednor
    mat
    iveexpect
    ati
    ons,cr
    oss-
    dressi
    ng,“
    kiss-
    ins,
    ”genderpar
    odi
    es,andsoon
    canbeusedt
    otr
    ansgr
    essandr
    ebel
    agai
    nstexi
    sti
    ngsexual
    cat
    egor
    ies.

    I
    nshor
    t,queerpol
    i
    ticsseekst
    oexpl
    i
    cit
    lychal
    l
    engegendernor
    mst
    oshowt
    hei
    rlackof
    nat
    ural
    ness and i
    nev
    itabi
    l
    ity and t
    o cel
    ebr
    atet
    ransgr
    essi
    ons f
    rom t
    hem,whi
    l
    e
    post
    moder
    nqueert
    heor
    ist
    sseekt
    oupendand“
    resi
    gni
    fy”ourgenderexpect
    ati
    ons.

    Toconcl
    ude,Queert
    heor
    yfocuseson"
    mismat
    ches"bet
    weensex,genderanddesi
    re.
    Queerhasbeenassoci
    atedmostpr
    omi
    nent
    lywi
    thbi
    sexual
    ,lesbi
    anandgaysubj
    ect
    s,
    buti
    tsanal
    yti
    cfr
    amewor
    kal
    soi
    ncl
    udessucht
    opi
    csascr
    oss-
    dressi
    ng,
    int
    ersex,
    gender
    ambi
    gui
    tyandgender
    -cor
    rect
    ivesur
    ger
    y.

    Queert
    heor
    y'
    sat
    tempt
    eddebunki
    ngofst
    abl
    e(andcor
    rel
    ated)sexes,gender
    s,and

    47|Page
    sexual
    i
    tiesdev
    elopsoutoft
    hespeci
    fi
    cal
    l
    ylesbi
    anandgayr
    ewor
    kingoft
    hepost
    -
    st
    ruct
    ural
    i
    sm f
    igur
    ingofi
    dent
    it
    yasaconst
    ell
    ati
    onofmul
    ti
    pleandunst
    abl
    eposi
    ti
    ons.
    Queert
    heor
    yexami
    nest
    heconst
    it
    uti
    vedi
    scour
    sesofhomosexual
    i
    tydev
    elopedi
    nthe
    l
    astcent
    uryi
    nor
    dert
    opl
    ace"
    queer
    "ini
    tshi
    stor
    icalcont
    ext
    ,andsur
    vey
    scont
    empor
    ary
    ar
    gument
    sbot
    hforandagai
    nstt
    hisl
    atestt
    ermi
    nol
    ogy
    .

    Nat
    urev
    s.Nur
    tur
    e:aGenderDebat
    eonGenderDi
    ff
    erences

    I
    ntr
    oduct
    oryNot
    e
    A genderdi f
    fer
    encei sanongoi ngdebatewhichcont ai
    nsar gumentsthatgender
    diff
    erencesarecausedbydi f
    ferentbi
    ologi
    calorsoci
    aldiff
    er ences.Botharguments
    aref i
    ll
    edwithcont r
    oversyandhav ebeensubject
    edtodi fferenttheor
    iesthathave
    stemmedf r
    om v ari
    ousr esearcheswithanat tempttoar ticulat
    eandexpl ai
    nt he
    causesofonesgenderandhowt hei
    rdif
    fer
    encesmanifestintoei t
    herdi
    ffer
    entsocial
    realms,orsci
    enti
    ficbiol
    ogicalr
    ealms.

    Asi tst andst oday ,genderi nourcur rentsoci etyi sratherambi guous;howev er,
    di
    f f
    erentf actorspertai
    ningt odiff
    erentresearchdi scoveri
    es,involvi
    ngneur oscience
    studies,ev olut
    ionarypsychology,sociallear
    ningt heory,andot herbiologicalfactors
    haveat tri
    but edt othenot i
    ont hatgenderdev elopmenti sinfactcl oselyrelatedt o
    bi
    ologicalf actors.Thisdev el
    opmenti sal socloselyassoci at
    edwi t
    hhet erosexual s,
    butal sopr ovi
    desapl ausibl
    er elat
    iont ogenderr oleswi thhomosexual sduet o
    containingast rongli
    nkt onotonl ytheirsexualpr efer
    ence,butal sot hei
    rbi ol
    ogi cal
    genderr oles.

    Nat
    ureandi
    tsRol
    e

    Nat
    ure,or,i
    notherwor ds,
    heredi
    ty,
    ref
    erst
    ot r
    ait
    sthatareinher
    it
    edorgeneti
    c.I
    t'
    sa
    f
    actthatmostoft heaspectsofhumandev el
    opmentar eini
    ti
    all
    ydri
    ven(di
    rect
    lyor
    i
    ndi
    rectl
    y)bythatperson'
    sgeneti
    cmakeup.Eyecolor,hai
    rcolor
    ,ski
    ntypeandother

    48|Page
    physi
    calcharact
    erist
    ics ar
    e deri
    ved di
    rect
    lyfrom our geneti
    c makeup.Our
    predi
    sposi
    ti
    onstorespondinpar
    ti
    cul
    arwaysaredr
    ivenbygenet
    ics.

    Researchersagreethathereditydet
    erminesphysiologicaldi
    ffer
    encesi nmal esand
    females.Someoft hesedif
    ferencesarepresentatbi r
    th,andsomedi f
    ferencesdon'
    t
    presentthemsel
    v esunti
    lthechi l
    dreachespuber t
    y.Her edit
    ycausesgi rlstoreach
    pubertyearl
    iert
    hanboy s.I
    tal socausesboy s(oncet heyhav ereachedpuber ty
    )to
    havemor emusclecomposi t
    ionandbet al
    lert
    hangi r
    lsingeneral.

    Heredi
    ty,orspecifi
    callydiff
    erenthor mones,account sforgenderdi ff
    erencesaswel l
    .
    Boysar emor ephy sical
    lyaggr essiv
    e,at raitthathasbeenl inkedtot heincr
    eased
    l
    evelsoftestoster
    onei nboy s.Researchershav ealsoarguedt hathormonesmaypl ay
    arolei
    nt hediff
    erencesobser vedi nvisual
    -spatial
    andv erbalabili
    ti
    esamongchi l
    dren.
    Asmal ldif
    ferencehasbeenf oundamongr esearcher
    sindicatingboy shavesli
    ght l
    y
    hi
    gherv i
    sual-
    spati
    al abil
    i
    tieswhi l
    egirlshaveslightl
    yhigherverbal abi
    l
    iti
    es.

    Cul
    tur
    e

    Cult
    ure,ontheotherhand,ortheenv
    ironment,refer
    stoallsoci
    oculturali
    nfluences
    aft
    erconcepti
    on.Inotherwords,
    howaper sonisr ai
    seddr
    ivesdevel
    opment .Lev elof
    att
    achment,beli
    efs,v
    aluesandhowmuchat t
    entiononeisgivenareallexampl esof
    cul
    turali
    nfl
    uences.

    Inalmosteverycultureweseepr acti
    cest hatpromotegender -speci
    ficbehavi
    ors.The
    envir
    onmentandspeci f
    icculturesf ostertheideathatbehaviorsaremor eappropri
    ate
    formal es and ot hers are mor e appr opri
    atef orfemal es.Thi nk back tot he
    i
    ntroductor
    yexampl e.Ifyoupi cturedaf emal enurseoramal econstruct
    ionmanager,
    why ?How weret hesest ereotypesf oster
    ed?Genderst ereoty pesarepreval
    entand
    perpetuat
    edbypar ents,peers,teacher sandev enthechil
    dt hemsel v
    es.

    Cul
    tur
    alI
    nfl
    uencesonGenderDi
    ff
    erences

    Par ent
    sreporttr
    eati
    ngthei
    rsonsanddaught ersdi
    ff
    erentl
    y.Specif
    ical
    ly,
    theytypicall
    y
    respondmor ef r
    equentl
    ytorequestsforhel
    pf r
    om daughters,whi
    lesonsar eusual l
    y
    encouragedt osolveprobl
    emsi ndependent
    ly.Inaddit
    ion,manypar entsencour age
    gender-ty
    picalbehavi
    orsbyofferi
    nggender-
    specif
    ictoyssuchasdol l
    sf orgi
    rlsand
    trucksforboys.

    Parentstendtohel
    pthei
    rdaught
    ersmor eandencouragesonstosolveproblemson
    thei
    rown.Themedi acanalsoinfl
    uenceandper petuategenderster
    eotypes.TV,
    mov iesandbooksoft
    enportr
    aymal efi
    guresasaggr essi
    veandinleader
    shiproles
    whileportr
    ayi
    ngfemal
    esasdomesticandobedient
    .

    49|Page
    Thebehavi
    orofpeer sisanot
    herstrongi nfl
    uenceofgenderstereotypes.Childr
    en'
    s
    pl
    aymatesandcl assmatesfrequentlyencourageadherencetot r
    aditi
    onalgender
    ster
    eoty
    pesbyrespondingmorepositivel
    ytochildr
    enwhopl ayi
    ngender -appropr
    iat
    e
    waysandmorenegat iv
    elytot
    hosewhodon' t
    .Peersmayalsoridicul
    eorav oi
    dtheir
    peerswhoenr
    ollandexceli
    ngender -
    inappropri
    atesubj
    ect
    s.

    Teacher
    salsoper petuat
    egenderdif
    fer
    ences.Theytendtogivemoreattenti
    ont
    o
    boyspart
    lybecauseboy saskmorequest
    ionsandpresentmor
    edisci
    pli
    neprobl
    ems.
    Teacher
    salsogivefeedbackmoretoboysthant
    ogirl
    s.

    GenderSoci
    ali
    zat
    ion

    Asy oung chi


    l
    drenbecomei ncreasi
    nglyawar eoft hetypicalchar
    acteri
    sti
    csand
    behavi
    orsofeachother,theybegi ntoform self
    -const
    ruct
    edschemas,referr
    edtoas
    genderschemas,aboutthetrait
    sandbehav iorsofmalesorfemales.

     Genderi
    saessential
    l
    yaproductofsoci
    ali
    sat
    ion.Ther
    efor
    e,f
    ami
    l
    yupbr
    ingi
    ng
    andsoci
    etal
    expect
    ati
    onmustpl
    ayarol
    e.

     I
    texpl
    ainswhysomepeopl
    eadoptt
    heopposi
    tegenderr
    olet
    othei
    rsex.

     I
    talsoexplai
    nscult
    uralvari
    ati
    onsingenderrol
    es.Peopl
    ewi
    l
    lrel
    yoncul
    tur
    al
    bel
    i
    efs,
    valuesandnorms.IV.Soci
    ali
    zat
    ioni
    ntoGender

     Byexpect i
    ngdif
    fer
    entbehavior
    sfrom peopl
    ebecausetheyar
    emaleorfemal
    e,
    societ
    ynudgesboysandgi r
    lsinsepar
    atedir
    ect
    ionsfr
    om anearl
    yage,andt
    his
    foundati
    oncar
    ri
    esov eri
    ntoadul
    thood.

     Parentsbegint heprocess;researcher
    shaveconcludedt hatinoursociety
    ,
    mothers unconsci
    ousl
    yr ewardt heirfemal
    e chi
    ldr
    en forbeing passi
    ve and
    dependentandthei
    rmalechildr
    enf orbei
    ngacti
    veandindependent
    .

     Cultur
    al expect ati
    ons ar e r ei
    nfor
    ced i n a power ful way by peer
    groups—indi
    vidualsofroughl
    ythesameagewhoar eli
    nkedbycommonint
    erest
    s.
    Sociologi
    stMelissaMilkieconcludedthatmalesusemediaimagest
    odiscover
    whot heyareandwhati sexpectedofthem asmales.

     Themassmedi
    arei
    nfor
    cesoci
    ety
    ’sexpect
    ati
    onsofgenderi
    nmanyway
    s:

     Adsper
    pet
    uatester
    eoty
    pesbyport
    ray
    ingmal
    esasdomi
    nantandr
    ugged,and
    f
    emal
    esassexyandsubmissi
    ve.

     Ontelevi
    si
    on,malechar act
    ersoutnumberf
    emal
    esandar
    emor
    eli
    kel
    ytobe
    por
    trayedi
    nhigher
    -st
    atusposit
    ions.

    50|Page
     Malesaremuchmor eli
    kel
    ythanfemal
    estoplayvideogames;wehav
    eno
    st
    udiesofhowt
    hesegamesaff
    ectt
    hei
    rpl
    ayer
    s’i
    deasofgender
    .

     Wearenotsimpl
    ypassiveconsumer
    sofmediai
    mages;wesel
    ectthosethatare
    si
    gni
    fi
    canttooursi
    tuat
    ionandusethem t
    ohel
    pusconstr
    uctourunder
    standing
    oft
    heworld.

    Ty
    picalmal
    eandf
    emal
    echar
    act
    eri
    sti
    cs

    Typi
    cal mal e and female char act
    eri
    sti
    cs and how we i nher
    itthem Phy sical
    char
    acteri
    sti
    csandcogni t
    iveskil
    ls.Therehasal way
    sbeenacl earunder
    standi
    ngof
    whatat y
    picalmaleandat y
    picalfemaleshouldlookl
    ike.I
    tisassumedthattheywould
    haveanumberofaccept edcharacteri
    sti
    csthatcanbeusedt oi
    denti
    fyt
    hem asmal eor
    femal
    e.

    Phy
    siol
    ogi
    call
    y,newbornhav edif
    fer
    entsexualorgans,mal
    enewbornstendtoweigh
    mor
    ethanfemalenewborns,malesaregener
    all
    ylargerandmor
    emuscularthef
    emales,
    mal
    eshavedeepervoicesthanfemalesdo;femalesareablet
    ogetpregnantwher
    eas
    mal
    escannot
    .

    Thesephy si
    calcharacter
    ist
    icscannotbear gued astheyar etheresultofsexual
    dimorphi
    sm howev ertheextenttowhi chsomesuchaswei ghtofnewbornsorsexual
    organsmakebeexpr essedi svar
    iabl
    e.Incaseswheret hesechar
    acter
    isti
    csdonot
    snuglyfi
    tintothedi
    vi
    degenderi denti
    tymaybecomesomewhatofacompl icatedi
    ssue.

    Stereotypicall
    ymal esandf emalesaresupposedt oorar et houghtt obecogniti
    vely
    di
    fferent,thattheyappr oacht asksandsituationsi ndi
    ffer
    entmanner s.Whatoccur s
    withi
    nt hehumanbr ainisinarguabl
    yresponsibleforahostofbehav i
    oralpat
    ter
    nssome
    evenasar esultofhor monalsecreti
    ons.Amongt hesedifferencessomehav ebeen
    provenandmedi call
    yexplainedbutot her
    sar est i
    llupfordebat e.Somer esearchers
    fr
    om Nor t
    hwest ernUniversi
    tyshowedi ntheirstudythatyoungboy sandgi r
    lsutil
    ize
    di
    fferentpartsoft hebrainwhenper f
    orminglanguager el
    atedtasks.

    Newbor ngir
    lsdispl
    aykeenersensi
    tiv
    itytosoundsandt
    ouchandodorst
    hannewborn
    boys.Newborngi r
    lsar
    eshowmor ewi l
    li
    ngnesstocommuni
    cateandhol
    deyecont
    act
    forl
    ongerper
    iodsthannewbornboy s.

    Atappr oximatel
    yfourmont hsol dfemalebabiesr ecognit
    ionsofpeopleandpl acesin
    photographs and pi ctures whereas mal e babi es cannot. The mal e br ain i
    s
    approximately10% largerthant hebrainoff emales,howev er
    ,afterapply
    ingabody
    masst oheadsi zerati
    oort hebodyt oweightratio,t
    hef emalebrai
    nisactuall
    ygr eat
    er.
    Overthey ears,t
    herehavebeenmanyr epor
    tsindicati
    ngacor rel
    ati
    onbetweenbr ainsi
    ze
    andintell
    igencesuggestingthathumanmal ebrainswer esuperi
    ortofemalebrains.

    51|Page
    Looking atsome basi
    cf unct
    ions and al
    so i
    ntel
    l
    igence studi
    es behavi
    oralstudi
    es
    i
    ndicatesomebi ol
    ogi
    caldif
    fer
    ences. Int
    ell
    i
    gencebetweent hesexesi sexaminedin
    patt
    ernsofabil
    i
    tyasopposedtooverall
    int
    ell
    ect
    ualf
    unctioni
    ng.

    Basiccogni ti
    veabil
    iti
    essuchasat t
    entionandper ceptionoccuratt heearl
    ieststagesof
    i
    nformat ionprocessingseem todif
    ferbetweent hesexesandt husaidintheanal ysi
    sof
    dif
    ferencesi nmor ecompl excogni
    ti
    v efuncti
    ons.Ther earealsov ari
    ati
    onsi ntheal lof
    thesensor ysy st
    ems.Mal esappeartobemor eadaptedtody namicv i
    sualacuitywhi ch
    all
    owst hem todet ectsli
    ghtmov ement swi thi
    nt hef i
    eldofv isi
    on.Maleshav eal so
    conti
    nuousl yshownanadv antagei
    nv isual
    -spati
    alabili
    ti
    essuchasai mi
    ngatst ationary
    ofmov ingt ar
    getsandt hr
    owingandi nt
    erceptingprojecti
    l
    es.

    AnneMoi rhasdevelopedinherstudytoidenti
    fywhat‘ gendert hebrainis’ar
    equest i
    ons
    pert
    aini
    ngt othepointsrel
    atedbelow.Mal esr el
    yondi fferentmethodsf ornavigati
    on
    thanwomendo.Womengener al
    lyprefert
    ousel andmar ksandgui deswher easmal es
    aremor eadeptt o employingtheuseofamapwhi chhasdi recti
    onalpointsand
    geometricshapes.Menal soarebet t
    eratquant i
    tativ
    epr oblem sol
    vinginherentinthe
    usualstereot
    ypethatmenar ebett
    eratmat ht hanwomen.Theyal sof i
    nditeasierto
    manipul
    at eandobjectoranimaget oproduceav isuali
    nt erpret
    ati
    on.

    Cogni
    ti
    veSoci
    alLear
    ningTheor
    y

    Factorsofgenderassoci at
    edasal earnedbehav iorisar esul
    tofthecogniti
    vesoci al
    l
    earningtheory.Thistheorypurposesthatgenderi sattr
    ibutedtodiff
    erentsocialand
    l
    earningfactorsthati
    nfluenceonesgenderr oleandpr edictsthati
    ndivi
    dualsexpress
    andexpl or
    et heirgenderr ol
    esbasedonwhati sdeemedsoci al
    lyacceptable,or
    popularinthemedi a.Thecogni t
    ivesocialtheoryalsopr edi
    ctsthatwhent hemedi a
    port
    raysnumer ousaccountsofsexual i
    tyandpr omiscuoussexualencount ersthat
    genderdi f
    ferences wil
    ldecrease and t here wil
    lbe a di ff
    erentatti
    tude towards
    premarit
    alsexandt heamountofone’ ssexual partner
    s.

    Ev
    olut
    ionar
    yPsy
    chol
    ogy

    The pr imar yconceptofev ol


    uti
    onarypsy chologycat er
    st ot he noti
    on thatt he
    diff
    erencesbet weengender sandsexual it
    yarear esultofevoluti
    onandt hediff
    erent
    factorsi nmenandwomenst rat
    egiesf orsuccess.Thi sconceptalsocont ai
    nst he
    thoughtt hatreproduct i
    vesuccessi sachi evedt hroughmaxi mum sust ai
    nableof
    offspringandt hegener at i
    onalsuccessofgenesbei ngpassedonbet weeneach
    gener ation.Thistheorynotonl ysetsaf oundationf orunionsandt hedesiretoobtain
    viableof fspri
    ng,butal sopr oposesthet hatmenpr efershorttermrelat
    ionshi
    psf or
    thepur poseofgener ati
    ngmor eoffspring,buti nteresti
    ngl
    yenough,bot hmenand
    woment ypical
    lyareinvolvedinamar i
    talpositi
    onwi t
    heachot herthatbecomesmor e

    52|Page
    i
    ncr
    easi
    ngl
    ydesi
    redasmenandwomenage.

    Genet
    icFact
    orsandGender

    Genespl ayamaj orr oleinhow onephy sical


    lylooksaswel lasi faper sonisborn
    mal eorf emale.Mosti ndivi
    dualshav etwosexchr omosomest hatar ei nheri
    tedfrom
    each par ent.Girl
    s cont ai
    nt he XX and XY f or boy s.Howev er,genes and
    chromosomessomet i
    mescont ai
    ndi f
    ferencest hatcanl eadt odi fferentphysical
    featurest hatcan appearabnor mal.Oneoft hesesy ndromesi scal led Tur
    ner’
    s
    syndr omeandt hissy ndromecausesi ndivi
    dualst oonl yi nheritonechr omosome.
    Whent hisoccurs,ov ari
    esort esti
    cleswillnotbedev eloped.Manydi f
    ferentgeneti
    c
    discov eries are being made and some sci enti
    stconcl ude t hatourgenes can
    essent iall
    yt el
    lourfutureforphy si
    calappearanceaswel lasdi fferentpr edisposi
    ti
    ons
    toi l
    lnessest hatwi lldevelopbasedonone’ sgenet iccode.Genesal soshow a
    correlationbet weenonesgenderr oleandcannotbeal teredbynur ture.

    Homosexual
    it
    yandGender

    Homosexuali
    tyandgenderplay
    sasigni
    fi
    cantrol
    einthedebatebetweennat ureand
    nurt
    urepri
    maril
    yduet ogenderbei
    ngv i
    ewedasbeingnat ureornur t
    ure,butalso
    becauseofthesi gni
    fi
    cantf
    indi
    ngsthathavebeenest abli
    shed t
    ot hecauseof
    homosexual
    it
    y,thecausebei
    ngifhomosexual
    i
    tyissomethingbiol
    ogical,orsoci
    all
    y
    l
    earned.

    Di
    scussi
    ononGenderDi
    ff
    erences

    Thoughmanyar guethatgenderisalearnedbehav i
    or,Istandt obeli
    evet
    hatgender
    rol
    esassoci
    atedwi t
    hhomosexual it
    yi sbiol
    ogicalandgenet ic.Somear gumentsI
    wouldli
    ketoimposewoul dbet hatt
    husf argenescannotbeal ter
    ed,soi
    fgenderis
    est
    abli
    shedbynurtur
    et henhowcansomanycor rel
    ati
    onswi t
    hgenet i
    csbealt
    eredto
    makethisalearnedbehav i
    or.Thecognit
    ivesociallear
    ningtheor yal
    soimpli
    esthat
    mediaandotherpopularsoci
    aldynamicsinfl
    uencegenderr ol
    esanddev el
    opment.

    Howev er,Ifoundi tdi


    ffi
    cul
    ttofindanyr el
    ati
    vi
    tyinthistheorybecauset herehasbeen
    no signifi
    cantr esear
    ch to show t hatlear
    ning playsar ol
    ei n sexual,orgender
    orient
    ationdev elopment.Mostr esearchIfoundi nt hesignif
    icanceoft helearni
    ng
    theorycont ainedper sonalpercepti
    onwhi chispr obablymot i
    vatedbyst ri
    ctmor al
    s
    andt ypicall
    yst rictmoralsaredi f
    fi
    culttochangeonesper cepti
    onoft heirdesir
    ed
    thoughts.

    Concl
    usi
    on

    Theev
    olut
    ionar
    ypsy
    chol
    ogyt
    heor
    y,t
    houghi
    tcont
    ainssomedi
    scr
    epanci
    esandwhat

    53|Page
    somemaydeem asar chaic,Ithinkthattheev olut
    ionar
    ystandpointcont
    ainsmor e
    aspectsofgenderbei
    ngbi ologi
    cali nnat
    ure.Thisisduetosomeoft hekeyelements
    oft heevol
    uti
    onarypsy chologyt heorycontaininglessbiasandmor epl ausi
    bil
    i
    ty
    towardsgenderbei
    nglinkedt obiologi
    calfact
    ors.Thoughsigni
    ficantar
    gument swere
    madeonbot hendsbutIf eelthel earni
    ngcomponent sofgenderr esearchwas
    plaguedwit
    hmor efal
    lacyandper sonalopini
    onsr at
    herthansupporti
    veevidenceli
    ke
    thebiol
    ogi
    caltheor
    yimposes.

    FEMI
    NSM

    Ifi
    ti sdif
    fi
    cul
    t(perhapsimpossi
    ble)t
    odefinefemini
    sm i
    nter
    msofasetofcor e
    concept
    sthencanfemini
    sm bedefi
    nedbet
    terorf
    urt
    herint
    ermsofi
    tshi
    stor
    icalor
    igi
    ns
    anddevel
    opment?

    Or
    igi
    n

    Thet er
    mf eminism isarel
    ativ
    elymodernone–t herearedebat
    esov erwhenandwhere
    i
    twasf ir
    stused,butt heterm‘ f
    emini
    st’seemstohav efir
    stbeenusedi n1871ina
    Frenchmedi caltexttodescri
    beacessat i
    onindevelopmentofthesexualorgansand
    character
    ist
    ics in mal e pati
    ents,who wer e percei
    ved as thus suff
    eri
    ng fr
    om
    ‘
    feminizati
    on’oftheirbodi
    es.

    Thet er
    m wast henpickedupbyAlexanderDumasf i
    ls,aFr
    enchwrit
    er,r
    epubl
    icanand
    anti
    feminist
    ,whousedi tinapamphletpubl
    ishedin1872enti
    tl
    edl’
    homme- f
    emme,on
    thesubjectofadul
    ter
    y,todescr
    ibewomenbehav i
    nginasupposedl
    ymasculi
    neway .

    Thus,asFr aisse pointsout,al


    thoughinmedicalt
    erminologyf emi
    nism wasusedt o
    signi
    fyaf eminizati
    onofmen, i
    npoli
    ti
    calter
    msitwasfi
    rstusedt odescri
    beav ir
    il
    izati
    on
    ofwomen.Thi st y
    peofgenderconfusionwassomethi
    ngt hatwascl ear
    lyfear
    edi nthe
    nineteent
    hcent ury,anditcanbear guedthati
    tissti
    llpresenti namodifiedformi n
    today ’
    ssocieti
    eswher ef emini
    stsaresomet i
    mesper cei
    v ed aschall
    enging natural
    diff
    erencesbetweenmenandwomen.

    I
    tisint
    erest
    ingtonot
    e,though,thatfemini
    stwasnotatf ir
    stanadj ectiv
    eusedby
    womentodescri
    bet
    hemselvesorthei
    racti
    ons,andonecancert
    ainlysaythatther
    ewas
    whatwetodaywoul
    dcall‘
    femini
    st’t
    houghtandacti
    vit
    ylongbeforethetermi t
    sel
    fwas

    54|Page
    adopted.Int he1840st hewomen’ srightsmov ementhadstart
    edtoemergei nthe
    Unit
    edSt ateswiththeSenecaFall
    sConv ent
    ionof1848andtheresul
    ti
    ngDecl
    arat
    ionof
    Senti
    ment s,whichclai
    medf orwoment hepr i
    nci
    plesofl
    iber
    tyandequal
    i
    tyexpounded
    i
    ntheAmer icanDeclar
    ati
    onofIndependence.

    Dev
    elopmentofFemi
    nism

    Thiswasf oll
    owedbyEl izabethCadySt antonandSusanB.Ant hony’sfoundi
    ngoft he
    NationalWomanSuf f
    rageAssoci ati
    on.I nBrit
    ain,too,the1840sonwar dssaw t he
    emer gence ofwomen’ s suf f
    rage mov ements.Butev en bef
    oret he emergence of
    organizedsuffragemov ement s,womenhadbeenwr it
    ingaboutt heinequali
    ti
    esand
    i
    njusticesinwomen’ ssoci alcondit
    ionandcampai gningt ochangei t
    .In1792Mar y
    Wollstonecraf
    thadpubl i
    shedAVi ndicati
    onoft heRightsofWomenandatt hesame
    ti
    mei nFrancewomensuchasOl ympedeGougesandThér oignedeMér i
    courtwere
    fi
    ghtingfortheextensi
    onoft heright
    spr omisedbytheFr enchRevol
    utiontowomen.

    Thet erms" f
    emini
    sm"or" feminist"fi
    rstappearedinFranceandTheNet herl
    andsin
    1872(aslesf émi
    nist
    es),GreatBri
    taini
    nt he1890s,andtheUnitedStatesin1910.The
    Oxfor
    dEngl i
    shDicti
    onaryli
    sts1894f orthefir
    stappearanceof"femini
    st"and1895for
    "f
    eminism".TheUKDai l
    yNewsf ir
    stintr
    oduced"femini
    st"totheEngli
    shlanguage,

    Defi
    ningfemi nism canbechal l
    enging,butabr oadunder
    standi
    ngofitincl
    udesthe
    act
    ing,speaking,writ
    ing,andadvocati
    ngonbehal fofwomen'sissuesandri
    ghtsand
    i
    denti
    fyi
    nginjusticet
    of emalesi
    nthesocialst
    atusquo.

    Def
    ini
    ti
    on

    Femini
    sm isarangeofmovementsandideol
    ogiesthatshareacommongoal :t
    odefine,
    est
    abli
    sh,andachiev
    eequalpol
    iti
    cal
    ,economic,cul
    tur
    al,personal
    ,andsoci
    alri
    ght
    sf or
    women.Thisincl
    udesseeki
    ngtoestabli
    shequalopportuni
    ti
    esf orwomenineducati
    on
    andemployment.Afemi
    nistadv
    ocatesorsupportst
    herightsandequali
    tyofwomen.

    Feministmov ementshav ecampaignedandcont inuetocampaignforwomen'srights,


    i
    ncludingther i
    ghttovot e,t
    oholdpubli
    coffi
    ce,towor k,t
    oearnfai
    rwagesorequalpay ,
    toownpr opert
    y,toeducat ion,t
    oentercont
    racts,tohaveequalri
    ghtswi
    thi
    nmar riage,
    andtohav emat er
    nit
    yl eave.Femini
    stshavealsowor kedtopromotebodil
    yautonomy
    and integri
    ty,and to pr ot
    ectwomen and girl
    sf r
    om rape,sexualhar
    assment,and
    domest icvi
    olence.

    55|Page
    Femi
    nistTheor
    y

    Def
    ini
    ti
    on

    Feministt
    heoryistheex tensionoffemi
    nism i nt
    otheoreti
    calorphil
    osophi
    caldiscourse.
    Itai
    mst ounderstandt henatureofgenderi nequal
    ity
    .Itexamineswomen' ssocialr
    oles,
    experi
    ence,int
    erests,chor es,and feministpol i
    ti
    cs inav ar
    iet
    yoff i
    elds,such as
    anthr
    opology and soci ol
    ogy , communicat i
    on, psychoanaly
    sis home economi cs,
    l
    iter
    ature,
    educati
    on, andphilosophy.

    Femini
    sttheoryfocusesonanal y
    zinggenderi
    nequali
    ty.Themesexploredinf
    emi ni
    sm
    i
    ncludediscri
    minati
    on,objecti
    fi
    cati
    on (
    especi
    all
    ysexualobj ect
    ifi
    cati
    on)
    ,oppressi
    on,
    pat
    riar
    chy
    , st
    ereoty
    ping,ar
    thist
    oryandcontemporar
    yart,andaestheti
    cs.

    Itencompasseswor kinav ari


    etyofdisci
    pli
    nes,incl
    udinganthropology,soci
    ology
    ,
    economics,women's studi
    es,lit
    erar
    y cri
    ti
    cism,ar t hi
    stor
    y,psy choanal
    ysis and
    phil
    osophy.Femini
    sttheor
    yaimst o under
    stand genderinequal
    i
    tyand f ocuseson
    genderpoli
    ti
    cs,
    powerrel
    ati
    onsandsexual
    it
    y.

    Whi l
    eprovi
    dingacriti
    queofthesesocialandpoli
    ticalrel
    ati
    ons,muchoffeministt
    heory
    focusesont hepromotionofwomen'sr i
    ghtsandinterest
    s.Themesexploredinfemini
    st
    theory incl
    ude di scrimi
    nati
    on, stereot
    yping, objecti
    fi
    cati
    on (especial
    l
    y sexual
    objecti
    fi
    cat
    ion),
    oppressionandpat
    riarchy.

    56|Page
    Or
    igi
    nandDev
    elopmentofFemi
    nistTheor
    y

    Feministtheori
    esf i
    rstemer gedasear lyas1794i npubli
    cationssuchasAVi ndicat
    ion
    oftheRi ghtsofWomanbyMar yWol lst
    onecraft
    ,“TheChangi ngWoman”“ Ai
    n’tIa
    Woman” ,“
    Speechaf terAr r
    estforI
    ll
    egalVoting”andsoon.“ TheChangi ngWoman”i sa
    NavajoMy ththatgav ecr edi
    ttoawomanwho, intheend,populatedthewor l
    d.In1851,
    Soj
    ournerTr uthaddr essedwomen’ sr i
    ghtsissuesthroughherpubl icat
    ion,“Ain’
    tIa
    Woman. ”SojournerTr ut
    haddressedt heissueofwomenhav ingli
    mitedr i
    ghtsduet o
    men'sf l
    awedper ceptionofwomen.

    Trutharguedt hati fawomanofcol orcanperf


    ormtasksthatweresupposedlyli
    mited
    tomen,t henanywomanofanycol orcouldper
    for
    mt hosesametasks.Aft
    erherar r
    est
    foril
    legallyvot
    ing,SusanB.Anthonygaveaspeechwithi
    ncourti
    nwhichsheaddr essed
    theissuesofl anguagewi t
    hintheconsti
    tuti
    ondocumentedinherpubl
    icat
    ion,“Speech
    afterArrestforIl
    legalv
    oti
    ng”in1872.

    Li
    ber
    alFemi
    nism

    Accordi
    ngtoRosemar ieTong:Li
    beralFeminism beganinthe18thand19t hcenturi
    es
    andhascont i
    nuedthr
    oughtothepresentday.Throughouti
    tshist
    oryt
    heli
    beralfeminist
    mov ementhasbeenandcont i
    nuestobef ocusedonel imi
    nati
    ngfemalesubordinat
    ion,
    "r
    ootedinasetofcust omaryandlegalconstrai
    ntsblocki
    ngwomen'sentrancet oand
    successintheso-cal
    l
    edpubli
    cwor l
    d."I
    tslonghistoryisatest
    amenttohowwel li
    thas
    beenabletoadaptandchangetothemanyi ssuesconfront
    ingwomen.

    Li
    ber
    alFemi
    nistThi
    nker
    s

    Mar
    ryWol
    l
    stonecr
    aft
    ,JohnSt
    uar
    tMi
    l
    l,andHar
    ri
    etTay
    lor(
    Mil
    l
    )

    Mov
    ement
    s

    Woman’
    ssuf
    fragemov
    ementi
    ntheUS

    Or
    gani
    zat
    ions

    Ber
    ryFr
    iedanandt
    heNat
    ional
    organi
    zat
    ionf
    orWomen(
    NOW)

    57|Page
    GoalofLi
    ber
    alFemi
    nism

    Creat
    inga“justandcompassi
    onat
    esocietyinwhi
    chf
    reedom f
    lour
    ishes”
    .Onl
    yinsuch
    associet
    ycanwomenandment hr
    iveequal
    ly
    .

    Mar
    yWol
    lst
    onecr
    aft

    Shet al
    kedabouteducat i
    onaldispari
    ti
    eslai
    dstressoneducat i
    onofwomenandsai d
    thatthetrul
    yeducat edwomenwi llbeamaj orcontr
    ibut
    ort osociety’
    swelfar
    e.In‘
    A
    Vindi
    cati
    onofTheRi ght
    sofWomen’ ,shecel
    ebratedt
    her ati
    onalthoughtofwoment o
    attai
    nfullpersonhood.Sheur gedwoment obecomeaut onomousdeci si
    on-maker
    s.
    WhatWol lst
    onecraftmostwant edf orwomani spersonhood.Womenshoul dnotbe
    reducedtothe‘toyofman’.Rat
    her,sheisan‘endinhersel
    f’hi
    sratt
    le.

    19t
    hCent
    uryThought(
    Equal
    Liber
    ty)

    JohnSt
    uar
    tMi
    l
    landHar
    ri
    etTay
    lor(
    Mil
    l
    )joi
    nedWol
    l
    stonecr
    afti
    ncel
    ebr
    ati
    ngr
    ati
    onal
    i
    ty.

    Theywantedwoment opursuethei
    rdesir
    es.I
    fsoci
    etyistoachi
    evesexualequal
    ity
    ,or
    gender
    -j
    usti
    ce,t
    hensociet
    ymustpr ovidewomenwi ththesamepol i
    ti
    calright
    sand
    economicoppor
    tuni
    ti
    esaswellasthesameeducati
    onthatmenenjoy
    .

    They coauthor
    ed “
    Ear
    ly Essay
    s on Marr
    iage and Di
    vor
    ce”( 1832)
    .Tayl
    orwr ot
    e
    “Enf
    ranchi
    sementofWomen”(1851)
    .Mi
    ll
    wrote“Thesubj
    ect
    ionofWomen”(1869)

    Mil
    lcl
    aimedthatsociet
    y’s‘
    ethi
    cal
    ’doubl
    est
    andar
    dshur
    twomen,
    mil
    lchal
    l
    engedmen’
    s
    al
    l
    egedintel
    l
    ectualsuper
    ior
    it
    y .

    19t
    hCent
    uryAct
    ion(
    TheSuf
    frage)

    BothJohnSt uar
    tMi l
    landHar ri
    etTay
    lorbel i
    evedwomenneededsuf fr
    ageinorderto
    becomemen’ sequals.Theycl aimedthatt hevot
    egi vespeoplethepowernotonlyto
    expresst
    heirownpol it
    icalviewsbutal sot ochanget hosesyst
    ems,str
    uct
    ures,and
    att
    it
    udesthatcontr
    ibut
    et otheirownorot her’
    soppression.

    SenecaFal l
    sConv ent
    ion( 1848),New YorkledbyEl i
    zabethCadySt antanand
    Lucret
    iaMot t.Decl
    arati
    onofSent imentwaspr oduced.Itwasav i
    ntagepoi
    ntofthe20th
    centur
    y.Soj ournerTruth( 1851)-powerfulfemi
    nistproject
    ed‘womanhood’.SusanB
    AnthonyandCadySt antonest abl
    ishedt heNati
    onalWomenSuf f
    rageAssociati
    onLucy
    Stonef ounded“ AmericanWomenSuf fr
    ageAssociati
    on”.Nati
    onalAmericanWomen
    Suffr
    age Ass.I tconfined its acti
    vit
    ies gai
    ning the vot
    ef orwomen.Ni neteent
    h
    amendmentwaspassed.

    Twent
    iet
    hCent
    uryAct
    ion(
    Equal
    Right
    s)

    58|Page
    Byt hemi d-1960s,mostli
    beralfeminist
    shadjoinedNati
    onalOr ganizati
    onf orWomen
    (NOW) ,theNat i
    onalWomenPol i
    ti
    calCaucus(NWPC) ,andWomen’ sEqui tyActi
    on
    League (WEAL) .These gr
    oups ai med toincr
    ease women’ s consciousness about
    women’ soppr essi
    on1961.Pr essJohnFKennedyest abli
    shedthecommi ssiononthe
    stat
    usofwomenwhi chr
    esultedinthepassageofEqualPayAct( NOW) .Firstfemi
    nist
    groupintheUSi nthe20thcenturytochall
    engesexdi
    scriminat
    ioni nallspheresofli
    fe;
    social
    ,polit
    ical
    ,economicandper sonal.

    Theaim ofNOW’ s1967BillofRightsf orWomenwast osecureforwoment hesame


    ri
    ghtsmenhav e.Bett
    yFri
    edan,authorofTheFemi ni
    neMy st
    ique“
    thatthegutissuedof
    thi
    sresol
    utioninvol
    vesemploymentandeducat ionandnew soci
    alinsti
    tuti
    onandnot
    sexualf
    antasy”.Thefemi
    nineMy stiquesov er
    allmessage:‘women’
    sliberat
    ionhinged
    onwomenbecomi ngli
    kemen’.Thedi al
    ecti
    cofsex.

    Cont
    empor
    aryLi
    ber
    alFemi
    nism

    El
    i
    zabet
    hHol
    tzman,
    Bel
    l
    aAbzug,
    EleanorSmeal
    ,Pat
    syMi
    nk.

    Liberalf
    eminist
    swisht
    of r
    eewomenf r
    om oppressiv
    egenderrol
    es.Alll
    iber
    alf
    emini
    sts
    (bothclassi
    calli
    ber
    alf
    eminist
    sandwelfar
    eliberalfemi
    nist
    stendtoagr eeaper
    son’s
    biologi
    calsexshoul
    dnotdeter
    minehi
    sorherpsychologi
    cal/
    soci
    algender.

    Cr
    it
    iquesofLi
    ber
    alFemi
    nism

    1.Reason,fr
    eedom andautonomyarenotasgoodast heysound.I
    nf emi
    nist
    Poli
    ti
    csand HumanNat ureAli
    sonJaggarf
    ormul
    ated apowerf
    ulcri
    ti
    queof
    l
    iber
    alfemini
    sm.

    2.WomenasMen?

    Thi
    scl
    aim aspi
    rest
    omascul
    i
    nev
    alues.JeanBet
    hkef
    ormul
    atedt
    hiscr
    it
    ique.

    3.Raci
    sm,
    Classi
    sm,
    Het
    erosexi
    sm:

    Li
    ber
    alfemini
    sm mainl
    yf ocusedontheint
    erest
    sofwhi t
    e,middl
    e-cl
    ass,het
    erosexual
    women.Thefemi
    ninemy sti
    queaddr
    esseswhite,
    middl
    e-cl
    ass,
    heter
    osexualwomen.

    Concl
    usi
    on

    Sexualequal
    it
    ycannotbeachi evedthr
    oughi ndi
    vidualwomen’swillpoweralone.Al so
    necessar
    yaremaj oralt
    erat
    ionsinpeople’
    sdeepestsoci al
    andpsychologi
    calstructur
    es.
    Sexualoppressi
    on and soci alsyst
    em t hatperpetuate oppr
    essi
    on are mor all
    yev i
    l
    becausetheyl i
    mit/denywomen’ scapacit
    yt oreflectonanddet er
    minet heirliv
    es.
    Sexi
    sm causesimmeasur ableharmtopeopl e(women) .

    59|Page
    Womenowet oliber
    alfemini
    stsmanyoftheci
    vi
    l,educat
    ional,occupat
    ionaland
    r
    epr
    oductiv
    eright
    stheycurr
    entl
    yenjoy.Theyowet
    oli
    beralfemi
    niststheabili
    tytowalk
    i
    ncr
    easingl
    yateasei
    npublicdomain.

    Radi
    calFemi
    nism

    (
    Cul
    tur
    alPer
    spect
    iveandLi
    ber
    tar
    ianPer
    spect
    ive)

    Tongdef inesar adicalfemini


    stasonewho" i
    nsist
    (s)thesex/ gendersy st
    em ist he
    fundament alcauseofwomen' soppr essi
    on.
    "Unl i
    ket heliber
    alf emi ni
    stswhowor k
    withinthesy st
    em forchange,ther
    adicalfemi
    nistswantanewsy stem altogether
    .The
    currentst
    at eofaff
    airspromotesasexism whi
    ch" i
    sthef i
    rst
    ,mostwi despread,deepest
    form ofhumanoppr ession,
    "soitmustbechanged.

    I
    ntr
    oduct
    ion

    60|Page
    Radicalf
    emi ni
    sts,t
    heser
    evol
    uti
    onaryfemini
    stsintroducefeministt
    houghtthepract
    ice
    ofconscious-r
    aisi
    ng:Womencamet ogetheri
    nsmal lgroupsandsharedtheirper
    sonal
    experi
    ences as ‘women’with each ot
    her.Radi calfemi ni
    sts pr
    ocl
    aimed that‘the
    personali
    spolit
    ical
    ’andt
    hatal
    lwomenar e‘si
    sters’
    .

    Vi
    ewofAl
    isonJaggarandPaul
    aRot
    her
    nber
    g

    1.Womenwer
    e,hi
    stor
    ical
    l
    y,t
    hef
    ir
    stoppr
    essedgr
    oup.

    2.Women’soppr
    essi
    oni
    sthemostwi
    despr
    eadexi
    sti
    ngi
    nev
    ent
    ual
    l
    yev
    eryaspect
    ofsoci
    ety
    .

    3.Women’
    soppressi
    onisthehardestfor
    m ofoppr
    essi
    ontoeradi
    cat
    eandcannot
    ber
    emovedbyothersoci
    alchangessuchast
    heaboli
    ti
    onofcl
    asssoci
    ety
    .

    4.Women’soppressi
    oncausest
    hemostsuf
    fer
    ingt
    oit
    svi
    cti
    ms,qual
    i
    tat
    ivel
    yand
    quant
    it
    ati
    vel
    y.

    5.Women’
    soppressionpr
    ovi
    desaconcept
    ualmodelf
    orunder
    standi
    ngal
    lot
    her
    f
    ormsofoppr
    ession.

    I
    ntr
    oduct
    iont
    oRadi
    calFemi
    nism

    Radi
    calfemi
    nism i
    saperspect
    ivewi
    thi
    nfemi
    nism t
    hatcall
    sforradi
    calreorderi
    ngof
    soci
    etyi
    nwhichmalesupr
    emacyisel
    i
    minat
    edi
    nallsoci
    alandeconomiccontexts.

    Radicalf emi
    nist
    sseekt o chal
    lengepatr
    iar
    chyexist
    ing i
    n soci
    alnor msand
    i
    nstit
    utions,throughpurel
    ypoli
    ticalpr
    ocess.Thi
    sincl
    udeschall
    engi
    ngt r
    aditi
    onalr
    oles,
    opposingt hesexualobj ect
    if
    icationofwomenandr aisi
    ngpublicawar enessabout
    vi
    olenceagai nstwomen.

    Theor
    yandI
    deol
    ogy

    Pat
    ri
    archy

    Earl
    yr adicalf
    eminism,ar i
    sing wit
    h second-wav
    ef emini
    sm i nthe 1960s,viewed
    patr
    iarchyasa‘ tr
    anshistori
    calphenomenon’deeperthanothersour
    cesofoppression.
    Radicalf emini
    stslocat
    er ootofcauseofwomen’ soppressioninpatr
    iar
    chalgender
    rel
    ationsasopposedt olegalsyst
    emsorcl assconf
    li
    cts.

    Theyposi
    tthatbecauseofpat
    ri
    archy
    ,womenhav
    ebeensy
    stemat
    ical
    l
    yoppr
    essedand
    margi
    nali
    zed.

    Pat
    ri
    archalTheor
    y

    61|Page
    I
    tmai nt
    ainsthatthepri
    maryelementofpatr
    iar
    chyisar el
    ati
    onshi
    pofdomi nance.
    Radi
    calfeminist
    sbeli
    evethatmenusesocialsyst
    emst okeepwomensuppr essed.
    Theybel
    ievethatel
    i
    minat
    ingpat
    ri
    archywi
    l
    lli
    ber
    ateever
    yonefr
    om anunjustsoci
    ety.

    Radi
    calFemi
    nist
    s

    Andr
    eaDwor
    kin,
    Mar
    yDal
    y,Phy
    ll
    isChesl
    er,
    Jil
    lJohnst
    on,
    Moni
    queWi
    tt
    ing

    Theycal
    ledforwomentogovernmenandwomen.Ell
    enWill
    iswr
    it
    esi
    n1984t
    hatr
    adi
    cal
    femi
    nist
    s“gotsexual
    pol
    it
    icsrecogni
    zedasapubl
    i
    cissue”
    .

    Mov
    ement

    Theideol
    ogyofradi
    calf
    eminism i
    nt heUni
    tedStat
    esdevel
    opedasacomponentofthe
    women’sliber
    ati
    onmov ement.Chronol
    ogi
    call
    y,itcanbeseenwit
    hinthecontextof
    second-
    wav ef
    emini
    sm t
    hatstart
    edintheearl
    y1960’s.

    Manylocalwomen’sgroupsinthelat
    e60’s,suchastheUCCA(Women’
    sLiberat
    ion
    Fund)WLFof fer
    eddipl
    omati
    cstatement
    sofr adi
    calf
    emini
    sm’
    sideol
    ogi
    es.UCCLA’s
    WLFco-founderDev
    raWebercal
    l
    s:

    “Radicalf
    emini
    stswereopposedpatr
    iar
    chy,butnotnecessar
    il
    ycapi
    tali
    sm.Inourgr
    oup
    atleast,t
    heyopposedsocal
    ledmaledominatednati
    onalli
    ber
    ati
    onstruggl
    es”.

    Theytookupthecauseandadvocatedforavariet
    yofwomenissues,
    incl
    udi
    ngabor
    ti
    on,
    theEqualRi
    ghtsAmendment,accesstocredi
    t,andequal
    pay
    .

    Second-
    wav
    er adicalfemini
    sm saw gr
    eat
    ernumber
    sofbl
    ackf
    emi
    nist
    sand ot
    her
    womenofcolorparti
    ci
    pati
    ng.

    I
    nUS

    IntheUSradicalfemini
    sm devel
    opedasaresponsetosomeoft hepercei
    vefai
    li
    ngsof
    bothNew LeftOr gani
    zat
    ionsuchasNOW.I nit
    ial
    l
    yconcentr
    atedinbigcit
    iesli
    keNew
    York,Chi
    cago,Bost on,Washi
    ngton,DC,r
    adicalfemi
    nist
    sgr oupsspreadacrossthe
    countr
    yrapi
    dlyfrom 1868to1972.

    I
    nUK

    I
    ntheUK,r
    adi
    calfemini
    sm isdevel
    opedoutofdiscussi
    onwit
    hcommuni tybased
    r
    adi
    cal
    women’
    sorgani
    zat
    ionsanddi
    scussi
    onsbywomenwithi
    nTr
    otky
    istl
    eft
    .

    Consci
    ousnessRai
    sing(
    CR)Gr
    oups

    62|Page
    Radicalf
    emini
    stsintr
    oducedtheuseofconsci
    ousnessrai
    singgroups.Consci
    ousness
    rai
    singgroupsessionsall
    owedearl
    yradi
    calfemini
    stsexperi
    encewomenf acedwith
    malesupremacy.

    Radi
    calf
    emi
    nism cl
    aimedt hatatot
    ali
    zi
    ngi
    deol
    ogyandsoci
    alf
    ormat
    iondo
    domi
    nat
    edwomeni
    nt hei
    nter
    estofmen.

    In1969,t
    herewas“poli
    ti
    co-f
    emi ni
    stspli
    t”
    .Poli
    ticosawcapi
    tal
    i
    sm asasour ceof
    women’soppressi
    onand‘ f
    eminist
    ’saw mal esupremacyasasour ceofoppr essi
    on.
    Thefemi ni
    stsi
    deoft hesplitbeganr eferr
    ingtoitselfas‘r
    adi
    calfemini
    sts’
    ,soon
    const
    it
    utedthebasi
    sofanewor ganizati
    on,Redst
    ockings.

    Kat
    eMi
    l
    let
    ’ssexual
    Pol
    i
    ticsemer
    geddur
    ingt
    hist
    imeandi
    nthi
    smi
    l
    ieu.

    Act
    ion

    I
    n1968,theyprotest
    edagainstt
    heMissAmeri
    capageantbyt hrowinghighheelsand
    otherf
    emini
    neaccoutrement
    sint
    othegar
    bagebin,t
    orepresentf
    r eedom.In1970,t
    hey
    alsost
    agedasit-
    inattheLadi
    esHomeJournal
    .Inaddi
    ti
    on,theyheldspeakoutsabout
    topi
    cssuchasr
    ape.

    Ai
    msofRadi
    calFemi
    nism

    1.Expandi
    ngr epr
    oducti
    veri
    ghts.Iti
    ncl
    udesnotonlyt
    herighttoabort
    ionandbi
    rt
    h
    cont
    rolbutal
    soherrighttomakethosechoi
    cesf
    reel
    ywit
    houtpressur
    efr
    om i
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    men.

    2.Changingtheorganizat
    ionalsexcult
    uree.
    g.breaki
    ngdownt
    radi
    ti
    onalgenderr
    oles
    reev
    aluat
    ingsoci
    etalconceptsoffemini
    nit
    ymasculi
    nit
    y.

    Vi
    ewsonPr
    ost
    it
    uti
    on

    Radicalfemini
    sts argue that
    ,in mostcases,pr ost
    it
    uti
    on is nota conscious and
    cal
    culatedchoice.Mostwomen,t heysay,whobecomepr osti
    tut
    esbecauset heywer e
    coerced/f
    orcedbyapi mporbyhumant raff
    icki
    ng,orwhenitisanindependentdecisi
    on,
    i
    tisgener al
    lytheresultoftheseri
    ousunderly
    ingproblemssuchasdr ugaddict
    ionor
    pasttrauma.

    Radi
    calfemini
    stsseeprost
    it
    uti
    onasaf orm ofmaledominanceanditaf
    fi
    rms
    andr
    einfor
    cespatr
    iar
    chyasaform ofsl
    aver
    yresul
    ti
    nginsexual
    subj
    ugati
    onofwomen.

    Vi
    ewsonPor
    nogr
    aphy

    Radi
    calf
    eminist
    se.
    g.Catheri
    neMacki
    nnoncharget
    hattheproduct
    ionofpor
    nography
    ent
    ail
    sphysi
    cal,
    psy
    chol
    ogical
    ,and/
    oreconomi
    ccoerci
    onofthewomenwhoper f
    ormi n

    63|Page
    i
    tev enwhenthewomenar ebeingpr
    esent
    edasenjoyi
    ngthemselves.Radicalfemini
    sts
    sayt hatwomen i n pornogr
    aphyare br
    utal
    i
    zed inthe pr
    ocess ofi ts producti
    on.
    Pornographycontr
    ibutestosexism.Robi
    nMor gansummarizes;“Pornographyist he
    theory,
    andrapeisthepracti
    ce.
    ”

    Radi
    calLesbi
    anFemi
    nism

    Radi
    callesbi
    ansar edi
    sti
    ngui
    shedf rom otherradi
    calf
    emini
    ststhr
    oughthei
    rideological
    root
    si npoli
    ti
    callesbi
    ani
    sm.Radi callesbiansseelesbi
    ani
    sm asanactofr esi
    stance
    agai
    nstt he pol
    i
    ticali
    nsti
    tut
    ion ofhet erosexual
    i
    ty,which t
    heyv i
    ew asviolentand
    oppressi
    vetowardswomen.

    Cr
    it
    ici
    sm

    1.Duri
    ngtheearl
    yyears,r
    adi
    calfemi
    nist
    swerecr i
    ti
    cizedforemphasi
    zi
    ngsex-
    based
    di
    scri
    minat
    ionatt
    heexpenseofr
    aceandclass-
    baseddiscri
    minat
    ion.

    2.Accordi
    ngtoEll
    enWi l
    l
    is’
    s1984essay“Radi
    calFemi
    nism andFemini
    stRadical
    i
    sm”
    ,
    radi
    calf
    emini
    stswereaccusedofbei
    ng‘
    Bourgeoi
    s’
    ,‘
    ant
    il
    eft
    ’oreven‘
    apoli
    ti
    cal
    ’
    .

    3.Radi
    cal
    femi
    nism wascr
    it
    ici
    zedbecausei
    ttendedt
    obewhi
    teandmi
    ddl
    e-cl
    ass.

    4.Ell
    en Wil
    li
    s al
    so cr
    it
    ici
    zed r
    adicalfemi
    nism’
    sinabi
    l
    ityt
    oint
    egr
    ateaf
    emi
    nist
    per
    spect
    ivewi
    thanover
    allr
    adi
    calpoli
    ti
    cs.

    Kat
    eMi
    ll
    ett
    ’sSexualPol
    it
    ics(
    1970)

    She clai
    med thatmal e-
    femal
    e sex relati
    onshipi st he paradigm forallpower
    rel
    ati
    onshi
    ps.Because male cont
    roloft he publi
    c and priv
    at e worl
    ds mai
    ntains
    patr
    iar
    chy,malecont
    rolmustbeeli
    minatedi fwomenar etobel i
    berat
    ed.Toel
    iminate
    malecontrol
    ,menandwomenhav etoel
    imi nategender.

    Mi
    l
    letsi
    ngl
    esouraut
    horsD.H Lawr
    ence,Henr
    yMi l
    l
    erandNor manMai
    leras
    someofthemostar
    ti
    cul
    ateleader
    sofpatri
    archy
    ’s(
    1930-
    1960)assaul
    tonf
    emini
    st
    i
    deas.

    Mil
    letobserv
    edincontempor
    aryfemini
    sm adet erminedeffor
    ttodest
    royt
    he
    sex/
    gendersystem-thebasi
    csourceofwomen’ soppr essi
    onandt ocr
    eat
    eanew
    soci
    etyi
    nwhichmenandwomenar eequalsatever
    ylev
    el ofexist
    ence.

    Shul
    ami
    thFi
    rest
    one’
    sDi
    alect
    icofSex

    Sheclai
    medt hemat er
    ialbasi
    sforthesexual/pol
    it
    icali
    deologyoff
    emalesubmissi
    on
    and male dominati
    on was root
    ed int he r
    eproducti
    ver ol
    es ofmen and women.
    Fi
    rest
    one’sref
    lect
    ionsonwomen’sreproducti
    veroleledhertoafemi
    nistr
    evi
    sionoft
    he

    64|Page
    mat
    eri
    ali
    sti
    ctheor
    yofhi
    stor
    yof
    fer
    edbyKar
    lMar
    xandFr
    iedr
    ichEngel
    s.

    Firest
    oneproposed t
    o makeup f
    orthi
    sov er
    sightbydev
    elopi
    ng af
    emi ni
    st
    versi
    onofhi st
    ori
    calmater
    ial
    ism i
    nwhi
    chsexclassrathert
    haneconomi
    cclass,is
    centr
    al concept
    .

    Mar
    xistFemi
    nism

    Marxistt heoryat t
    empt st o explai
    nt hest ructureofmoder ni ndustri
    alsocietywith
    specialemphasi soncl assandl abor.Accordingt oMar x,societ
    yi sbrokenupi nt
    otwo
    cl
    assescont ai
    ningt hosewhoownt hemeansofpr oducti
    on( factori
    es,tools,capi
    tal)
    andthel aborerswhoar eexploitedt oproducet heitemsdemandedbyt herul
    ingclasses.
    This exploit
    ation is ext
    ended t o women wi tht he addi t
    ion ofsexi sm and gender
    i
    nequal i
    ty.Mar xistfeminist
    sar epr i
    maril
    yconcer nedwi tht hedi vi
    sionofl aborthat
    keepswomeni nthedomest icspher eandmeni nthewor kplace.I nadditi
    ont othis,
    whenwomendoent erthewor kforce,theyar edel egatedt oj obst hataredeemed
    appropri
    at efortheirgenderandar eusuallyunder paidfortheirwor k.

    I
    ntr
    oduct
    ion

    Marxi
    stfemi
    nism i
    sabr
    anchoffemini
    sm focusedoninv
    esti
    gat
    ingandexplai
    ningthe
    waysin whi
    ch women ar
    e oppr
    essed t
    hrough syst
    ems ofcapit
    ali
    sm and pri
    vate
    pr
    opert
    y.

    Accordi
    ngtoMarxi
    stFemi
    nism,
    women’sl
    iber
    ati
    oncanonl
    ybeachi
    evedt
    hrough
    aradi
    calrestr
    uct
    uri
    ngofthecurr
    entcapi
    tal
    i
    steconomy,i
    nwhichmuchofwomen’ s
    l
    abori
    suncompensated.

    Theor
    eti
    calBackgr
    oundi
    nMar
    xism

    Inf
    luenti
    alworkbyKarlMarxin“ Acontri
    butionoftheCrit
    iqueofPoli
    ti
    caleconomy”and
    both by KarlMarx and Fr i
    edri
    ch Engelsi n‘The CommunistMani fest
    o’lai
    dt he
    foundati
    onofthediscour
    sebet weencapital
    ism andoppressi
    on.Thetheoryofhi
    stori
    cal
    mat er
    ial
    ism t
    ermedbyKar lMar xrecognizest hewaysi nwhicheconomi csystems
    str
    ucturesoci
    etyasawhol eandinfl
    uenceev er
    ydayl
    if
    eandexperience.

    Hi
    stor
    icalMat
    eri
    ali
    sm

    Itplacesaheavyemphasi
    sont heroleofeconomi
    cfact
    orsindeter
    mini
    ngthebasi
    c
    str
    uctureofsoci
    ety
    .Thebasestructur
    eprovi
    desarangeofsyst
    emswhi chi
    ssetby
    rul
    ingclasst
    oexpl
    oitt
    heworki
    ngclass.

    Engel
    ’
    s‘TheOr
    igi
    nofFami
    l
    y,Pr
    ivat
    ePr
    oper
    tyandTheSt
    ate’
    (1818)

    65|Page
    Accor dingtoEngelt heshif
    tfrom f eudali
    sm t opr i
    v ateowner shipoflandhashuge
    effectson st at
    usofwomen.Hear guest hatsubor dinati
    on i
    snotar esultofher
    biologicaldi
    sposit
    ionbutofsocialrelati
    ons.Men’ sef fortstoachievethei
    rdemandf or
    cont r
    ol ofwomen’slaborandsexualfaculti
    eshav egr aduallybecomei nst
    it
    utional
    i
    zedin
    thenucl earfamil
    y.ThroughaMar xi
    sthi st
    oricalper spect i
    veEngelanal y
    zedt hesoci
    al
    phenomenonassoci atedwithf emalesexualmor alit
    y .Assuchgenderoper at
    ionis
    closelyr el
    atedtoclassoperati
    onandt her elati
    onshi pbet weenmenandwomeni s
    similartotherel
    ati
    onshipbetweenPr olet
    ariatandBour geoisi
    e

    Pr
    oduct
    iveandRepr
    oduct
    iveLabor

    Producti
    vel
    abori
    scompensatedi
    ntheform ofpaidwagewhil
    erepr
    oduct
    ivel
    abori
    s
    associat
    edwi
    thpr
    ivat
    espher
    eandisnotf
    orthepurposeofr
    ecei
    vi
    ngawage.

    Womenar eassignedtodomest icspherewheret helaborisreproducti


    veand
    thusun-compensatedandun- r
    ecognizedincapit
    ali
    stsystem.I tisi
    nt hepubl i
    cand
    pri
    vat
    einsti
    tut
    iontoexploi
    tthelaborofwomenasani nexpensivemethodofsuppor t
    ing
    aworkforce.Marxi
    stfeminist
    sar guethatexcl
    usi
    onofwomenf rom producti
    velabor
    l
    eadstomal econtr
    oltobothprivat
    eandpublicdomains.

    Accompl
    ishmentandAct
    ivi
    sm

    Themi l
    i
    tantnat
    ureofMar xistf
    emini
    stsandthei
    rabil
    it
    ytomobil
    izetopromot
    esocial
    changehasenabledthem toengageinimport
    antact
    ivi
    sm.Mar
    xistfemi
    nist
    schal
    l
    enge
    hegemoniccapi
    tali
    sm andshedli
    ghtonstat
    usofwomen.

    Wagesf
    orHousewor
    k

    Mar xi
    stfemi nist
    sdevotedthei
    racti
    vi
    sm t
    of i
    ght
    ingforthei ncl
    usi
    onoft hedomest i
    c
    wor k withi
    nt he waged capi
    tal
    i
    steconomy .The idea ofcr eat
    ing compensat ed
    reproductiv
    el aborwaspresentinthewri
    ti
    ngofsociali
    sts,suchasShar l
    ottePerkins
    Gilman( 1898)whoar guedthatwomen'soppr
    essionstemmedf rom bei
    ngf orcedinto
    t
    hepr ivatespheres.

    I
    nter
    nat
    ionalWagesf
    orHousewor
    kCampai
    gn

    Anor ganizati
    onl
    aunchedinItal
    yin1972,importantwomenofthi
    sorganizat
    ionwer
    e
    SelmaJames,Del l
    aCost a,andBirgi
    tt
    eGalti
    er.Theypubl
    ishedar
    angeofsour cest
    o
    promotet heirmessageinacademi candpubl i
    cdomain.Thisor
    ganizat
    ionbecame
    successfulinmobi
    li
    zingonaninter
    nati
    onal
    level.

    Shar
    ingt
    heResponsi
    bil
    it
    yofRepr
    oduct
    iveLabor

    Hei
    diHar
    tmann(
    1981)bel
    i
    evest
    hatt
    radi
    ti
    onal
    discour
    sehasi
    gnor
    edt
    hei
    mpor
    tanceof

    66|Page
    women'soper
    ati
    onsaswomenandi
    nst
    eadf
    ocusedonwomen'
    soper
    ati
    onasmember
    ofcapi
    tal
    i
    stsyst
    em.

    Gayl
    eRubinrosetopromi
    nencet
    hroughher1975essay"TheTraffi
    cinWomen:
    NotesonThePol i
    ti
    calEconomyofSex"inwhichshecoi nsthephrasesex/gender
    sy
    stem andcr
    it
    ici
    zeMarxi
    sm asi
    ncompl
    eteanal
    ysi
    sifsexi
    sm undercapi
    tali
    sm.

    NancyFolbr
    eproposest
    hatfeministmovementbegantofocusonwomen'
    s
    subordi
    natestat
    ustomenbothi
    nreproducti
    ve(
    pri
    vat
    e)spher
    esasweasinwor
    kpl
    ace
    (publ
    i
    c)spheres.

    Syl
    vi
    aFeder
    ici(
    2013)ur
    gesthatfemini
    stmovementstoconsi
    dert
    hef actthat
    womanar
    enowfor
    cedint
    oproduct
    iveandrepr
    oduct
    ivel
    aborr
    esul
    ti
    nginadoubleday.

    Mar
    xistf
    emi
    nistCr
    it
    iquesofLi
    ber
    alFemi
    nism

    Calara Zetki
    n and Alexandera Kol
    lont
    aiar e opposed t of orms offemini
    sm t hat
    rei
    nforcedclassst
    atus.Theybeli
    evedthatliberalfemini
    sm woul dunderminet
    heefforts
    ofMar xi
    sm toimproveconditi
    onsforworkingcl ass.Marxistsupport
    edthemor er
    adical
    pol
    iti
    calpr ogram of liber
    ati
    ng women t hrough soci ali
    str evol
    uti
    on wit
    h special
    emphasi sonworkamongwomenandmat erial
    lychangingt hei
    rpositi
    ons.

    Jul
    i
    etMi
    tchel
    l

    I
    nt heear l
    y1970's,shesketchedapl ausiblet wo sy stem expl anati
    onofwomen' s
    oppression.Shesuggestedwomen'sstat
    usandf uncti
    onsar edeterminedbyt hei
    rrol
    es
    i
    nnotonl yproduct
    ionbutal
    sorepr
    oducti
    on, thesoci ali
    zat i
    onofchi l
    dren,andsexuali
    ty.
    Herthesis;becauseofthewaysinwhichpat r
    iarchalideol ogyhasconst ructedmenand
    womenpsy chewomenwoul dprobabl
    ycont inuet or emai nsubor dinat
    e.Tomenunt il
    thei
    rmi ndsandmenmi ndshadbeenli
    beratedf rom thei deat hatwomenar esomehow
    l
    essv al
    uabl ethanmen.

    Cr
    it
    iquesofMar
    xistFemi
    nism

    Mi
    tchel
    lreject
    edliber
    alf
    emini
    stsclai
    mt hatsoci
    alref
    ormsai
    medatgiv
    ingwomen
    moreeducati
    onal
    andoccupat
    ional
    opport
    unit
    ieswi
    llmakemen'
    sequal

    Women suff
    rage co-educati
    on st
    udi
    esand af
    fi
    rmativ
    e act
    ion pol
    i
    ciesmight
    changethewayfemi ni
    nit
    yi sex pr
    essedbutt
    hesepract
    icescoul
    dnotsi gni
    fi
    cant
    ly
    changet
    heover
    all
    statusofwomen.

    Concl
    usi
    on

    Thef
    undament
    algoal
    oft
    hesef
    emi
    nistneedst
    oremai
    nconst
    ant
    ;toencour
    agewomen

    67|Page
    ever
    ywheret
    ouni t
    ei nwhat
    everway
    stheycant
    oopposest
    ruct
    ureofoppr
    essi
    on,
    i
    nequal
    it
    yandinj
    usti
    ce.

    Psy
    choAnal
    yti
    cFemi
    nism

    Psychoanal
    yticandgenderf
    emi ni
    stsbel
    iev
    e“ women’swayofact
    ingi
    srooteddeepin
    women’spsy che.
    ”Forthepsychoanal
    yti
    cfeminist
    ,thei
    deal“
    humanpersonisablend
    ofposit
    ivef
    emi ni
    neandposi
    ti
    v emasculi
    netrai
    ts.
    ”

    I
    ntr
    oduct
    ion

    Psy choanal yti


    cf eminism i sat heoryofoppr essi
    on,whichassertsthatmenhav ean
    i
    nher entpsy chologicalneedt osubjugatewomen.Ther ootofmen' sdominationand
    women' ssubj ugati
    onl iesdeepwi t
    hinthehumanpsy che.Thisbranchoff emi nism
    seekst ogaininsi
    dei nt
    ohowourpsy chicli
    vesdev el
    opinordertobett
    erunderstandand
    changewomen' soppr essi on.Thispatter
    nofoppr essi
    oni si
    ntegrat
    edinsociet ythus
    creating and sust ai
    ning pat ri
    archy.Societalchange can be dev el
    oped t hrough
    discov eri
    ngt hesour ceofmen' sdomi nati
    onandwomen' ssubjugati
    on,whichl argel
    y
    residesunr ecognizedini ndivi
    dual'
    sunconscious.

    Ear
    lyChi
    ldhoodDev
    elopment

    Psychoanalyt
    icfemini
    sm concentratesonear
    lychil
    dhooddevelopment,
    explaini
    nghow
    genderisconstr
    uctedandpracticedonsociet
    al,f
    ami l
    i
    alandindivi
    duall
    evels.Si
    gmund
    Freud'
    stheori
    esofhumanpsy cheaswel lasLacan' sreworki
    ngofFr eud'stheor
    ies
    provi
    deafoundational
    frameworkf orthi
    sbodyoffeminism.

    TwoMai
    nSect
    ionsPsy
    choAnal
    yti
    cFemi
    nism

    Mi
    croLev
    el

    Thi
    ssect i
    on/br
    anch f
    ocuseson examining di
    ff
    erencesbetween women and men,
    part
    icul
    arl
    yonwomenpsy chologyaswellastheenvironmenti
    nwhichthepersonal
    i
    ty
    ofchil
    ddevel
    ops.Thi
    sincl
    udes;

    68|Page
    1. Chi
    l
    dhoodl
    ear
    ningandf
    ormat
    ion

    2. Rel
    ati
    onshi
    pswi
    thpar
    ent
    s

    3. Ear
    lysexual
    i
    tyt
    rai
    ts

    4. I
    tal
    soexpl
    orest
    heest
    abl
    i
    shmentofmascul
    i
    nit
    yandf
    emi
    nini
    ty.

    Macr
    oLev
    el

    I
    tinv
    est
    igat
    est
    heconst
    ruct
    ionofgender
    .Itencompasses:

    1.Exami
    nat
    ionofmascul
    i
    nit
    yandf
    emi
    nini
    ty

    2.Emer
    genceofadul
    tsexual
    i
    ty

    3.Cont
    inual
    rei
    nfor
    cementofpat
    ri
    archy

    Ital
    sost udiessoci
    etalinst
    it
    uti
    onssuchaseconomyandempl
    oyment
    ,sci
    enceand
    knowledge,art
    sandlanguage.

    Cent
    ralTopi
    cinPsy
    choAnal
    yti
    cFemi
    nism

    Theexplor
    ati
    onofwomen'srol
    easmotheranddaught
    eri
    sacent
    ralt
    opi
    cinpsy
    cho
    anal
    yti
    cfemini
    sm.Ear
    lyt
    heor
    ist
    ssuchas

    Jessi
    caBenj
    ami
    n ; JaneFl
    ax

    Dor
    othyDi
    nner
    sti
    en; NancyChodr
    ow

    Theyvi
    ewedmotheri
    ngasameanf orunder
    standi
    ngthecontinualpr
    oduct
    ion
    andr
    eproduct
    ionoft
    hest
    atusquoandt
    her
    efor
    eaplacewheresoci
    alchangecanoccur.

    Uti
    li
    zi
    ngFreud'
    stechniques,
    manypsychoanal
    yti
    cfemini
    stsexaminepeopl
    epr
    e-
    oedi
    palandoedi
    palexper
    iencesinrel
    ati
    ont
    ogenderandident
    it
    yfor
    mation.

    Mascul
    ini
    tyandFemi
    nini
    ty

    Util
    izi
    ng Freud'
    s obj ectr elati
    on t heory,Chodrew's examines the rel
    ationshi
    ps of
    mot hersandtheirchildr
    enandconcl udesthatfeminini
    tyi
    sthestrongrepresentati
    veof
    thestrongtietothemot her,wher east hemasculini
    tymanifest
    sitsel
    fasdi stancefrom
    mot herandfather.Mascul init
    yrepresent sthepossibil
    i
    tyofgrati
    fi
    cati
    onandf emini
    nit
    y
    signif
    iestheimpossibili
    tyofauni on.

    GenderRol
    e

    I
    tisbasedonhousehol
    dpr
    act
    icesoft
    hepar
    ent
    saswel
    lashow t
    hechi
    l
    drenar
    e

    69|Page
    soci
    ali
    zed on conscious and subconscious level
    s.Thisrei
    nfor
    ces boy's desi
    reto
    dominategirl
    sandgi rl
    '
    swi l
    li
    ngnesst ocooper ateandcompromisei ntheiragency
    .
    Psychoanalyt
    icfeministssuggestthatthekeyt ochangi
    nggenderconstr
    ucti
    oncanbe
    achi
    evedthroughalt
    eringparenti
    ngpr act
    ices.

    Dev
    elopmentofaPer
    son’
    sSexual
    it
    y

    Thedev elopmentofaper son'ssexual i


    tyalsobeganatanear l
    yage.Manypsy cho
    analyti
    ct heor i
    stsrecogni
    zedt hatchi l
    drenhavet hepotenti
    alofbisexualit
    ydur ingthe
    pre-oedi
    palst age oft heirli
    v es.Thr ough the combinati
    on ofpar enti
    ng and t he
    developmentofboy '
    s mascul ini
    tyand gi r
    l'
    sf emini
    nity
    ,theyar e socialized to be
    heterosexual .Thiscombi nati
    onr ei
    nforcesthesexualandf amili
    aldi vi
    siont hatthe
    chil
    dren wi tness from birt
    h.Boy s and gir
    ls adopttheirfather
    s and mot hersr ol
    e
    respecti
    v ely.Thusboy sjoinal argercol l
    ect
    ivegroupofmal es,whoi nt urndomi nate
    women,wher easgi r
    lsremaincl osedtot hei
    rmot her
    s,remaini
    ngont hemar gi
    noft he
    society,
    bei ngr ul
    edbymen.

    Psychoanaly
    ticfemi
    nism descr
    ibessociet
    yasar epr
    esent
    ati
    veofmen’
    sego,t
    hei
    r
    sense,ofsel
    f-i
    mport
    anceanddesiref
    orimmort
    ali
    ty.

    Cl
    assi
    cPsy
    choanal
    yti
    cFemi
    nistText
    s

    1.Judi
    thBut
    ler
    ,“GenderTr
    oubl
    e”

    I
    texpl
    oresinf
    luenceofmater
    nalcareont
    heemer gi
    ngsel
    f,soci
    aloppr
    essi
    onofwomen
    on t
    he basis ofpresumed genderdif
    fer
    ences,oedi
    palconfli
    ctand het
    erosexual
    i
    denti
    fi
    cat
    ion.

    2.NancyChodr
    ow,
    “TheRepr
    oduct
    ionofMot
    her
    ing”

    3.Hel
    eneCi
    xous,
    “TheLaughoft
    heMedusa”

    4.Ter
    esaDel
    aur
    eti
    s,“
    Ali
    cedoesn’
    tandt
    hePr
    act
    iceofLov
    e”

    5.Dor
    othyDi
    nner
    stei
    n,“
    TheMer
    mai
    dandt
    heMi
    not
    aur
    ”

    6.El
    i
    zabet
    hGr
    osz,
    “Vol
    ati
    l
    eBodi
    es”

    7.LuceI
    ri
    gar
    ay,
    “TheSexWhi
    chi
    sNotOne”

    8.Jul
    i
    aKr
    ist
    eva,
    “Desi
    rei
    ntheLanguageandTal
    esofLov
    e”

    9.Jul
    i
    etMi
    thcel
    l
    ,“Women’
    sEst
    ateandPsy
    choanal
    ysi
    sandFemi
    nism”

    10.
    Jacqul
    i
    neRose,
    “Femi
    nineSexual
    i
    ty”

    70|Page
    Cr
    it
    ique

    1.Duetof ocusonearl
    yhumandevel
    opment,t
    hefewstrat
    egi
    esof
    feredforcr
    eati
    ng
    changepr i
    mari
    lyconcent
    rat
    eonthi
    sparentandrel
    i
    antuponparentr
    aisi
    ngtheir
    chi
    ldren.

    2.Thet heor
    iesthatpr
    ovidefoundat
    ionf ormostoft
    hiskindoffeminism r
    elyon
    FreudandLacan.Manyoft heset heori
    stsar
    emisogynist
    icandplacemeni n
    posit
    ionofsuperi
    ori
    tyoverwomen.

    3.Psychol
    ogicaltheor
    yi nt
    erpr
    etedthefemini
    neexperi
    encel
    argelyonr el
    ati
    onto
    masculi
    nit
    y,whichisoneoft hecri
    ti
    quesofsci
    enceandtechnologyoff
    eredby
    psy
    choanalyti
    cf emi
    nism.

    Concl
    usi
    on

    Likeli
    ber
    al,
    radicalandMarxi
    stfemini
    sm,psy
    choanaly
    ticf
    emi
    nist
    shav
    enotpr
    ovi
    deda
    total
    l
    ysati
    sfyi
    ngexplanat
    ionforfemal
    esubor
    dinat
    ion.

    Dualpar
    ent
    ingisnotapanaceaforallwomenwoe’
    sandnorMi
    tchel
    l
    ’s,I
    ri
    gar
    ay’
    s
    at
    temptt
    oresol
    vet
    heOedi
    paltal
    eissuf
    fi
    cient
    .

    PostModer
    nFemi
    nism

    I
    ntr
    oduct
    ion

    Despit
    ethediversi
    tyinpost-
    moder nfeministt
    hought ,i
    tisoft
    enclai
    medt hatalar
    ge
    numberofpost modernfeminist
    st aketheirint
    ell
    ectualcuesfr
    om psychoanal
    yst
    sli
    ke
    Jacques Lacan,exist
    enti
    ali
    stsl i
    ke Siomone de Beauv oi
    r,deconstr
    ucti
    oni
    stsli
    ke
    JacquesDerri
    daandpost-cul
    turi
    stslikeMichaelFoucault
    .

    JacquesDer
    ri
    da

    LikeJacquesLacan,JacquesDerr
    idafocusedmuchofhisworkonthemechani
    smsof
    theSy mboli
    cOr der
    ,i.
    e.,t
    heseri
    esofi nt
    errel
    atedsi
    gn,r
    olesandr
    itual
    sachil
    dmust
    i
    nt er
    nali
    zeinordertofuncti
    onadequatel
    yinsociet
    y.Themoreachildsubmi
    tstot
    he

    71|Page
    l
    i
    nguisti
    crul
    esofsociety,
    themor ethoseruleswillbeinscri
    besinhis/herunconscious.
    I
    n otherwor ds,the symbol i
    c orderr egulat
    es societyt hr
    ough t he r
    egulati
    on of
    i
    ndi
    vidual
    s;aslongasindi
    vidualsspeakt helanguageoft hesymbolicorder
    -i
    nternal
    izi
    ng
    i
    tsgender,
    raceandclassroles-soci
    etyreproducesitsel
    finconstantforms.

    Hel
    eneCi
    xous

    Cixousprimari
    lyanov el
    i
    stexperi
    ment i
    ngwi t
    hliterarystyle.Shecont
    rastedfemi nine
    writ
    ingwithmasculinewriti
    ng.Vi
    ewedwi t
    hinapsy choanalyticfr
    amework,sheobser ved,
    masculinewrit
    ingrootedinaman’ sgenit
    alandlibidinaleconomywhichisembl emi zed
    byt hephall
    us.Forav ari
    etyofsociocul
    turalr
    easons,mascul i
    newri
    ti
    ngshav er ei
    gned
    supremeov erfemi
    ninewr i
    ti
    ng.

    Ci
    xoushasobjectedtomasculi
    newr i
    ti
    ngandthinkingbecausetherearecastin
    binar
    yoppositi
    ons.Manhasunnecessaril
    ysegmentedr eali
    tybycoupli
    ngconceptand
    termsinpair
    sofpolaropposit
    es,
    oneofwhi chi
    salwayspr i
    vil
    egedovertheother
    .Inher
    essaysort
    ies,Ci
    xousli
    stedsomedichot
    omouspairs:

    Act
    ivi
    ty/
    Passi
    vi
    ty ; Sun/
    Moon

    Cul
    tur
    e/Nat
    ure : Day
    /Ni
    ght

    Thoughthasal
    way
    swor
    kedt
    hroughopposi
    ti
    on.

    Speaki
    ng/
    Wri
    ti
    ng ; Hi
    gh/
    Low

    Thr
    oughDual
    ,Hi
    erar
    chi
    calOpposi
    ti
    ons.

    Accor
    dingt oCi
    xous,eachoft hesedi chotomiesfindsit sinspir
    ati
    onintheman-
    woman.Mani sassociatedwi t
    hallt
    hati sactive.Cul
    tural
    light,high,orgener
    all
    yposi
    ti
    ve,
    whereaswomani sassociatedwithal lthatispassi v
    e,nat ural,dark,l
    ow orgener
    all
    y
    negati
    ve.Mani sthesel
    f;womani stheot her.Thus,womanexi stsinman’ sworl
    donhis
    ter
    ms.Shei seit
    hertheotherforman, orshei sunthought-of.

    Ci
    xouschallengedwoment owrit
    ethemselv
    esoutofthewor l
    dmenconst r
    ucted
    f
    orwomen.ForCi xous,femi
    ninewri
    ti
    ngsisnotmerelyanewstyleofwrit
    ing,
    iti
    s:“The
    v
    erypossibi
    l
    ityofchange,t hespacethatcanserveasaspr ingboar
    dt osubversi
    ve
    t
    hought,
    theprecursorymovementofatransf
    ormati
    onofsoci
    alandcult
    uralst
    andards.
    ”

    By devel
    opi
    ng femi
    nine wr
    it
    ing,she i
    nsi
    sted,women can change t
    he way
    West
    ernwor l
    dthi
    nks,
    speaksandacts.

    Mi
    chelFoucaul
    t

    Li
    keDer
    ri
    daandCi
    xous,Mi
    chelFoucaul
    t,saw t
    hei
    ndi
    vi
    dualper
    sonast
    hepr
    oductor

    72|Page
    eff
    ectofa v ar
    ietyofpowerr el
    ati
    ons manifested t
    hrough pl
    urali
    tyofdi scourses.
    Accordi
    ng to Foucaul
    t,discourse about sexuali
    tyi s pri
    mary sit
    e of power i n
    contempor
    arysociet
    y.Hesai d,wearel i
    ter
    all
    y“poli
    ced”nusociet y
    ’sdiscourseabout
    sexual
    it
    y.Madam Sur ap comment ed thatin Foucault
    ’sv i
    ew “complex diff
    erenti
    al
    rel
    ati
    onshi
    psextendtoeveryaspectofoursoci
    al,cul
    turalandpol
    i
    ticall
    iv
    es.”

    Foucaul
    tclai
    medt hatoften,weareunawareofthesoci
    alfor
    cesthathav e
    const
    it
    utedoursexualsubj
    ecti
    vi
    ty.Fort
    hisr
    eason,weoperat
    eontheunquest
    ioning
    assumpti
    onthatoursubj
    ect
    ivi
    tyi
    sourown.Heconduct
    edthi
    sanal
    ysi
    stoper
    mitothers
    tohel
    pust r
    ansf
    orm ourr
    eali
    ti
    es.

    Judi
    thBut
    ler

    AlthoughJudithisinfl
    uencedbymanyt hinkers,sheiscertai
    nlyinfl
    uencedbyFr eud,
    Der r
    idaandFoucault.I
    nGenderTr oubl
    e,But l
    erchal
    lengedthegener alview t
    hatsex,
    genderandsexual i
    tyconsti
    tut
    eawebsucht hati
    faper sonisbiological
    l
    yf emal
    e( xx
    chromosomes) ,shewi l
    ldispl
    ayfemini
    net rait
    sanddesi remenassexualpar t
    ners.
    Instead,But
    lercl
    aimedthattherei
    snonecessar yconnecti
    onbetweenasper son’
    ssex
    andaper son’sgender
    .

    Shesaid,wit
    hinthediscur
    siveterr
    it
    oryofheter
    osexual
    it
    y,notonl
    yisgender
    constr
    uctedbutsot ooisseconst r
    ucted.Genderandsex,sai
    dButler
    ,ar
    emor eli
    ke
    ver
    bst hatnouns.Shefurt
    hersaidthatgenderandsexareidenti
    ti
    esonechoosesto
    perf
    orm.

    Cr
    it
    iqueofPost
    moder
    nFemi
    nism

    1.Somecr iti
    csr ej
    ectall‘post modernf emini
    sm foracademi cians’
    .Ast heyseei t
    ,
    postmodernf emi ni
    sm/feministsar edel
    iberat
    elyopaque,viewingcl ar
    it
    yasoneoft he
    sevendeadl ysinsofthephal logocentr
    icorder.Accor
    dingtot hesecr i
    ti
    cs,post
    moder n
    feminist
    s“ use language and i deas i
    n such a specif
    ic wayt hatno one else can
    understandwhatt heyaredoing.”

    2.Conv i
    ncedthatButler ’
    sthoughtinpar ti
    cul
    arismor ethanjargonf oranelitegr oupof
    feminist
    sandot hersoci alcri
    ti
    cs,Nussbaum t r
    ivi
    ali
    zedBut l
    er’
    si deasaboutr esistance.
    Nussbaum mai ndisagr eementwi thButlerist
    hatBut l
    erseemst or educeresi stancet o
    ‘
    jabbing’atone’
    soppr essor s.Indeed,inNussbaum’ sestimation,But l
    erdel i
    ght sint he
    roleofbei ngoppressed.Speci fi
    call
    y,Nussbaum cl ai
    medt hatt hecent ralt hesisof
    Butler
    ’sbook‘ThePsy chicLifeofPower ’i
    s,“t
    hatweal lerotici
    zet hepowerst ructure
    thatoppressesus,andcant husfundsexual pl
    easureonlywithint heirconf
    ines. ”

    I
    not
    herwor
    ds,

    73|Page
    “Realsocialchange woul
    d be so upr
    ootourpsy
    ches t
    hati
    twoul
    d make sexual
    sati
    sfact
    ionimpossi
    ble.
    ”

    Wewouldbeforcedt
    ogiv
    eupoursexualpaci
    fi
    ersi
    fweweretoengagei
    nbona
    f
    idesoci
    alr
    esol
    uti
    on,
    andaboveall
    ,wedon’
    twanttol
    osewhatper
    sonal
    l
    y“tur
    nsuson”
    .

    Nussbaum f
    oundthi
    sconclusi
    onaboutust
    rul
    ysad.Sheassert
    edthatper
    sonal
    sexualpleasur
    eisnotourobj
    ect
    ive.Rat
    her
    ,doi
    ngwellf
    orother
    sisthepurposeofour
    l
    ives.

    Concl
    usi
    on

    Postmoder nf emini
    st sandfeministsoft odayshareacommont endencytot hi
    nnon-
    binar
    y, non-opposit
    ionalwhetherpostmoder nfemini
    stscanbycarv i
    ngtheblockandby
    speaking and wr iti
    ng,help ov er
    come bi nary opposit
    ion,phal
    l
    ocent r
    ism and logo
    centr
    ism,i snotcer tai
    n.Whatiscer t
    ain,howev er
    ,isthattheti
    mehascomef oranew
    concept ualorder
    .

    WAVESOFFEMI
    NISM

    Fir
    stWav eoffemini
    sm stemmedpr imari
    lyfr
    om wr i
    tingspubli
    shedinCanada,t
    he
    Uni
    tedKingdom,t
    heNetherlands,andtheUnitedStates.Thiswav efocusedont
    he
    st
    ruggl
    eforwomen’
    spoli
    ti
    cal r
    ight
    s;i
    npart
    icul
    ar,i
    temphasizedtheri
    ghttovote.

    74|Page
    Twoi mpor t
    antdat esemer gedduringthet i
    meofFi r
    stWav ef emini
    sm:1848,whent he
    fi
    rstWomen’ sRi ght sConv enti
    on washel din Seneca,New Yor kand 1920,when
    passage oft he 19t h Amendmentended women’ s suffrage inthe United Stat
    es.
    Throughoutt heer aofFi r
    stWav ef eminism,womenf oughtf orandwont herightto
    executewi l
    l
    s,t herighttochooset heirprofessi
    onsandownpr oper
    tyinthei
    rname,t he
    l
    egalizati
    onofdi v
    or ce,ther i
    ghttobegr antedcustodyoft heirchil
    dreninadi vorce,
    educationalaccess, andther i
    ghttovoteinaneducationsetting

    SecondWav ef eminism begani nt he1960si nt heUnitedStateStat


    esandi sreferredt o
    ast heWomen’ sLiber at
    ionMov ement .I
    n1963,Bet t
    yFr i
    edan’
    sTheFemi nineMy stique
    i
    dent i
    fiedt hei ssues,expect at
    ions, androl
    est hatwomenpl ayi
    nsociet
    yas“ thepr oblem
    thathasnoname, ”andSecondWav efemini
    sm t ur
    nedi t
    sfocustosexuali
    tyandi dent i
    ty,
    fami l
    yr oles,wor kplacei nequi
    ty,abor t
    ionr i
    ghts,andt heabil
    it
    ytocontrolrepr
    oduct i
    on.
    Thiswav eoff eminism encapsul atedtheEqualPayLawsandEqualRi ghtsAmendment .
    Addi t
    ional l
    y,i
    test ablishedmar it
    alr apelaws,domest icviol
    encecenter
    s,aidforbat tered
    women, andt heNat ionalOr ganizationforWomen.

    Thir
    d Wav e offemini
    sm began between 1980 and 1990 and isref
    err
    ed t
    o as
    postmodernfemini
    sm.Itori
    ginat
    edasabackl ashtocrit
    icaldef
    ici
    enci
    esper
    ceiv
    ed
    thr
    oughouttheer
    aofSecondWav efemini
    sm.

    Four maj or t heoreti


    cal per specti
    ves cont r
    ibut
    e t o post moder n feminism:
    i
    nt ersectional
    it
    yt heory,postmoder nist and post str
    uctural
    i
    st approaches,gl obal
    femi nism,and t he agenda ofa new gener ati
    on ofy oungerfeministsthatwer e
    discont entwi t
    ht hepr evi
    ousst ateoff eministtheory.Thir
    dWav efemi ni
    sttheor i
    sts
    rejectt het r
    adit
    ionalideaoff emi ni
    nit
    yandi ncorpor
    atecomponentsofqueert heory,
    transgenderpol iti
    cs,inter
    sect
    ionsbet weenr aceandgender ,
    andindi
    viduali
    stfeminism
    i
    nt heirst udi
    esofwomen.

    1stwavefemini
    sm:vot
    ingr
    ight
    s,proper
    tyr
    ights,bi
    rt
    hcontrolt
    hatexi
    stedatt
    het
    ime-
    condomsorspongesand,j
    ustasimport
    ant
    , educat
    ionaboutsexual
    it
    yandhowto
    prev
    entconcept
    ion.

    2ndwav
    efemini
    sm:sexualfr
    eedom, l
    egisl
    ati
    veworkt
    ochangesexistl
    aw,
    int
    egr
    ati
    on
    i
    ntot
    heworkpl
    ace,
    equalfundi
    ng,i
    ntegrati
    onint
    othepol
    i
    tical
    arena.

    3rdwavefemi
    nism:sexualf
    reedom,inclusi
    onofgenderedfemales,di
    ver
    sit
    y,i
    nclusi
    on
    ofwomenofcol orandwomenf rom othercul
    tur
    es-plustheissuessurr
    oundingboth
    1stand2ndwavefemini
    sm.

    TheFi
    rstWav
    eFemi
    nism

    Backgr
    ound

    75|Page
    I
    nbr
    oadhi
    stor
    icalt
    erms,
    theper
    iodoff
    ir
    stwav
    efemi
    nism maybedat
    edt
    oincl
    udepr
    e-
    ni
    net
    eent
    h-cent
    uryexpr
    essi
    onsofconcer
    naboutt
    her
    ight
    sofwomen.I
    npar
    ti
    cul
    ar,
    the
    Fr
    enchRev
    olut
    ionof1789i
    sof
    teni
    dent
    if
    iedast
    hear
    enai
    nwhi
    cht
    hef
    ir
    stconcer
    ted
    demandsf
    orwomen’
    sri
    ght
    swer
    emade.Mor
    eov
    er,i
    twasani
    mpor
    tanti
    nfl
    uenceon
    Mar
    yWol
    l
    stonecr
    aft
    ,whoseVi
    ndi
    cat
    ionoft
    heRi
    ght
    sofWomen,publ
    i
    shedi
    nBr
    it
    aini
    n
    1792,
    iswi
    del
    yrecogni
    sedast
    hef
    ir
    stsubst
    ant
    ial
    andsy
    stemat
    icf
    emi
    nistt
    reat
    ise.

    Howev
    er,
    fir
    stwav
    efemi
    nism (
    inBr
    it
    ainandt
    heUSA)i
    smostof
    tendat
    edasoccur
    ri
    ng
    bet
    ween1880sandt
    he1920s.I
    thadasi
    tspr
    inci
    palconcer
    nwomen’
    sat
    tai
    nmentof
    equal
    i
    tywi
    thmenandt
    her
    efor
    efemi
    nistanal
    ysesandcampai
    gni
    ngcent
    redar
    ound
    secur
    ingl
    egi
    sl
    ati
    onchange.

    I
    ntr
    oduct
    ion

    Fir
    stWav eoff eminism refer
    st oaper iodoff emini
    stacti
    vi
    tyi nthelate19TH andearly20TH
    Century.I
    tf ocusedondej ure(offi
    cial
    l
    ymandat ed)i
    nequali
    ties,pr
    imaril
    yi ngaini
    ngwomen
    suff
    rage( r
    ightt ov ote).Thiswav elaidthef oundati
    onforf uturegenerati
    onsandpr ovi
    ded
    womenwi t
    hsel f-
    belief.I
    tbasicall
    yemer gedoutofanenv ir
    onmentofur banindustr
    ial
    i
    sm and
    l
    iberal
    ,soci
    al poli
    ti
    cs.Itemphasi zedont heagendaofopeningupoppor tunit
    iesforwomen.

    Hi
    stor
    ical
    Dev
    elopmentandEv
    olut
    ion:

    Alt
    hought her ootoff emi nism i
    smuchdebat edandhi storydidrecordmanyev ents,thereis
    enoughr ecordedev idencesaboutt hehi storyoff i
    rstwav eoff eminism.Thef i
    rstwav eof
    feminism findsitsrootsi nt heFrenchr evoluti
    onbuti twasMar yWol l
    stonecr af
    t’sfamousbook
    “Av indicati
    onofr ightofwomen”i n1794t hatprovidedt hemuchneededi mpet usforpeopl eto
    demandanddebat ethei nequaliti
    esagai nstwomen.Thesecondmaj orat temptwasmadei n
    1848i nt he“ Senecaf al
    lsconv ention”,wher e300menandwomendi scussedt heissueof
    womenr i
    ghts.Oneoft hef amousact i
    vist
    si nthisconv entionwasEl i
    zabethCadySt ant
    onwho
    outl
    inedt heissueofwomenequal ityandpol i
    ti
    calrights.Thirdmajorattemptwasmadedur i
    ng
    1898“ IncidentofI ll
    egalVot i
    ng”wher eagr oupofwomenv i
    olent
    lyattackedapol li
    ngst ati
    on
    andcast edt heirvotedi l
    l
    egal l
    y.Thegr oupofwomengotar r
    estedandoneoft hem SusanneB
    Anthonygavet hespeechaf terar
    restofi ll
    egal v
    oting.

    Maj
    orCont
    ri
    but
    orsandt
    hei
    rrol
    e:

    Duri
    ng the fir
    stwave off emini
    sm manyr esearchers and soci
    ologist
    s contr
    ibuted i
    nt he
    mov ementf orwomen rights ,especial
    lylegaland pol i
    ti
    calri
    ght s.Sojour
    nerTr uth and
    E.W.Harperwerepromi
    nentwi t
    hthei
    ragi t
    ati
    onf ortherightsofcol
    or edwomen.Whi l
    eanother
    acti
    vistMaryChurchTer
    rellvoi
    cedagainstrace,sexism andallwhit
    epeopl edomi nanceinthe

    76|Page
    poli
    ti
    cal
    ,economicandsoci alspheres.Oneoft heoldestorgani
    zati
    onsforwomenwor ker
    “Nati
    onalLaborUni
    onConventi
    on”playedi
    tsrol
    einhighl
    ight
    ingthepl
    ightofwomenr
    ight
    s.

    Obj
    ect
    ives:

    1)Suffr
    agewast hebiggestmot iv
    ebehindthi
    swav eofmov ement.Suff
    rageinsi
    mpleterms
    meanst heri
    ghttovote,onthesamet er
    msasmen.
    2)Women wer e exploit
    ed economically
    . Thi
    s mov ement demanded equal employ
    ment
    opportuniti
    esforwomen.
    3)Otheri ssues weret he expansi
    on ofeducat
    ionaloppor
    tuni
    ti
    es.Along wi
    ththe l
    egaland
    accessiblebir
    thcontrol
    .

    Theor
    eti
    cal
    Ori
    ent
    ati
    on:

    Whileonegr oup off emi ni


    stspr ot est
    ed and t ookt o st
    reets,theot hergr oup worked for
    theoreti
    calint er
    pr et
    ati
    onandawar enessamongt hemassesespeci al
    lywomen.Theywer e
    call
    ed t he liberalf eminist
    s.The mostpr omi nentname i nt hi
    s mov ementwas Mar y
    Wol l
    stonecraftwhosebookef f
    ecti
    v elymot i
    v at
    edpeopl eandwasapar toftheFr enchrevol
    uti
    on.
    Sheadv ocat edf orthedi gni
    ty,i
    ntelligenceandt hebasichumanpot entialofwomen.Anot her
    name was Si mone. De.Beauvoirs whose book“ Second Sex” wasone oft he pill
    arsoft his
    mov ementandal socontri
    butedtot henextwav eoff emini
    sm.Thebooki sadet ail
    edanalysi
    sof
    womenoppr essionandaf oundati
    onalt ractofcont emporaryfeminism.Vi r
    giniaWool fwrot
    et he
    book“ Ar oom ofOne’ sown”i nwhi chshedi scussedbisexuali
    ty.

    Achi
    evement
    s:

    Themov ementachievedalmostever
    ythi
    ngithadstoodfor
    ,allt
    hebasi chumanr i
    ghtst
    hat
    womendeser v
    ed.Thehi ghereducat
    ionopenedupf orwomen,alongwi t
    hr ef
    ormsingir
    ls
    secondaryschoolsystem.Ther
    ewaswi deni
    ngofpr
    ofessi
    onsandparti
    cipat
    ionwasall
    owedin
    for
    mal nati
    onalexaminati
    on.

    Anot hermaj
    orachievementwas “Mar r
    iedWomen’spropert
    iesact”in1870attheUnited
    Kingdom.Whi l
    einU.Sin1920aSuff
    ragebil
    lwaspassedandwomenwer egiv
    enthei
    rdueri
    ght
    tov ote.
    Anot
    herimportantmil
    est
    onewast heaccesstoequalemploymentri
    ght
    sin almost
    enti
    rewesternworl
    d.

    Concl
    usi
    on:

    Thiswasoneoft hef oundat


    ionstoneforgenderequali
    ty;t
    hemovementachi
    evedalli
    tsai
    ms
    forpolit
    ical
    ,economicandsoci alri
    ght
    s.Thelibert
    yenjoyedbywomentodayevenisowedt o
    theeffortsoft
    hisfi
    rstwav emov ement
    .Thi
    smov emental
    sodefi
    nedt
    hefutur
    ecourseofact
    ion
    forthesecondandt hi
    rdwav estocomenextfewdecades.

    TheSecondFemi
    nistWav
    e:“
    ThePer
    sonalI
    sPol
    it
    ical
    ”

    77|Page
    Hi
    stor
    icalDev
    elopment

    Second-
    wavef emini
    sm isaper i
    odoff emi ni
    stactiv
    itythatfi
    rstbeganint heearl
    y1960s
    i
    ntheUnitedStates,andeventual
    lyspreadt hroughouttheWest ernworldandbey ond.I
    n
    theUnit
    edSt atesthemov ementl astedt hr
    ought heear ly1980s.I tlaterbecamea
    worl
    dwidemov ementthatwasst r
    ongi nEur opeandpar t
    sofAsi a,suchasTur keyand
    I
    srael
    ,wherei
    tbegani nthe1980s, andi tbeganatot herti
    mesi nothercountri
    es.

    TheSuccessofthefi
    rstwavehadgivenFeminist
    sabel iefthattheycouldachi
    evet
    heiragenda
    thr
    oughprot
    estsandpubli
    cawareness.Itwasini
    tiat
    edint he1960’sinU.Sandalmostinst
    antl
    y
    spreadt
    hroughoutt
    hewest er
    nwor ld.Womenr eal
    izedthatget ti
    ngequalopport
    unityisnot
    makingt
    hem equalt
    omenandt heyar esti
    l
    ldepri
    vedofthei rbasi
    cright
    s.

    Backgr
    ound:

    Thewor l
    dpowersweretryi
    ngt orecov erfr
    om theaf t
    ermat hoftheSecondWor ldWar,i
    nwhi ch
    therewer ehugeeconomicandhumani tar
    ianlosses.Int heearl
    y60’saci v
    ilri
    ghtsmov ement
    hadst art
    edinU.Sagainstthet r
    eat mentofCol oredwomen,whower ekil
    ledbrut
    all
    y.Ont he
    othersidether
    ewasapol it
    icalupri ngbyMar
    si ti
    nLutherKingagainstt
    he“Amer i
    caninvasionof
    Vietnam”.Wi t
    hthisbackgroundpeopl ewer ealreadyont hest r
    eet
    spr otest
    ingagainstthe
    “Socio-
    Economic”and“Soci
    o-Poli
    tical”poli
    ciesofthegov ernment.

    Dev
    elopmentof2ndWav
    e

    Equali
    tyhadnotbeenachievedbyenfr
    anchisementandsoitwastimetorefl
    ectonli
    febeyond
    thepublicspher
    e.Sot heybecameapar toftheongoingpr ot
    estsandpr ov
    idedtheirown
    agenda.n 1963 Bet
    I tyFr i
    edan wr
    oteaf amous book “Femini
    ne Myst
    ique”.She expli
    cit
    ly
    object
    edtohow womenwer edepi
    ctedinthemai nst
    ream mediaandhow thei
    rpotenti
    alwas
    wastedathome.

    Coi
    ningt m 2ndWav
    heTer e:

    In1968anarti
    clewaspubli
    shedi
    n“ NewYorkTi
    mes”byMart
    aLearinwhi ch,
    shewrot
    ethatt
    il
    l
    nowitwasfi
    rstwaveoffemini
    sm butnowt
    hesecondwaveoffemi
    nism hasbegun.

    Cl
    aims:

    Second- wav ef emini


    sm br oadenedt hedebat etoawi der angeofi ssues:sexual i
    ty,family,the
    workplace,r eproductiv
    er ights,de f actoi nequali
    ti
    es,domest icv i
    olence and of f
    iciallegal
    i
    nequal it
    ies.Whi l
    ethest r
    uggl eforthev oteremainedthesy mboliccent eroffi
    rstwav ef eminism,
    arguablyf orsecondwav ef eministst hekeysi t
    eofst r
    uggl ewast hef emalebodyi tself–i ts
    representationandt hemeani ngsatt achedt ot hebaldf actofbiologicaldif
    ference.Femi nists
    protestedf orpr omotionofwomenpar ti
    cipati
    oninpolit
    ics,equalfundi ngforeducat i
    onofbot h
    gendersandwomeni nt
    egrationintot hewor kplace.

    Act
    ivi
    sm dur
    ingSecondWav
    e:

    78|Page
    Thesl ogan“ theper sonali spol iti
    cal”sumsupt hewayi nwhi chsecondwav eoff emini
    sm
    stri
    vedt oext endt hesoci aloppor t
    uniti
    esf orwomen.Theysawwomen’ scult
    uralandpol it
    ical
    i
    nequal it
    iesasi nextri
    cabl ylinked and encour aged women t o underst
    and aspect soft heir
    personall if
    easdeepl ypol it
    icized.Famoussl oganslike“ Mi ssAmer icaPageant s”,“Nomor e
    MissAmer ica”and“BoringJobswomenwant edandl ow payj obswomenwant ed” .Acti
    vists
    protestedagai nsttheMi ssAmer icaev entclassify
    ingitasdegr adingtohumanbei ngs.Ther ed
    stockings, t
    heNewYor kr adi
    calf emi ni
    st sandot hersignif
    icantf emini
    stgroupsjoinedt he1969
    protesttoshowhowwomeni npageantcompet it
    ionswer epar adedlikecattl
    e.Itwasobv i
    ous
    earl
    yont hatthemov ementwasnotauni t
    edone,wi thdifferencesemer gi
    ngbet weenblack
    feminism, lesbianfemi nism,li
    ber alfemi nism andsocial f
    emi nism.

    Cont
    ri
    but
    orsandOr
    gani
    zat
    ions:

    Thetwot heori
    stswhobecamet hedr
    ivi
    ngforcebehindt hi
    smov ementwereBet t
    yFrei
    danand
    SimonedeBeauv oi
    r.Bet
    tyFreidanbook“ f
    emi ni
    neMy sti
    que”i
    n1963cr i
    ti
    cizedtheideathat
    women coul d onl
    yf i
    nd f
    ulfi
    l
    lmentt hr
    ough chil
    dbeari
    ng and homemaki ng.The book was
    comprisedofi nter
    viewmateri
    alwithwoment hatbuttr
    essedt hefact
    sreport
    edbycommi ssion
    repor
    t.Itbecamet heimmediatebestsel
    ler
    .

    Theot herinfl
    uentalbookbySi
    i monedeBeauvoir’
    s“ SecondSex”publi
    shedinit
    ial
    l
    yin1949i
    n
    Frenchandt heninEngl ishin1953.Shehighli
    ghtedt heoppressi
    onagainstwomen.Mary
    Wol l
    stonecraf
    tconsideredment obemadei dealtowar dwomenshoul dinspi
    re.Si
    monede
    Beauv oi
    rarguesthatforfemini
    sm t
    omov ef
    orward,thisatt
    it
    udemustbekeptaside.

    Twoor ganizati
    ons“Nat i
    onalConferenceofNew Pol i
    ti
    cs”and“Chi cagoWomenLi ber
    ation
    Union”playedtheirpartinthismovementbypr omoti
    ngt hei
    rcauseandpr ovi
    dingaf
    ormidable
    plat
    for
    mt hatcouldappr oachlegali
    nstit
    uti
    onsandt hegov er
    nment .Frustr
    atedbywhatt hey
    sawasabl atantdisregar
    df orspi
    ri
    toflaw,TheNat i
    onalOrganizat
    ionf orWomen( NOW)was
    formedin1966.I t
    ’sfuncti
    ont oper
    for
    m asal egal
    “watchdog”forwomen.

    Legal
    Vict
    ori
    es:

    TheBettyFrei
    dan’
    sbookimpressedJ.F.
    Kennedyandheor der
    edaPr esi
    dent
    ialCommi ssi
    onon
    thestat
    usofwomen.A“ Civi
    lRight
    sAct ”
    waspassedi n1964t hatmadeitill
    egaltoprohibi
    t
    employmentonbasisofgender,
    raceandreli
    gion.I
    n1972“ Ti
    tl
    eIXinEducati
    onCode”f orbade
    discr
    imi
    nati
    onandcont r
    ibut
    edt oequalprovisi
    onf orwomeni nsportsandact i
    vi
    sm.Whi l
    e
    “EqualPayAct”waspassedi n1963andan“ EqualCredi
    tOpportuni
    tyAct”wasappr ovedin
    1973.

    Mi
    l
    est
    ones:

    TheSecondwav
    eofFemini
    sm gr
    ewi ni
    tsint
    ensit
    yandscopewi
    tht
    imeandr
    esul
    tedi
    nsome
    i
    mportantmi
    l
    est
    ones,
    whi
    chhavebecomethepil
    lar
    softhi
    smoder
    nsoci
    ety
    .

    Thenon-
    tr
    adi
    ti
    onalpr
    ofessi
    onssuchassci
    ent
    if
    icr
    esear
    ch,engi
    neer
    ing,andar
    chi
    tect
    urewer
    e

    79|Page
    neveropenforwomen.Thi smovementf ocusedont hisissueandsuccessf
    ullyopenedthedoor
    forfemalestoenterthesefiel
    dsofpr ofessions.Mor especif
    ical
    l
    ywomenwer erecruit
    edt o
    i
    nstit
    uti
    onsli
    ketheU.SAr myandN. A.
    S.A. Si milarl
    ywomenwhower eal
    lowedinUniv er
    sit
    ies
    now ther
    ewer eachangeofat ti
    tudetowardst hisissueaswel l
    .Anotherdimensionrelat
    edt o
    Educati
    onwasCo-Educationinschool
    sandcol l
    eges.

    Equal
    Right
    sAmendment
    :

    Sadlytheconsumeri
    sm oft
    he1980’ sl
    edmanypeopletobel
    i
    ev ethatfeminism was“dead”and
    nolongernecessar
    y.Thi
    scombi nedwit
    hlossofhopeaft
    ert
    hef ailur
    eoft heUStoratif
    yEqual
    Ri
    ght sAmendmentAct ,
    causedthesecondwavetoslowl
    ytr
    ickleaway .Al
    thoughalotofeffor
    t
    wasmadet omakeaconst i
    tuti
    onalamendmentbuti
    tcoul
    dnotpr oduceresult
    s.

    Cr
    it
    ici
    sm:

    ThehistoriographyoftheU.Ssecondwavefemi
    nism iscr
    iti
    cizedforf ai
    li
    ngtoacknowledgeand
    analy
    zet hemul tipl
    esit
    esoffemini
    sti
    nsur
    genci
    esofwomenofcol or,sil
    enci
    ngandignori
    ngthe
    div
    ersepr e-poli
    ti
    calandpoli
    ti
    cal
    devel
    opmentsthatoccur
    reddur i
    ngt histi
    me.Itdi
    sregar
    dedthe
    experi
    enceandcont ri
    buti
    onsofwomenofcolor
    ,workingcl
    assandl owerclassofwomen.

    Manyfeministschol
    arsseethegener
    ati
    onaldi
    vi
    sionoft
    hesecondwav
    easprobl
    emat i
    c.Baby
    boomerswer et hefol
    lower
    s,whil
    epostwor l
    dwarI Igener
    ati
    onwerel
    eadersresult
    ingin
    i
    deol
    ogicaldif
    fer
    ences.

    Concl
    usi
    on

    Second- wav efeminism isnotone,butmany .Asexpr essedbyf emi ni


    stcommuni cat i
    on
    scholarJul iaWood( 1994),thequest ionmaynotbewhet heryouar eaf emi ni
    st,but
    whichki ndoff eministyouar e.Thisquestionismul t
    ipl
    iedbyt heemer genceoft hird-
    wav efemi nism.Butbef orewet urntoemer gentf eminisms,letusconcludet hatsecond-
    wav ef emi nisms hav e been highlyt heoreti
    caland consequent lyhav e had strong
    affi
    l
    iati
    onswi t
    ht heacademy .St art
    ing int he1970s,second- wav ef eminismshav e
    generatedanexpl osionofr esearchandt eachingonwomen’ sissues,whi chhasnow
    growni ntoadi ver
    sedi scipl
    i
    naryf i
    eldofwomen’ s,gender,orfeministstudies.

    Amov ementthathasstar
    tedasasmallporti
    onoftheoveral
    lsociet
    alr
    efor
    msendedwith
    subst
    ant
    ialamountofachi
    evement
    sdespi
    tefai
    li
    nginit
    sori
    ginaldemandofequalr
    ight
    sact
    .
    Thiswaveoffemini
    sm gav
    ewoment hemuchneededimpet
    usandbel i
    eft
    ocomeatparwith
    themen.

    TheThi
    rdFemi
    nistWav
    e:Tr
    ansv
    ersal
    Pol
    it
    ics

    I
    ntr
    oduct
    ionandDef
    ini
    ti
    on

    80|Page
    Thir
    dwav ef emi nism hasnumer ousdef i
    nit
    ions,butper hapsi sbestdescribedinthe
    mostgener alt er
    ms as t he feminism ofa y oungergener ati
    on ofwomen who
    acknowledget hel egacyofsecondwav efemi ni
    sm,butal soi denti
    fywhattheyseeas
    i
    tslimit
    ations.Theseper cei
    vedlimit
    ati
    onswoul di
    ncludet heirsenset hati
    tr emai
    ned
    tooexcl
    usi v
    el ywhi t
    eandmi ddleclassthatitbecameapr escript
    ivemov ementwhich
    ali
    enat
    ed or di narywomen bymaki ng them f eelguiltyaboutenj oy
    ing aspects of
    i
    ndivi
    dualsel f-expressi
    on such as cosmet i
    cs and f ashion,butal so sexuali
    ty–
    especi
    all
    yhet erosexuali
    tyandit
    st r
    appings,suchaspor nography .

    Moreover,mostthir
    dwav erswouldassertthatthehistori
    calandpolit
    icalcondit
    ionsin
    whichsecondwav efeminism emergednol ongerexistandtheref
    oreitdoesnotchi me
    wit
    htheexper i
    encesoft
    oday ’swomen.Thirdwav efeminist
    sseem tolargelybewomen
    whohav egrownupmassi vel
    yinfl
    uencedbyf emi ni
    sm,possibl
    ywi t
    hf eministmothers
    andrelat
    ions,andaccustomedt otheexistenceofwomen’ sstudiescour sesast he
    nor
    m aswel lasacademi
    ci nterr
    ogati
    onsof‘race’andclass.

    Hi
    stor
    icalBackgr
    ound

    Begi nninginthe1990s,af tertheendofsecond- wavefeminism andt heFemi nistSex


    War s,thir
    d-wavef eminism beganwithami xt
    ureofdisgruntl
    edandunsur efemi ni
    sts
    and f eminist
    s bornint o a worl
    d wheref eminism had always existed.Third-wave
    feminism beganinawor l
    dwi t
    hpunkr ock,andthuscarvedoutt hesaf espaceofRi ot
    Grrrl
    .Thi r
    d-wavefeminism maybet hemostdi ver
    seandi ndi
    vidual
    ist
    icfeministwav eto
    date.

    Themov ementoft hi
    rd-
    wav ef emi
    nism f
    ocusedlessonlawsandt hepolit
    icalpr
    ocess
    andmor eonindi
    vidualidenti
    ty.Themov ementofthi
    rd-
    wavefeminism issaidtohave
    ari
    senoutofther eal
    izati
    ont hatwomenar eofmanycol or
    s,et
    hnicit
    ies,nati
    onal
    it
    ies,
    rel
    i
    gionsandcult
    uralbackgrounds.

    Cy
    berGr
    rl
    sGetOn-
    Line!

    Lipst
    ickfeminism,girl
    ief eminism,ri
    otgrrlf
    emi nism, cybergr
    rlfeminism, tr
    ansfemini
    sm,
    orjustgrrlf
    emi ni
    sm—f emi ni
    sm isaliveandki cking.Bor nwiththepr i
    v i
    legesthatfi
    rst-
    andsecond-wav efemi nistsfoughtfor,t
    hir
    dwav ef eminist
    sgener all
    yseet hemselvesas
    capable,strong,and asser ti
    ve socialagents:“ The Third Wav ei s buoyed byt he
    confi
    denceofhav ingmor eoppor t
    uniti
    esandl esssexi sm”Youngf eministsnowr ecl
    aim
    theterm“ gi
    rl”i
    nabidt oat tr
    actanothergeneration,whi l
    eengagingi nanew, moreself-
    asserti
    ve—ev enaggressiv e—butalsomor eplayfulandl esspompouski ndoff emini
    sm.

    Theydecl
    ared,i
    nthewordsofKarenMcNaught
    on(1997)
    ,“Andyesthat
    ’sGr
    rl
    swhichis,
    i
    nourcase,cyber-
    li
    ngof
    orGreat
    -Gir
    ls.Gr
    rli
    sal
    soayoungatheartt
    hingandnotl
    i
    mited

    81|Page
    totheunder18s.
    ”KarenMcNaught onisonlyoneofmanywhohav ebeenempower
    ed
    bythenewgrrlr
    hetor
    ic,
    whichori
    ginatedamonggirl
    s-onl
    ypunkbandssuchasBi
    ki
    niKi
    ll
    andBratMobil
    eintheUnit
    edStat
    esi ntheearl
    y1990s.

    Intheirmanif
    est
    o-l
    i
    kerecordi
    ng“ Revol
    utionGi
    rl
    -StyleNow”( 1990),Bi
    kiniKil
    lcelebrat
    ed
    theself-
    rel
    i
    anceandacti
    ngoutofpr epubescentgir
    lsandmi xedthefeministstr
    ategyof
    empower mentwiththeavant-gardeorpunkst rategyofD. I
    .Y.
    :“DoI tYourself.
    ”This
    messagewassoonabsor bedbyagr owi ngnumberof“ ri
    otgr r
    l”groupsal loverthe
    UnitedStat
    esandEuropeandfurtherspreadby“fanzines”andnet -
    based“e-zi
    nes.”

    Somer iotgrrl
    smadet henewinfor
    mationtechnol
    ogi
    esthepr i
    marypoi
    ntofdepart
    ure
    forthei
    ract i
    vism andascybergrr
    lsorNetgr rl
    sint
    roducedthem toothergi
    rl
    sand
    womeni nbookssuchasTheCy berpunkHandbook(1995),Fri
    endl
    yGrr
    lsGuidetothe
    I
    nternet–Int
    roduct
    ion(1996)
    ,andCybergr
    rl
    !AWoman’ sGui detotheWorldWideWeb
    (1998).

    Act
    ivi
    sm Dur
    ingt
    hir
    dWav
    e

    Themov ementhassi mult


    aneouslycri
    ti
    cizedsexistl
    anguage,appropri
    atedder ogatory
    ter
    msf orgirlsandwomen,andi nv
    entednew sel f-
    celebrat
    ingwordsandf ormsof
    communi cation.Assuch,thi
    rd-
    wavefeministshavefoll
    owedi nthefoot
    print
    sofgr oups
    l
    ikeQueerNat i
    onandNi ggerswithAtti
    tudebydepl oy i
    ngaki ndofl i
    nguisti
    cj uj
    i
    t su
    againstthei
    renemi es.I
    nsteadofcondemni ngthestereotypesusedagainstthem,they
    exaggeratethem, begi
    nni
    ngwi t
    htheverywor dgir
    l.

    Thir
    dWav eDi r
    ectActionCorporati
    onwasf oundedbyAmer i
    canf eministsRebecca
    WalkerandShannonLi ssasamul ti
    raci
    al,mult
    icul
    tur
    al,mul
    ti
    -i
    ssueor ganizat
    iont o
    suppor
    ty oungact iv
    ist
    s.Theorganizati
    on’
    si ni
    ti
    almissi
    onwast ofillav oi
    di ny oung
    women’sl eadershi
    pandt omobilizeyoungpeopl etobecomemor ei nvolv
    edsoci all
    y
    andpoli
    ti
    callyinthei
    rcommuniti
    es.

    Obj
    ect
    ives

    1.Thir
    d-wavef emini
    stsar
    emot i
    vatedbyt heneedtodev el
    opaf eministtheor
    yand
    pol
    it
    icsthathonorcontr
    adi
    ctor
    yexperi
    encesdeconst
    ructcat
    egor
    icalt
    hinking.

    InToBeReal :Telli
    ngt
    heTr ut
    handChangi ngtheFaceofFemi ni
    sm,edit
    orRebecca
    Walkerdescri
    bedt hedi
    ff
    icul
    tythaty
    oungerfemini
    stsexper
    iencewhenforcedt
    ot hi
    nk
    i
    ncat egor
    ies,whichdivi
    depeopl ei
    nto“ Us”and“Them,”orwhenf orcedtoinhabi
    t
    par
    ticul
    ari
    dentit
    iesaswomenorf emini
    sts.

    2.Thir
    d-wavefemini
    sts wantto avoi
    d st
    eppi
    ng int
    o mut
    ual
    ly oppr
    essi
    ve st
    ati
    c
    cat
    egor
    ies,and t
    heycallforaccept
    anceofa chaoti
    cworl
    d,whil
    esimult
    aneousl
    y

    82|Page
    embraci
    ng ambi
    guit
    yand f orming new al
    li
    ances.Thus,t hir
    d-wavefeminisms ar
    e
    def
    inednotbycommont heoret
    icalandpol
    it
    icalst
    andpoint(
    s),butrat
    herbytheuseof
    per
    formance,
    mimicr
    y,andsubversi
    onasrhetori
    calst
    rat
    egies.

    SomeThi
    rd-
    Wav
    eWr
    it
    ersandFemi
    nist
    sofNot
    e:

    RebbecaWal keri nherbookToBeRealcl aimedt hatthisisnotbecauset heylack


    knowl edgeoff emi ni
    sthistor
    yorbecauseoft hemedi a’shorri
    fi
    cone- si
    dedportray
    alof
    feminism.Qui tet othecont r
    ary,youngerfemi ni
    stshonort hewor kofear l
    i
    erfeminist
    s
    whilecr i
    ticizingear l
    ierfeminisms,andt heyst ri
    vet obri
    dgecont r
    adict
    ionsthatthey
    experiencei nt heirownl iv
    es.Theyembr aceambi guit
    yratherthancer t
    aint
    y,engagein
    multipleposi tions, andpracti
    ceast rat
    egyofi ncl
    usionandexpl orati
    on.Meanwhile,t
    hey
    proposedi fferentpol i
    ti
    cs,onet hatchall
    engesnot ionsofuni versalwomanhoodand
    arti
    culatesway si nwhi chgroupsofwomenconf rontcompl exinter
    secti
    onsofgender ,
    sexuality,
    r ace, class,andager el
    atedconcerns.

    GendertheoristJudi
    thBut lersi gnaledt hi
    sparadigmati
    cfemini
    stshifti
    nherbooks
    GenderTroubleandBodi esThatMat ter.Shefuelednewemergentmov ement
    ssuchas
    queerandtransgenderpolit
    ics,whi cht akeaninteresti
    nthei
    nter
    sect
    ionsofgenderand
    sexual
    it
    yandhel pedar t
    iculate“ perfor mancethird-
    wavefemini
    sm”asat heoret
    ical
    fr
    amewor koft hepol
    it
    icsoft ransgressi on.

    Anot hersigni
    ficantper
    specti
    vethathascontri
    but edtot hi
    rd-wavef eminism i
    sDonna
    Haraway ’
    s( 1987/1991)“cybor
    g,”whichhasal soi nspi
    redt hedev elopmentofcy ber
    feminism.What makes t hi
    s perspecti
    ve unique is Har away’
    s appr opr
    iat
    ion of
    technologyandherposthumanacknowl edgmentoft hei nteract
    ionbet weenhumans
    andnonhumans, whichblur
    sthedist
    inct
    ionsbetweenhumans, ani
    mal s,
    andmachi nes.

     Joan W.Scott– “Deconst


    ruct
    ing Equal
    i
    ty-
    Ver
    sus-
    Dif
    fer
    ence:Or
    ,the Uses of
    Post
    str
    uct
    ural
    i
    stTheor
    yforFeminism”

     Jenni
    ferBaumgar
    dner&AmyRi
    char
    ds–“
    Mani
    fest
    a”

     Gl
    ori
    aAnzaldua&Cherri
    eMor
    aga–“Thi
    sBri
    dgeCal
    l
    edMyBack, Al
    ltheWomenAre
    Whit
    e,Al
    ltheBlacksAr
    eMen,
    ButSomeofUsAreBr
    ave:
    BlackWomen’sSt
    udi
    es”

     El
    i
    zabet
    hWur
    tzel
    –“Bi
    tch:
    InPr
    aiseofDi
    ff
    icul
    tWomen”

     SusanFal
    udi
    –“Backl
    ash”

     Ev
    eEnsl
    er–“
    TheVagi
    naMonol
    ogues”

    Cl
    aims

    83|Page
    1.Broaderi
    ncl
    usionofrecogni
    ti
    on,spokenofcol
    or,sexualdi
    ver
    sit
    y,age(
    recogni
    ti
    on
    ofyounggir
    lsandol
    derwomen) ,andmen.

    2.I
    ncl
    usi
    on becomesmoretr
    ansglobal
    ;act
    ivi
    stacti
    vi
    tiesbecomea fi
    ghtf
    oral
    l
    womenevery
    where,
    bey
    ondUSbor
    ders.
    (Tr
    ansnat
    ional
    /global
    femi
    nism)

    3.Vol
    unt
    eer
    ism i
    snewf
    orceact
    ivi
    stact
    ivi
    ti
    es.

    4.Consci
    ousnessrai
    singgroupsthr
    oughnewt exts:t
    hezonemovementgi
    veswayt
    o
    theuseofwri
    ti
    ng,newtechnologi
    es(i
    nter
    net
    ,fil
    mmaking,musi
    c)

    5.Womenbeganst
    eppi
    ngi
    ntomal
    edomi
    nat
    edcul
    tur
    alar
    enas.

    6.Womenheal
    thi
    ssuesar
    erecogni
    zedt
    hroughact
    ivi
    stact
    ivi
    ti
    es.

    7.Legalandsocialrecogni
    ti
    onof :dater ape,sexuali
    dent
    it
    yissues( cust
    odybatt
    les,
    genderr eassi
    gnment,mar r
    iage rights),recl
    amati
    on ofl anguage (bit
    ch,sl
    ut),
    object
    if
    icati
    on(bodyimageisamaj orissue).

    8.Shi
    ft
    ingofsecondwav
    eideal
    sonpr
    operf
    emi
    nism:
    mar
    ri
    age,
    por
    nogr
    aphy
    .

    9.Vot
    err
    egi
    str
    ati
    onamongwomenbecomesdr
    ivi
    ngf
    orcef
    ormanyact
    ivi
    stact
    ivi
    ti
    es.

    Vi
    ctor
    iesandAchi
    evement
    s

     I
    n1991,oppor
    tuni
    ty2000wasl
    aunchedi
    nUK f
    ormor
    eoppor
    tuni
    ti
    est
    o
    women

     1992y
    earofwomen

     1992f
    ourwomenent
    eredUSSenat
    e

     1993f
    ami
    l
    yandmedi
    cal
    leav
    eact

     1994mar
    it
    alr
    apewasdecl
    aredi
    l
    legal

     1994v
    iol
    enceagai
    nstwomenacti
    nUS

     1995f
    our
    thwor
    ldconf
    erenceonwomenbyUN

    Concl
    usi
    on

    Third-wav efemi
    nism isti
    ed up withtheef f
    ectsofgl obal
    izationand thecomplex
    redistr
    ibuti
    onofpower,whichchall
    engefemini
    sttheoryandpol i
    ti
    cs.Italsomir
    rorst
    he
    diversi
    ficati
    onofwomen’ sint
    erestsandperspectiv
    esandt hebr eakdownofmast er
    storiesofoppressionandli
    berat
    ion.Forexample,post
    coloni
    al,thir
    d-wavefemini
    sm is

    84|Page
    concernedwithest abl
    i
    shinganew crit
    icalglobalper
    specti
    veandcr eati
    ngalli
    ances
    betweenBlack,diaspori
    c,andsubal
    ter
    nf emini
    sms,whereasqueert heoryandpol i
    ti
    cs
    creat
    eapl at
    formf orwhathasnowspl i
    tintothelesbi
    an,gay,bi
    -,andt r
    anssexualand
    tr
    ansgendermov ements.

    Femi
    nistMov
    ement
    sinPaki
    stan

    I
    ntr
    oduct
    ion:

    Womeni ndev elopingcountri


    eshav epl ay
    edanact i
    veroleinchal l
    engingthei
    r
    unequalstatusbytaki ngpar ti
    ncollect i
    veact i
    onsforchange.InPaki stanaswel lasin
    manycount ri
    esacrosst heglobe,t
    hewomenmov ementhasbeenv i
    br antbytheissues
    ofgenderv i
    olenceduet othedeepv i
    ol ati
    onofwomen’ srightstoli
    fe,healthandsoci et
    y
    wit
    hintheci vi
    lsoci
    ety,womenact i
    vistsar eimplementi
    ngappr oachest ol i
    mitgender
    vi
    olencethroughadv ocacy .InPakistanwomenf acealotofgenderpr ej
    udi
    ceduet oa
    maledomi natedsociety, t
    ri
    balsyst
    ems, rel
    igiousi
    nter
    pretat
    ionsandf eudal mindset.

    Ev
    olut
    ion:

    Thehistor
    yofacti
    vism f
    orwomenr ight
    sinPakistanasi
    tsroot
    si nthecoloni
    al
    eraofninet
    eenthcent
    ury
    .Theextr
    emedi scri
    minat
    ionfacedbywomeni ncreasedmen
    tostat
    eamov ementfortheeducat
    ion,basicri
    ghtsandt oat
    tai
    nabet t
    erstatusi
    n
    soci
    etyfort
    hem.

    Post
    -independence,womenweregiv
    enseveralr
    ights,
    suchastherighttovot
    e,to
    e a par
    tofl egi
    slat
    ure and i
    nher
    entproper
    ty,in orderto el
    iminate el
    ements of
    di
    scr
    iminat
    ionandempowerwoment obeapartofthepubli
    csphere.TheZiaerahada

    85|Page
    defi
    ningimpactont hewor ki
    ngdy namicsofwomen’ smov ement.Theimpressionof
    womenr i
    ghtsashumanr i
    ght
    sandv i
    olenceascrimeagai nstwomenemer gedi nthis
    ti
    meper iod.Thismov ementwasnotf oundtoexpr esst hepurposeofaddr essi
    ng
    viol
    enceagainstwomen.Theconnect i
    onbet weenv i
    olenceagainstwomenandhuman
    ri
    ghts became clearin cont
    extoft he oppressiv
    el aws t hatwereresponsi
    blef or
    i
    ncreasedv i
    olenceandconstantnewpr oposal
    st oterminatewomenr i
    ghtsandcur tai
    l
    thei
    rspaces.

    Unlikefeminist
    sexperiencesinotherpar
    tsoft hewor l
    dPakistaniwomennev er
    hadtoconv i
    ncet hewomenr ightsmov ementoftheneedf ortheincl
    usionofwomen’ s
    concer
    nsi nt hei
    ragenda.Rat herwomen wer e among t he f
    ir
    star t
    icul
    ati
    ng publ
    ic
    opposi
    ti
    ont ot heMar shal
    lLaw regimesandcivilsociet
    yactivi
    sm intheear l
    y1980’s
    wasdriv
    enbyt hesewomenact ivi
    stswhowereamongt hefoundersofthehumanr i
    ghts
    commissionofPaki st
    an.

    Thr
    oughthepassageofti
    me,wit
    ht hehel
    pofact
    ivi
    sts,numer
    ousl
    awswer
    e
    est
    abl
    i
    shedforabet
    terst
    atusf
    orwomen.Thesel
    awsi
    ncl
    udeamongnumerous:
    -

     Dowr
    yandbr
    idal
    gif
    trest
    ri
    cti
    onact(
    1976)

     Cr
    imi
    nal
    lawact(
    2004)

     Pr
    otect
    ionofwomenact(
    2006,
    rev
    iset
    hehadoodor
    dinance)

     Pr
    otect
    ionofhar
    assmentofwomenatwor
    kpl
    ace(
    2010)

     Pr
    event
    ionofant
    i-
    womenpr
    act
    icesact2011.

     Domest
    icv
    iol
    enceact2012

     Enf
    orcementi
    fwomenowner
    shi
    pri
    ght
    sact
    s2012

    Inspir
    eofal lt
    hement i
    onedandnumer ousotherlawswomenst i
    l
    lfacedi scr
    imi nat
    ion.
    Thewomenmov ementi nPakist
    anhasnot edthatupperandmi ddleclassur banand
    educatedpr of
    essionalstat
    usofwomenact ivi
    sts.Theyhavebeencr i
    ti
    cizedasanel ite
    group ofwest ernizedwomenwho ar eoutoft ouchwitht heproblemsf acingt he
    maj or
    ityofPakistaniwomen.Onl yasmallnumberofwomencoul dbenef i
    tt helaws
    andpol i
    ciesestabl
    ished.Formajori
    tyofwoment hei
    rboundar
    iesandlimitati
    onsar est i
    l
    l
    shapedbyt hedomest icenvir
    onment

    FamousOr
    gani
    zat
    ions:

    1.Al
    lPakist
    anwomenassoci
    ati
    on(APWA)wasestabl
    i
    shedi
    n1949.I
    tai
    medat
    pr
    ovi
    dingmor
    al,
    soci
    al,
    andeconomi
    cwel
    far
    eforwomen.

    86|Page
    2.WomenAct i
    onFor um (
    WAF)wasf oundi
    n1981inresponsetot
    heHadood
    or
    dinance.i
    tfocusesonstr
    engt
    heni
    ngwomenposi
    ti
    oni
    nsociet
    y.

    3.Auratfoundat
    ion(AF)wasfoundedin1986.i
    tworkstoprov
    idei
    nfor
    mat
    ionand
    undert
    akeadvocacyforwomenissuesandgoodgover
    nance.

    4.Thehumanr i
    ghtscommi ssi
    onofPaki
    stan(HRCP)wasest
    abli
    shedin1987.it
    hasestabl
    i
    shedal eadi
    ngrolei
    nthestr
    uggl
    eforthepr
    ovi
    sionofhumanright
    s
    foral
    landdemocrati
    cdevel
    opmenti
    nthecount
    ry.

    5.TheAGHSl
    egalandcellwasestabl
    i
    shedi
    n1980andf
    ocusesont
    her
    ight
    sof
    women,
    chi
    l
    drenandminori
    ti
    es.

    6.Nat
    ionalcommissionont
    hest at
    usofwomenNCSW)wasestabl
    i
    shedin2000.
    TheNCSW exami nespol
    ici
    es,progr
    amsandmeasur
    est
    akenbyt hest
    atefor
    womendev el
    opmentandgenderequal
    it
    y.

    7.

    FamousCont
    ri
    but
    ors:

    1.RaánaLi
    aqatAl
    iKhan,est
    abl
    i
    shedAPWAandPaki
    stanwomennat
    ionalguar
    d
    (PWNG).

    2.JahanAr aShahNawazandShai staIkr


    am Ull
    ahwaremember
    soft hefir
    st
    l
    egislat
    iveassembl
    yofPaki
    stan.Theirf
    irstl
    edtotheMusl
    i
    m Per
    sonalLaw
    (1948),char
    terofwomenri
    ghts(1956)andtheMusli
    mfami
    lyl
    aw Or
    dinance
    (1961).

    3.The fol
    l
    owing women cont
    ri
    but
    ed t
    othe f
    emi
    nistmov
    ementi
    nthe Ur
    du
    Li
    ter
    atur
    e.

     I
    shr
    atAf
    reen

     AdaJaf
    ri

     Haj
    raMasr
    oor

     Fehmi
    daRi
    az

     Par
    veenShaki
    r

     Begum Akht
    arRi
    azUddi
    n

    4.Zai
    b-un-
    Nisa,awr
    it
    erandj
    our
    nal
    i
    sti
    sconsi
    der
    edast
    hepi
    oneeroff
    emi
    nism i
    n

    87|Page
    Paki
    stan.Shei
    sserv
    edast hef
    aceofi
    ndependence,pr
    ofessionalPaki
    stani
    womenanddef i
    nedther
    oleofwomeninthet er
    m ofcont r
    ibuti
    ontowards
    soci
    ety.

    Cur
    rentSi
    tuat
    ion:

    Alt
    hough t he const i
    tuti
    on ofPaki stan caused f orgenderequal ity
    ,pr ohibi
    ts
    discri
    minati
    onandensur efullparti
    cipationofwomeni nal lspheresofl i
    fe.Womenst i
    l
    l
    facenumer ouschal lengest o survivei nt hesoci ety.A r eportpublishedandAur at
    foundati
    oncl aimedt hatviol
    enceagai nstwomenhasi ncreasedby4. 97%i n2013.Ot her
    i
    ndependenti nter
    nat i
    onalor ganizations like Thumpi n Reut er
    s Foundat ion declared
    Pakistanast hirdmostdanger ousf orwomeni n2011.UNDP’ sgenderi nequalit
    yi ndex
    t
    h
    ranksPakistan146 outof186count r i
    es.Thegl obalgendergapr eportrankedPaki stan
    141thoutof142count ri
    esin2014,i nt ermsoft hegapbet weenmanandwomeni n
    economi cpartici
    pati
    on, education,health,andpol i
    ti
    cal empower ment .

    Thereareindivi
    dualcont r
    ibuti
    onsbynumer ouswomeni ntheprogr
    essofthe
    countr
    y ,buttheov er
    allst at
    usofwomenempower menti sunpl
    easant
    .Womenhav e
    takenactivepartinsev eralfi
    eldst hr
    oughouthi
    story.Theyhavebeenpartofpol
    i
    tics,
    sport
    s,medi ci
    ne,education,economyandev enarmedf orces.

    Pakistan’smedi ahaspr ogr


    essedrapidl
    ywi thi
    nthel astdecade.I
    thasintr
    oduced
    av ibr
    antandf r
    eeel ectronicandpr i
    ntmedi a.A v ar
    ietyofTV,r adi
    ochannelsand
    newspaperar eavail
    ablet ot heci
    ti
    zen.Themedi ahast akeniniti
    ati
    veonmanyi ssues
    andgener ateawar enessonnumer oussubject
    sr egardi
    nggenderdi scri
    minat
    ion.Onthe
    otherhand,iti salsocr i
    ti
    cizedforglamori
    zingandpr esent i
    ngwomenasacommodi t
    y
    orexploi
    ti
    ngt hei
    rgrievances.

    Todayt he women’ smov ementi n Paki


    stan i
    scat egorized bya fragmented
    poli
    ti
    calfreed,wi thadi v
    ersepol it
    ical,cult
    uralanddiscret
    edi stri
    buti
    onofpowert hat
    enablespolit
    icalaut onomyofwomen’ sorganizati
    ons.Poli
    ticall
    yindependentgroups
    areabletosear chmor eexpl i
    cit
    lyfemi ni
    stagendas.Theyhav ebeenabl etofocusmor e
    central
    l
    yongender ,especial
    lyv i
    olence.Beeni ndependentf rom stateandhav i
    ngno
    poli
    ti
    calaf fi
    l
    iations leaves the or ganizat
    ions free t
    o crit
    icize inj
    ust
    ice fai
    l
    uret o
    i
    mpl ementlawsandpr essureforact ion.

    Fut
    ure:

    I
    nPakistanst epsfor
    wardar efrequent
    lyundermi nedbyst epsbackward.Sti
    l
    l
    resi
    stancet
    ot hev i
    olenceandactiv
    ism ofwomenr i
    ghtscanbef oundinmanypl aces
    andmanyf orms.Ast r
    ongconsenthasemer gedthattheout reach,educat
    ionalef
    for
    ts
    ofwomenhasr esul
    tedinchal
    lengesthatarevi
    sibl
    eatmi crolevelandmor ewomenar e

    88|Page
    coming f orwardt
    o claim theirri
    ghts.Organi
    zing women acr oss cl
    ass and soci al
    l
    ocationsposesmanychal l
    enges.Ther i
    skofarrest,sti
    gmaandf amil
    yali
    enat
    iont hat
    mayr esultfr
    om publi
    cact i
    vism ismor eeasil
    yaccept edbywomenwhohav et he
    advantageofsocialandpoliti
    calconnect
    iontotheeliteclassofcountr
    y.Never
    theless,
    nor
    mal i
    zingwomenhav eresult
    edinsomeposi t
    ivi
    ty.

    Forthesakeofabal ancedsoci et yiti


    sneededt hatweunder standt hathumans
    arement all
    yequallycapable,butt heirf i
    eldsofresponsi bi
    li
    ti
    esar edifferent.Menar e
    responsiblef orearni
    ngwhi l
    ewomenhast omanagehousehol daf fair
    s onpr i
    ori
    tybut
    theyareal sof r
    eeintheirdeci
    sionmaki ngandear ning.Invest
    menti nmasseducat i
    onis
    l
    ittl
    etogetr idoftheparadoxesofgenderdi scr
    iminationandcr av
    ingi st r
    ueper cepti
    on
    ofwomenst at
    usint hesociety.Pakistanr emainsgr osslyunderi
    nv estedi neducation,
    especiall
    yi ngirl
    ’seducati
    onwhi chcanbeconsi deredasabasi sforbr oadchangeofa
    societ
    yi nor dertodecreasediscri
    mi nation.

    Concl
    usi
    on:

    Femini
    sm inPakist
    anhasr ai
    sedquesti
    onaboutt hemandomi natedsy stem,i
    n
    whichwomenf i
    ndt hemsel
    vesformall
    yandinformal
    lyexcl
    udedofpower .Thoughi ti
    s
    tr
    uewomenhaspl ayedasigni
    fi
    cantrol
    e,t
    hroughouthi
    story
    .Iti
    sst i
    l
    lfeltthatthereal
    powersti
    l
    lli
    eswithmenandt hecustomsofthelegal
    l
    yfeudalandtr
    ibalcult
    ure.

    89|Page
    UNConf
    erencesonWomen

    OUTLI
    NE

    1.I
    ntr
    oduct
    ion.

    2.Est
    abl
    i
    shmentofcommi
    ssi
    onont
    hest
    atusofwomen.

    3.Fourconf
    erencesbyUNonwomen.

     Fi
    rstwor
    ldconf
    erence (
    1975)

     Secondwor
    ldconf
    erence(
    1980)

     Thi
    rdwor
    ldconf
    erence (
    1985)

     Four
    thwor
    ldconf
    erence (
    1995)

    4.Thef
    oll
    owupconf
    erencesar
    e:

     Bei
    j
    ingr
    evi
    ewconf
    erence+5

     Bei
    j
    ingr
    evi
    ewconf
    erence+10

     Bei
    j
    ingr
    evi
    ewconf
    erence+15

     Bei
    j
    ingr
    evi
    ewconf
    erence+20

    I
    ntr
    oduct
    ion

    UNt
    ookgenderconcer
    nast
    hei
    ntegr
    ati
    onofwomenr
    ight
    sinv
    erybegi
    nni
    ng.

    Est
    abl
    ishment

    90|Page
    UNi
    nst
    it
    uteECOSOCwasest
    abl
    i
    shed.Thememberst
    atesofUNwer
    e51i
    n1951.Out
    of51onl
    y13al
    l
    owedwoment
    ori
    ghtofequal
    vot
    eandr
    ightt
    ohol
    dpubl
    i
    cof
    fi
    ce.

    Obj
    ect
    ivesofCSW

    • Pol
    i
    tical
    right
    s

    • Economi
    cal
    right
    s

    • Ci
    vi
    lri
    ght
    s

    • Soci
    alandeducat
    ional
    right
    s

    I
    nJune1946,t
    heUni
    tedNat
    ionsEconomi
    candSoci
    alCounci
    l(ECOSOC)est
    abl
    i
    shed
    t
    heCommi
    ssi
    onont
    heSt
    atusofWomen(
    CSW)t
    oensur
    etheempower
    mentofwomen
    andgenderequal
    i
    ty(
    E/RES/
    2/11,21June1946)
    ,andt
    opr
    ovi
    der
    ecommendat
    ionst
    o
    t
    heCounci
    lont
    heobst
    acl
    esr
    elat
    ingwomen’
    sri
    ght
    sinpol
    i
    tical
    ,economi
    c,ci
    vi
    l,soci
    al
    andeducat
    ionf
    iel
    ds.

    Ov
    ert
    hey
    ear
    s,t
    heCSW hasor
    gani
    zeddi
    ff
    erentconf
    erencesi
    nor
    dert
    oasser
    tand
    i
    mpr
    ovet
    her
    ight
    sofwomen.Sof
    ar,f
    ourwor
    ldconf
    erencesonwomenhav
    etaken
    pl
    ace.Theconf
    erenceshav
    esoughtt
    ouni
    tet
    hei
    nter
    nat
    ionalcommuni
    tybehi
    ndaset
    ofcommonobj
    ect
    iveswi
    thanef
    fect
    ivepl
    anofact
    ionf
    ort
    headv
    ancementofwomen
    ev
    ery
    wher
    e,i
    nal
    lspher
    esofpubl
    i
    candpr
    ivat
    eli
    fe.

    TheCommi
    ssi
    onont
    heSt
    atusofWomenhasbeenr
    esponsi
    blef
    oror
    gani
    zi
    ngand
    f
    oll
    owi
    ngupt
    hewor
    ldconf
    erencesonwomeni
    nMexi
    co(
    1975)
    ,Copenhagen(
    1980)
    ,
    Nai
    robi(
    1985)and Bei
    j
    ing (
    1995)
    . Ov
    ert
    he pastdecade,t
    he Commi
    ssi
    on has
    sy
    stemat
    ical
    l
    yrev
    iewedpr
    ogr
    essi
    nthei
    mpl
    ement
    ati
    onoft
    het
    wel
    vecr
    it
    icalar
    easof
    concer
    nident
    if
    iedi
    ntheBei
    j
    ingPl
    atf
    ormf
    orAct
    ionati
    tsannualsessi
    ons,andhas
    adopt
    ed act
    ion-
    ori
    ent
    ed r
    ecommendat
    ions,i
    nthe f
    orm ofagr
    eed concl
    usi
    ons,t
    o
    f
    aci
    l
    itat
    eincr
    easedi
    mpl
    ement
    ati
    onatal
    ll
    evel
    s.

    TheCommi
    ssi
    on act
    ed ast
    heAd-
    hocPr
    epar
    ator
    yCommi
    tt
    eef
    ort
    het
    went
    y-t
    hir
    d
    speci
    alsessi
    onoft
    heGener
    alAssembl
    y(Bei
    j
    ing+5)
    .Theout
    comei
    dent
    if
    iedper
    sist
    ent

    91|Page
    gapsandchal
    l
    engesandpr
    ovi
    dednew r
    ecommendat
    ionsf
    oract
    iont
    oensur
    eful
    l
    i
    mpl
    ement
    ati
    onoft
    hecommi
    tment
    smadei
    nBei
    j
    ingi
    n1995.

    FourConf
    erencesonWomen

    1.Fi
    rstWor
    ldConf
    erence (
    AGl
    obal
    Dial
    oguei
    sopened)
    1975

    Out
    li
    ne:

     I
    ntr
    oduct
    ion

     Maj
    orconcer
    nsandi
    ssues

     Est
    abl
    i
    shmentofnewdi
    vi
    sionsandbr
    anchesunderUN

     Ov
    eral
    ldescr
    ipt
    ion

    I
    ntr
    oduct
    ion

    Thef
    ir
    stwor
    ldconf
    erenceont
    hest
    atusofwomenwasconv
    enedi
    nMexi
    coCi
    tyt
    o
    coi
    nci
    dewi
    tht
    he1975I
    nter
    nat
    ional
    Women'
    sYear
    ,obser
    vedt
    oremi
    ndt
    hei
    nter
    nat
    ional
    communi
    tyt
    hatdi
    scr
    imi
    nat
    ionagai
    nstwomencont
    inuedt
    obeaper
    sist
    entpr
    obl
    em i
    n
    muchoft
    hewor
    ld.TheConf
    erence,al
    ongwi
    tht
    heUni
    tedNat
    ionsDecadef
    orWomen
    (
    1976-
    1985)pr
    ocl
    aimedbyt
    heGener
    alAssembl
    yfi
    vemont
    hsl
    ateratt
    heur
    gingoft
    he
    Conf
    erence,l
    aunchedanew er
    aingl
    obalef
    for
    tst
    opr
    omot
    etheadv
    ancementof
    womenbyopeni
    ngawor
    ldwi
    dedi
    alogueongenderequal
    i
    ty.A pr
    ocesswasseti
    n
    mot
    ionapr
    ocessofl
    ear
    ning—t
    hatwoul
    dinv
    olv
    edel
    i
    ber
    ati
    on,negot
    iat
    ion,set
    ti
    ng
    obj
    ect
    ives,
    ident
    if
    yingobst
    acl
    esandr
    evi
    ewi
    ngt
    hepr
    ogr
    essmade.

    TheMexi
    coCi
    tyConf
    erencewascal
    l
    edf
    orbyt
    heUni
    tedNat
    ionsGener
    alAssembl
    yto
    f
    ocusi
    nter
    nat
    ionalat
    tent
    ionont
    heneedt
    odev
    elopf
    utur
    eor
    ient
    edgoal
    s,ef
    fect
    ive
    st
    rat
    egi
    esandpl
    ansofact
    ionf
    ort
    headv
    ancementofwomen.Tot
    hisend,
    theGener
    al
    Assembl
    yident
    if
    iedt
    hreekeyobj
    ect
    ivest
    hatwoul
    dbecomet
    hebasi
    sfort
    hewor
    kof
    t
    heUni
    tedNat
    ionsonbehal
    fofwomen.

    92|Page
    Maj
    orConcer
    nsAndI
    ssues

    • Di
    scr
    imi
    nat
    ionagai
    nstwomen

    • Ensur
    ingf
    ull
    genderequal
    i
    ty

    • Par
    ti
    cipat
    ionofwomeni
    ndev
    elopment

    • Soci
    alandeconomi
    cint
    egr
    ati
    onf
    orwomen

    • I
    ncr
    easedcont
    ri
    but
    ionofwomeni
    ngl
    obal
    peace

    • The at
    tent
    ion ofgl
    obalcommuni
    tyt
    o be dr
    awn t
    o
    dev
    elopt
    hef
    utur
    eor
    ient
    edgoal
    s,ef
    fect
    ivest
    rat
    egi
    es
    andpl
    ansofact
    ionf
    oradv
    ancementofwomen

    Est
    abl
    ishmentOfNewDi
    vi
    sions

    UNest
    abl
    i
    shedt
    wodi
    vi
    sions;

     I
    NSTRAW (
    Int
    ernat
    ionalResear
    chAndTr
    aini
    ngI
    nst
    it
    utef
    orThe
    Adv
    ancementofWomen)

     UNI
    FEM (
    Uni
    tedNat
    ionDev
    elopmentFundf
    orWomen)

    OBJECTI
    VES

     Resear
    ch

     Tr
    aini
    ng

     Oper
    ati
    onal
    act
    ivi
    ti
    esi
    nthear
    eaofwomendev
    elopment

    OVERALLDESCRI
    PTI
    ON

    I
    twast
    hel
    argesti
    nter
    nat
    ionalf
    orum i
    nwhi
    chwoment
    hemsel
    vespar
    ti
    cipat
    ed.Outof
    133st
    ates,130wer
    eheadedbywomen.Womenal
    soor
    gani
    zedNGOf
    orumsatt
    hat
    t
    ime.I
    twasst
    ressedoncount
    ri
    est
    omakepol
    i
    ciesf
    orwomen.East
    ernst
    ateswer
    e
    mor
    econcer
    nedonpeacebutwest
    ernst
    ateswer
    emor
    econcer
    nedont
    her
    oleof

    93|Page
    womeni
    ndev
    elopment
    .

    SecondWor
    ldConf
    erence

    (
    TheRev
    iewPr
    ocessBegi
    ns)
    1985

    Out
    li
    ne:

     I
    ntr
    oduct
    ion

     Adapt
    ionofCEDAW

     Maj
    orconcer
    ns

     Ov
    eral
    ldescr
    ipt
    ion

    I
    ntr
    oduct
    ion

    Ther
    e was a gener
    alconsensus t
    hatsi
    gni
    fi
    cantpr
    ogr
    ess had been made as
    r
    epr
    esent
    ati
    vesof145MemberSt
    atesmeti
    nCopenhageni
    n1980f
    ort
    hesecondwor
    ld
    conf
    erence on women t
    orev
    iew and appr
    aise t
    he 1975 Wor
    ld Pl
    an ofAct
    ion.
    Gov
    ernment
    sandt
    hei
    nter
    nat
    ionalcommuni
    tyhadmadest
    ri
    dest
    owar
    dachi
    evi
    ngt
    he
    t
    arget
    ssetouti
    nMexi
    coCi
    tyf
    ivey
    ear
    sear
    li
    er.

    Ani
    mpor
    tantmi
    l
    est
    onehadbeent
    headopt
    ionbyt
    heGener
    alAssembl
    yinDecember
    1979oft
    heConv
    ent
    ionont
    heEl
    i
    minat
    ionofAl
    lFor
    msofDi
    scr
    imi
    nat
    ionagai
    nst
    Women,oneoft
    hemostpower
    fuli
    nst
    rument
    sforwomen'
    sequal
    i
    ty.TheConv
    ent
    ion,
    whi
    chhasbeent
    ermed"
    thebi
    l
    lofr
    ight
    sforwomen"
    ,now l
    egal
    l
    ybi
    nds165St
    ates,
    whi
    chhav
    ebecomeSt
    atespar
    ti
    esandobl
    i
    gat
    est
    hem t
    orepor
    twi
    thi
    noney
    earof
    r
    ati
    fi
    cat
    ion,andsubsequent
    lyev
    eryf
    oury
    ear
    s,ont
    hest
    epst
    heyhav
    etakent
    oremov
    e
    obst
    acl
    est
    heyf
    ace i
    nimpl
    ement
    ing t
    he Conv
    ent
    ion.An Opt
    ionalPr
    otocolt
    othe
    Conv
    ent
    ion,enabl
    i
    ngwomenv
    ict
    imsofsexdi
    scr
    imi
    nat
    iont
    osubmi
    tcompl
    aint
    stoan
    i
    nter
    nat
    ionalt
    reat
    ybody
    ,wasopenedf
    orsi
    gnat
    ureonHumanRi
    ght
    sDay
    ,10December
    1999.Uponi
    tsent
    ryi
    ntof
    orce,
    itwi
    l
    lputt
    heConv
    ent
    iononanequalf
    oot
    ingwi
    thot
    her
    i
    nter
    nat
    ional
    humanr
    ight
    sinst
    rument
    shav
    ingi
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    compl
    aint
    spr
    ocedur
    es.

    94|Page
    Despi
    tet
    hepr
    ogr
    essmade,t
    heCopenhagenConf
    erencer
    ecogni
    zedt
    hatsi
    gnsof
    di
    spar
    it
    ywer
    ebegi
    nni
    ngt
    oemer
    gebet
    weenr
    ight
    ssecur
    edandwomen'
    sabi
    l
    ityt
    o
    exer
    ciset
    heser
    ight
    s.Toaddr
    esst
    hisconcer
    n,t
    heConf
    erencepi
    npoi
    ntedt
    hreear
    eas
    wher
    especi
    fi
    c,hi
    ghl
    yfocusedact
    ionwasessent
    iali
    fthebr
    oadgoal
    sofequal
    i
    ty,
    dev
    elopmentandpeace,i
    dent
    if
    iedbyt
    heMexi
    coCi
    tyConf
    erence,wer
    etober
    eached.
    Theset
    hreear
    easwer
    eequalaccesst
    oeducat
    ion,empl
    oymentoppor
    tuni
    ti
    esand
    adequat
    eheal
    thcar
    eser
    vices.

    Thedel
    i
    ber
    ati
    onsatt
    heCopenhagenConf
    erencet
    ookpl
    acei
    ntheshadowofpol
    i
    tical
    t
    ensi
    ons,
    someoft
    hem car
    ri
    edov
    erf
    rom t
    heMexi
    coCi
    tyConf
    erence.Nev
    ert
    hel
    ess,
    the
    Conf
    erencecamet
    oacl
    osewi
    tht
    headopt
    ionofaPr
    ogr
    ammeofAct
    ion,al
    bei
    tnotby
    consensus,
    whi
    chci
    tedav
    ari
    etyoff
    act
    orsf
    ort
    hedi
    scr
    epancybet
    weenl
    egalr
    ight
    sand
    women'
    sabi
    l
    ityt
    oexer
    ciset
    heser
    ight
    s,i
    ncl
    udi
    ng:

    ADOPTAI
    ONOFCEDAW

    Ani
    mpor
    tantmi
    l
    est
    onehasbeent
    headopt
    ionofCEDAW.I
    tst
    andsf
    orConv
    ent
    ionf
    or
    El
    i
    minat
    ionofAl
    lFor
    msofDi
    scr
    imi
    nat
    ionagai
    nstWomen.I
    tist
    hemostpower
    ful
    i
    nst
    rumentf
    orwomenequal
    i
    ty.

    165si
    gnat
    oryal
    lov
    ert
    hewor
    ldt
    ookpar
    tini
    t.Thecount
    rywhi
    chsi
    gnat
    uresCEDAW i
    s
    r
    esponsi
    blef
    ori
    mpl
    ement
    ati
    onoft
    his.

    Maj
    orConcer
    ns

     I
    nvol
    vementofmeni
    nimpr
    ovi
    ngwomen’
    srol
    einsoci
    ety

     Pol
    i
    tical
    par
    ti
    cipat
    ionandr
    ight
    sforwomen

     Addr
    essi
    ngwomen’
    sneedi
    npl
    anni
    ng

     Womeni
    ndeci
    sionmaki
    ng

     Ext
    endi
    ngt
    hef
    aci
    l
    ityandser
    vicesr
    elat
    edt
    owomenatnat
    ional
    lev
    el

     Daycar
    eser
    vices

    95|Page
     Cr
    edi
    tser
    vices

     Pr
    ovi
    si
    onoff
    inanci
    alser
    vicesofwomen

     Educat
    ionandawar
    enessamongwomen

    SomeFur
    therConcer
    n

    I
    ntheconf
    erenceCopenhagenpr
    ogr
    am ofact
    ionwasi
    ntr
    oduced.Li
    stofact
    ivi
    ti
    esar
    e;

    • Ensur
    ewomen’
    sowner
    shi
    p

    • Cont
    rol
    ofpr
    oper
    ty

    • Ri
    ghtt
    oinher
    it
    ance

    • Chi
    l
    dcust
    ody

    • El
    i
    minat
    ionofst
    ereot
    ypeat
    ti
    tudest
    owar
    dswomen

    Ov
    eral
    lDescr
    ipt
    ion

    Toaddr
    esswomenr
    elat
    edconcer
    ns,t
    heCopenhagenPr
    ogr
    ammeofAct
    ioncal
    l
    edf
    or,
    amongot
    hert
    hings,st
    rongernat
    ionalmeasur
    est
    oensur
    ewomen'
    sowner
    shi
    pand
    cont
    rolofpr
    oper
    ty,aswel
    lasi
    mpr
    ovement
    sinwomen'
    sri
    ght
    stoi
    nher
    it
    ance,chi
    l
    d
    cust
    odyandl
    ossofnat
    ional
    i
    ty.Del
    egat
    esatt
    heConf
    erenceal
    sour
    gedanendt
    o
    st
    ereot
    ypedat
    ti
    tudest
    owar
    dswomen.

    Thi
    rdWor
    ldConf
    erence(
    TheBi
    rt
    hofGl
    obalFemi
    nism)
    1990

    Out
    li
    ne:

     I
    ntr
    oduct
    ion

     Shar
    ingexper
    iencesandr
    epor
    ts

     Nar
    obi
    for
    war
    dlooki
    ngst
    rat
    egi
    esandconcer
    ns

    96|Page
     Ov
    eral
    lDescr
    ipt
    ion

    I
    ntr
    oduct
    ion

    TheUN'
    sThi
    rdWor
    ldConf
    erenceonWomeni
    nNai
    robir
    epr
    esent
    edt
    hecul
    minat
    ionof
    t
    eny
    ear
    sofwor
    kongenderempower
    ment
    .At
    tendedbyappr
    oxi
    mat
    ely1,
    400of
    fi
    cial
    del
    egat
    esf
    rom 157count
    ri
    esand15,
    000NGOr
    epr
    esent
    ati
    ves,
    theconf
    erenceai
    medt
    o
    ev
    aluat
    ethepr
    ogr
    essmadedur
    ingUNDecadef
    orWomenanddev
    iseanewcour
    seof
    act
    ionf
    ort
    headv
    ancementofwomen.Whi
    l
    esubst
    ant
    ial
    progr
    esshadbeenmadei
    nthe
    l
    astt
    eny
    ear
    s,i
    twascl
    eart
    hatt
    her
    ewasst
    il
    lagr
    eatdealt
    obedone.Par
    ti
    cipant
    swer
    e
    especi
    all
    yvocalont
    hesubj
    ectofv
    iol
    enceagai
    nstwomen,
    whi
    cht
    heyf
    elthadnotbeen
    gi
    ven t
    heat
    tent
    ion i
    tdeser
    ved.Att
    hesamet
    ime,manyot
    her
    sbel
    i
    eved t
    hatt
    he
    conf
    erenceneededt
    ofocusonf
    indi
    ngway
    stost
    rengt
    hent
    her
    oleofwomeni
    nPeace
    andDev
    elopmenti
    nit
    iat
    ives.Att
    heNai
    robi
    conf
    erence,
    par
    ti
    cipant
    ssett
    hei
    rdi
    ff
    erences
    asi
    deandawar
    dedequalconsi
    der
    ati
    ont
    othesei
    nter
    rel
    atedandmut
    ual
    l
    yrei
    nfor
    cing
    goal
    s.

    TheNai
    robiFor
    war
    d-l
    ooki
    ngSt
    rat
    egi
    es,
    adopt
    edbyt
    heconf
    erence,
    prov
    idesabl
    uepr
    int
    f
    oract
    ion unt
    il2000 t
    hatl
    i
    nk t
    he pr
    omot
    ion and mai
    ntenance ofpeace t
    othe
    er
    adi
    cat
    ionofv
    iol
    enceagai
    nstwoment
    hroughoutt
    hebr
    oadspect
    rum ofsoci
    ety
    .The
    documentur
    gesmemberst
    atest
    otakeconst
    it
    uti
    onalandl
    egalst
    epst
    oel
    i
    minat
    eal
    l
    f
    ormsofdi
    scr
    imi
    nat
    ionagai
    nstwomen,andt
    ail
    ornat
    ionalst
    rat
    egi
    est
    ofaci
    l
    itat
    ethe
    par
    ti
    cipat
    ionofwomeni
    nef
    for
    tst
    opr
    omot
    epeaceanddev
    elopment
    .Att
    hesamet
    ime,
    i
    tcont
    ainsspeci
    fi
    crecommendat
    ionsf
    orgenderempower
    menti
    nregar
    dtoheal
    th,
    educat
    ionandempl
    oyment
    .

    The gr
    eat
    estachi
    evementoft
    he Nai
    robiconf
    erence i
    sthat
    ,despi
    tet
    he acut
    e
    di
    ff
    erences di
    vi
    ding t
    he 157 memberst
    ates,r
    epr
    esent
    ati
    ves wer
    e abl
    etof
    ind a
    common gr
    ound on al
    lthe i
    ssuesaddr
    essed and unani
    mousl
    yadoptt
    he Nai
    robi
    For
    war
    dLooki
    ngSt
    rat
    egi
    es.

    For
    war
    dLooki
    ngSt
    rat
    egi
    es

    A st
    rat
    egywasmadeonpr
    evi
    ousexper
    iences.Thr
    eebasi
    cmeasur
    esofcat
    egor
    ies

    97|Page
    wer
    eident
    if
    iedi
    nthi
    sfor
    war
    dlooki
    ngst
    rat
    egy
    .Themai
    npoi
    ntsar
    e;

    • Const
    it
    uti
    onal
    andl
    egal
    steps

    • Equal
    i
    tyi
    nsoci
    alpar
    ti
    cipat
    ion

    • Equal
    i
    tyi
    npol
    i
    tical
    par
    ti
    cipat
    ionanddeci
    sionmaki
    ng

    Fur
    therRecommendat
    ionAndConcer
    ns

    • Empl
    oyment

    • Heal
    th

    • Educat
    ionandsoci
    alser
    vices

    • I
    ndust
    ryandsci
    ence

    • Communi
    cat
    ionandenv
    ironment

    Ov
    erAl
    lDescr
    ipt
    ion

    Att
    heThi
    rdWor
    ldConf
    erencehel
    dinNai
    robii
    n1985,t
    heUN r
    eveal
    edt
    oMember
    St
    atest
    hatonl
    yanumberofwomenbenef
    it
    edf
    rom t
    hei
    mpr
    ovement
    sandpar
    ti
    cipant
    s
    wer
    easkedt
    ofi
    ndnewar
    east
    oensur
    ethatpeace,dev
    elopmentandequal
    i
    tycoul
    dbe
    achi
    eved.Thr
    eesect
    orsi
    dent
    if
    iedi
    nNai
    robii
    ncl
    udeequal
    i
    tyi
    nsoci
    alpar
    ti
    cipat
    ionand
    equal
    i
    tyi
    n pol
    i
    ticalpar
    ti
    cipat
    ion and deci
    sion-
    maki
    ng. The conf
    erence f
    urt
    her
    r
    ecogni
    zedt
    henecessi
    tyofwoment
    opar
    ti
    cipat
    eindi
    scussi
    onsi
    nal
    lar
    easandnot
    onl
    yongenderequal
    i
    ty.

    Four
    thWor
    ldConf
    erence(
    LegacyofSuccess)
    1995

    Out
    li
    ne:

     I
    ntr
    oduct
    ion

    98|Page
     Est
    abl
    i
    shmentofBPFA

     Thepl
    atf
    ormf
    oract
    ionandi
    ts12ar
    eas

     Ther
    oleofNGO’
    swer
    erecogni
    zedandappr
    eci
    ated

     Ov
    eral
    lDescr
    ipt
    ion

    I
    ntr
    oduct
    ion

    Thi
    sconf
    erencewashel
    din1995i
    nBei
    j
    ing.Andi
    tisknownas“
    legacyofSuccess”
    .
    189 gov
    ernment
    s and st
    ates par
    ti
    cipat
    ed.17,
    000 par
    ti
    cipant
    s,6,
    000 gov
    ernment
    del
    egat
    es,4,
    000r
    epr
    esent
    ati
    vesofNGO’
    sand4,
    000r
    epr
    esent
    ati
    vesofmedi
    awer
    e
    pr
    esent
    .

    Est
    abl
    ishmentOfBPFA

    189 count
    ri
    essi
    gnat
    ureon adopt
    ion whi
    ch i
    sknown as“
    BPFA”st
    and f
    orBei
    j
    ing
    Pl
    atf
    ormf
    orAct
    ion.TheBei
    j
    ingDecl
    arat
    ionandPl
    atf
    ormf
    orAct
    ionwer
    eadopt
    edby
    consensuson15Sept
    ember1995.TheDecl
    arat
    ionembodi
    est
    hecommi
    tmentoft
    he
    i
    nter
    nat
    ionalcommuni
    tyt
    otheadv
    ancementofwomenandt
    othei
    mpl
    ement
    ati
    onof
    t
    hePl
    atf
    ormf
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    ion,ensur
    ingt
    hatagenderper
    spect
    ivei
    sref
    lect
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    i
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    nat
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    il2000.

    I
    fimpl
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    hePl
    atf
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    i
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    mpr
    ovet
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    thandt
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    raccesst
    orel
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    and pr
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    ethei
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    speci
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    ocar
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    maki
    ngandl
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    mswi
    tht
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    di
    scr
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    nat
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    ivat
    eli
    fe.

    12Ar
    esofPl
    atf
    orm ForAct
    ion

    • WomenAndPov
    ert
    y

    99|Page
    • Educat
    ionAndTr
    aini
    ngOfWomen

    • WomenAndHeal
    th

    • Vi
    olenceAgai
    nstWomen

    • WomenAndAr
    m Conf
    li
    ct

    • WomenAndTheEconomy

    • WomenAndThePowerAndDeci
    sionMaki
    ng

    • WomenAndTheMechani
    sm ForAdv
    ancement

    • WomenAndTheRi
    ght
    sForHuman

    • WomenAndTheMedi
    a

    • WomenAndTheEnv
    ironment

    • WomenAndTheGi
    rlChi
    l
    d

    TheRol
    eOfNgo’
    s

    4,
    000NGO’
    srepr
    esent
    ati
    veswer
    ether
    e.Theywer
    erecogni
    zedaschangemaker
    swi
    th
    r
    egar
    dtoequal
    i
    ty,
    viol
    enceanddi
    scr
    imi
    nat
    ion.

    Ov
    erAl
    lDescr
    ipt
    ion

    Theov
    err
    idi
    ngmessageoft
    heFour
    thWor
    ldConf
    erenceonWomenwast
    hatt
    hei
    ssues
    addr
    essed i
    nthePl
    atf
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    publ
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    changesi
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    it
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    pract
    icesandpr
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    TheConf
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    dsof
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    i
    tybet
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    hatmeasur
    est
    opr
    otectandpr
    omot
    ethehuman

    100|Page
    r
    ight
    sofwomenandgi
    rl
    -chi
    l
    drenasani
    ntegr
    alpar
    tofuni
    ver
    salhumanr
    ight
    smust
    under
    li
    eal
    lact
    ion;andt
    hati
    nst
    it
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    onsatal
    llev
    elsmustber
    eor
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    edt
    oexpedi
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    i
    mpl
    ement
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    on.Gov
    ernment
    sandt
    heUNagr
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    opr
    omot
    ethe“
    mai
    nst
    reami
    ng”ofa
    genderper
    spect
    ivei
    npol
    i
    ciesandpr
    ogr
    ammes.

    Fol
    lowUpConf
    erences

    1.Bei
    ji
    ngRev
    iewConf
    erence+5

    Af
    ter5y
    ear
    sin2002,
    23r
    dsessi
    ononUNgener
    alassembl
    yachi
    evement
    swer
    eseenon
    t
    her
    egi
    onal
    andnat
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    poi
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    2.Bei
    ji
    ngRev
    iewConf
    erence+10

    49t
    hsessi
    ononcommi
    ssi
    onofst
    atusofwomeni
    n2010.I
    nthi
    sconf
    erenceBPFAwas
    i
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    ement
    ed

    3.Bei
    ji
    ngRev
    iewConf
    erence+15

    I
    twast
    he15t
    hanni
    ver
    sar
    yofBei
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    ing conf
    erence.Theagendasdi
    scussed i
    nthi
    s
    conf
    erencewer
    e

    • I
    ncl
    udi
    nggr
    assr
    ootwomen

    • Ex
    per
    ienceshar
    ing

    • Achi
    evementofmi
    l
    lenni
    um dev
    elopment

    4.Bei
    ji
    ngRev
    iewConf
    erence+20

    TheBei
    j
    ing+20Regi
    onalRev
    iew Meet
    ingwashel
    don6– 7Nov
    ember2014att
    he
    Pal
    aisdesNat
    ionsi
    nGenev
    a.Themeet
    ingaddr
    essedkeyar
    easofpr
    ogr
    essand
    chal
    l
    engesi
    nthei
    mpl
    ement
    ati
    onoft
    heBei
    j
    ingPl
    atf
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    orAct
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    ntheUNECE
    memberSt
    ates.I
    tfocusedonsuchi
    ssuesasl
    ong-
    ter
    mtr
    endsi
    ngenderequal
    i
    tyand

    101|Page
    t
    he empower
    mentofwomen,women’
    srepr
    esent
    ati
    on and l
    eader
    shi
    pin deci
    sion-
    maki
    ng,el
    i
    minat
    ingv
    iol
    enceagai
    nstwomen,ant
    i-
    discr
    imi
    nat
    oryl
    egi
    slat
    ionandgender
    j
    ust
    ice.Asi
    tmar
    kedt
    he20-
    yearanni
    ver
    sar
    yoft
    headopt
    ionoft
    heBei
    j
    ingDecl
    arat
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    andPl
    atf
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    hemeet
    ingwasanoppor
    tuni
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    backsov
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    hel
    astt
    wodecadesanddi
    scusshowt
    ost
    rengt
    hengenderequal
    i
    ty
    i
    nthepost
    -2015dev
    elopmentagenda.

    GenderandDev
    elopment

    Hi
    stor
    icalBackgr
    oundandOr
    igi
    n

    TheUni tedNat i
    onsChart
    erof1945andt heUni ver
    salDeclar
    ati
    onofHuman
    Rightsin1948est abli
    shedthef
    irstoff
    ici
    alworl
    dwiderecognit
    ionofwomen’sequalit
    y
    andnon- di
    scri
    mi nati
    ononthebasisofsex.Howev erupunti
    lthelat
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    wasonwomen’ sr epr
    oduct
    iver
    oles,aswomenwer eseenaswi vesandmot hersand
    thei
    rmai nissueswer esupposed to beobtai
    ning accesstof ood,cont
    racepti
    ves,
    nutri
    ti
    onandheal thcare.

    The70’sand80’smarkedanew phase,i
    nwhichthedebat
    emov edbeyond
    women’ sequal
    it
    yandthedomesti
    cspher
    eofwomen’
    srol
    easwivesandmother
    sonto
    theglobalstage,wher
    etheroleofwomenwaspr omot
    edasanai dforeconomic
    devel
    opment .

    I
    ntr
    oduct
    ionandDef
    ini
    ti
    on

    Theter
    m“ Women, GenderandDev elopment”couldbeseenasadi sci
    pli
    nemuch
    l
    ikeever
    yotherareaofknowledge.Howev er,whatsetsitapartf
    rom v
    ari
    ousdi sci
    pli
    nes
    i
    sthat,i
    tsmajorcontr
    ibut
    orsareindi
    vi
    dualst hatr
    aiseissuesandconcerns,concer
    ning
    women,genderand dev el
    opment .These ar e academi cs,femi
    nistactivi
    sts and
    devel
    opmentpracti
    ti
    oner.

    Theimport
    anteventssuchast heFir
    stWor l
    dConf erencef orWomenhel din
    Mexico1974,theUNdecadef orwomen“ 76-85”andt hepromot i
    onoft heWomeni n
    Development(WID)approachemphasizedwomen’ srighttodev el
    opment ,recogni
    ti
    on
    ofwomen’ seconomicroleinnati
    onaleconomiesand,mostsi gnif
    icant
    ly,gaveav oi
    ce
    towomeni ndevelopi
    ngcountr
    ies.

    Someoft
    heshor
    tcomi
    ngoft
    heappr
    oachessuchast
    heWI
    Dappl
    i
    edi
    nthe70’
    s

    102|Page
    wer ethattheyfel
    lshor
    tofimpr
    ovingunequalr
    elat
    ionshi
    ps,andasigni
    fi
    cantnumberof
    projectswer eunsust
    ainabl
    easdevel
    opmentpr oj
    ectsf ai
    ledtoconsi
    derthemultipl
    e
    roles carri
    ed outby women,l eadi
    ng to a developmentmodelt hatint he end
    disadvantagedwomen.

    Inthelate80’
    st heGenderandDevel
    opment(
    GAD)appr
    oachwasdev el
    opedwith
    the i
    dea ofi mprovi
    ng the devel
    opmentmodelby“removi
    ng di
    spar
    it
    ies in soci
    al,
    economic,andpol i
    ti
    calbalancesbetweenwomenandmenasapr e-condit
    ionfor
    achi
    evingpeople-
    centereddevel
    opment
    ”.

    Howev er
    ,sincethe1990’sthegenderper specti
    veisst
    il
    lst
    ruggli
    ngtobeclearl
    y
    setintot hedevelopmentagendaofi nternati
    onalt r
    eati
    esorobjecti
    vessuchast he
    Mil
    lennium DevelopmentGoals.Thepri
    nciplesonlyfocusongenderequali
    tyanddonot
    concentrateenoughonwomen’ scentr
    ali
    tytootherdev el
    opmentareas.

    Overtheyear
    sdev el
    opmentpr
    ogr
    amshav ebeencri
    ti
    cizedf ori
    gnor
    inggender
    rol
    esandt hei
    mpactithasonwomeni nthegl
    obalsout
    h.Howev erweseeashi ftto
    i
    ntegr
    atewomeni nt
    odev el
    opmentpr
    ogramsinhopesoferadicat
    ingpover
    tyandlow
    soci
    aleconomi
    calst
    atus.

    Thesi
    xmai
    ntheor
    eti
    cal
    appr
    oachesar
    e:

    (
    1)TheWel
    far
    eAppr
    oach;

    (
    2)WomenI
    nDev
    elopment(
    WID)
    ;

    (
    3)WomenAndDev
    elopment(
    WAD)

    (
    4)GenderAndDev
    elopment(
    GAD)

    (
    5)TheEf
    fect
    ivenessAppr
    oach(
    EA)

    (
    6)Mai
    nst
    ream GenderEqual
    it
    y(MGE)

    Mart
    ineztri
    estounder
    standt
    hev
    ari
    ousout
    comesandef
    fect
    ivenessofal
    l6
    dev
    elopmenttheor
    ies.

    I
    n1972AnnOakl ey,wasabl et odisti
    ngui shthedif f
    erencebetweensexand
    gender.Genderreferst oone’ssexualit
    ybasedonmascul i
    nityandf emini
    nit
    yandsex
    ref
    erstothebiologicalfeaturesofonephy si
    ology .Withther i
    seandpopul ari
    tyofthe
    ter
    m gender,camewi t hitsmi susageofi tsact ualmeaning.Forexampl e,asmost
    devel
    opmentagenci esandNGO’ ssupportedit
    st erminology,howev ert
    heyusedi tasa
    ref
    erencepointwhent al
    kingaboutmai nl
    ywomeni ssues.Todayt heterm genderhas
    becomemor epopul ar
    ized,thatitisusuall
    yli
    nkedt oawi derangeofsect orsl
    ikepoli
    ti
    cs,

    103|Page
    economi
    cs,
    env
    ironmentandheal
    th.

    Soci
    alAssi
    stanceOrThe“
    Wel
    far
    eAppr
    oach”

    Soci
    alassi
    stanceort he“wel
    far
    eappr oach”origi
    nat
    edback1950st othe1970s
    duri
    ngt heeraofdecolonizati
    onandpol i
    ti
    caltransi
    ti
    oninginmostAf r
    icanandAsi an
    countri
    es.Thewelfareapproachwasar esponset otheoutcomesofinequali
    tyamong
    thelocalel
    it
    esandt hecommonmani neachnat i
    on,bymostofthenewl yi
    ndependent
    countri
    es.

    Mostint
    ernat
    ionaldevelopmentagenciesappliedav erywester
    nappr oachthat
    hel
    psthesenati
    onstodev el
    op.Someoft heset heori
    eswer ethemodernizat
    iontheory
    andtheMalthusi
    ant heory(Populat
    ionvs.Resour ces).Itbroughtaboutanegat ive
    i
    mpactandoutcomet owardst hemostdevelopi
    ngnat ions’devel
    opmentandal sohelp
    tof
    urt
    herimpedeonitsprogress.

    WomenI
    nDev
    elopment(
    WID)Appr
    oach

    Womeni ndevel
    opment( WID)appr oach,wasor i
    ginatedasar esul
    tofthree
    majorfemini
    stmoments/wavesconcer
    ningf emininecondit
    ions.Thef i
    rstwav
    eal so
    knownaswomen’ssuff
    ragemov ement,
    originat
    edintheNor t
    hAmer i
    cabacki nt
    helate
    19thcent
    ury,
    whenwomenf oughtf
    ortheequal ri
    ghttovot
    eandpar ti
    cipat
    einpol
    it
    ics.

    Thesecond-wav eoffemini
    sm soughttodealwi t
    hther emaini
    ngsocialand
    cult
    uralinequal
    it
    ieswomenwer efacedwithinev erydayaffai
    ri .
    e.sexualviol
    ence,
    repr
    oduct iv
    eri
    ghts,
    sexualdi
    scr
    iminati
    onandglassceil
    i
    ngs.Thesecondwav ewasv ery
    controversi
    alhowev eritwas infl
    uenti
    althatthe UN or ganized the fi
    rstglobal
    conferenceonwomenbacki n1975atMexi co.Theconf erencesoughtt oaddr ess
    nati
    onsr oleonfi
    ghti
    nggenderi
    nequali
    ti
    esandsupportforwomen’ sri
    ght.

    Thethir
    dwav ewasi nfl
    uencedbyEst erBoserup( 1970)publ i
    cati
    onon“ Women’ s
    Rolei n Economi c Devel
    opment ”.The book senta shock wav et hrough northern
    developmentagenci esandhumani tar
    ianorganizati
    on.Shest atesandgav eempi rical
    resul
    tsofhowi ncreasi
    nglyspeciali
    zeddiv
    isionofl abor,associatedwi t
    hdev el
    opment ,
    undermines ornegl ectsthe v al
    ue ofwomen’ s wor k and status especiall
    yi nt he
    developi
    ngwor l
    d.Asi texplai
    nswhywomenwer ebeingdepr i
    vedanequalshar eamong
    meni nsocialbenef i
    tsandeconomi cgains.Boser upbookhadani nfl
    uenceonmaki ng
    women mor ev isi
    blein dev el
    opmentappr oach and as a speci f
    ic categorywhen
    addressi
    ngwomeni ndevelopment .I
    twenti nfluenti
    al,asi n1973t heUScongr ess
    i
    mpl emented a bi l
    l,which requir
    ed the USAIDt oinclude women i n development
    programs.

    TheWI
    Dappr
    oachhel
    pedt
    oensur
    ethei
    ntegr
    ati
    onofwomeni
    ntot
    hewor
    kfor
    ce

    104|Page
    andincreasethei
    rlevelofproducti
    vit
    yinor dertoimpr ovetheirl
    i
    ves.Howev ersome
    havecrit
    ici
    zedthi
    sapproachasbeingv er
    ywest ern.Sincei
    tisapercept
    ionoftheglobal
    southf r
    om globalnorthperspecti
    ve,asi tfail
    st o acknowledgethecollecti
    veand
    cul
    turalconcer
    nsofwomeni nt hedevel
    opingwor l
    d.Itapproachhasbeent aggedas
    bei
    ngr athercumbersomeonwomen,asi tfail
    st ounderstandthedy namicsofthe
    pri
    vat
    espher ebutfocussol
    elyonthepublicsphere.

    TheWomenAndDev
    elopment(
    WAD)Appr
    oach

    Thewomenanddev elopment( WAD)appr oachor i


    ginat
    edbackin1975inMexi co
    cit
    y,asitsortt odiscusswomen’ sissuesfrom aneo- Mar xi
    standdependencyt heory
    perspecti
    ve.I
    tsf ocuswast o“ explaintherel
    at i
    onshi
    pbet weenwomenandt heprocess
    ofcapi t
    ali
    stdev el
    opmenti nt erms ofmat eri
    alconditi
    ons thatcontri
    butetot heir
    exploi
    tat
    ion”.WADi soft
    enmi sinter
    pret
    edasWI Dandwhatset sitaparti
    sthat,WAD
    focuses specifi
    call
    yon t he r elat
    ion bet
    ween pat r
    iarchyand capital
    ism.The WAD
    perspecti
    ve states thatwomen hav e al
    way s part
    ici
    pated and contr
    ibut
    ed towar ds
    economicdev elopment ,
    regardlessoft hepublicorpri
    vatespheres.

    TheGenderAndDev
    elopment(
    GAD)Appr
    oach

    TheGenderandDev elopmentappr oachor i


    ginatedi nt he1980sbysoci ali
    st
    feminism.I tserv easat r
    ansit
    ioningpoi ntinthewayi nwhi chf emi nisthaveunderstood
    development .I tservedasacompr ehensiveov ervi
    ew oft hesoci al
    ,economi cand
    poli
    tical reali
    ti
    esofdev el
    opment .Itsori
    ginrelatesbackt otheDev elopmentAlter
    nat ives
    withWomenf oraNew Er a,wheni twasf i
    rstinit
    iatedinI ndia.Itwast henofficiall
    y
    recogni zedi n1986dur i
    ngthe3r dUNconf erenceonwomeni nNai robi.Theconference
    broughtaboutact i
    vi
    st,researcherand dev elopmentpr actiti
    oner s gl
    oball
    y.As t he
    conference di scussed aboutt he achi evement s made f rom t he pr evi
    ous decade’ s
    evaluationofpr omotingequalit
    yamongt hesexes,andaf ullscopeoft heobstacl es
    l
    imitingwomen’ sadv ancements, especial
    lyinthedev elopi
    ngwor l
    d.

    Thef orum discussedaboutt heeffect i


    venessoft
    hecont inuousdebtcr i
    sisand
    str
    ucturaladjustmentpr ogram impl ementedbyt heIMFandt heWor l
    dBank,andhow
    suchconceptofneo- li
    beral
    i
    sm t endt omar ginali
    zeanddi
    scr
    imi natewomenmor eint he
    devel
    opi ngcount ri
    es.Thedi versit
    yoft hisappr oachwasopent ot heexperi
    encesand
    needofwomeni nt hedev el
    opi ngwor l
    d.I tstwomai ngoalswer etopr ov
    et hatt he
    unequalr el
    ati
    onshi pbetweent hesexeshi nder sdevel
    opmentandf emaleparti
    cipat
    ion.
    Thesecondwas, itsortt
    ochanget hestruct ur
    eofpowerint
    oal ong-t
    erm goalwhereby
    al
    ldeci sion-
    maki ngandbenef itsofdev elopmentar edi
    str
    ibutedonequalbasi sof
    genderneut r
    alit
    y.

    TheGADappr
    oachi
    snotj
    ustf
    ocusedont
    hebi
    ologi
    cal
    inequal
    i
    tiesamongsexes:

    105|Page
    menandwomen,howeveronhowsocialr
    oles,r
    epr
    oduct
    iverol
    esandeconomi
    crol
    es
    ar
    eli
    nkedt
    oGenderi
    nequal
    it
    iesof
    :mascul
    i
    nityandf
    emini
    nit
    y.

    TheEf
    fect
    ivenessAppr
    oach(
    EA)or
    igi
    nat
    edi
    nthe1980s

    TheEf f
    ectivenessApproach( EA)originatedint he1980s.Itsideasarelinkedt o
    the conceptsur rounding WID,whi ch was t he inequali
    ti
    es women f aced and how
    societi
    esfailt
    oacknowl edgetheimpactofwomeni neconomi cdev el
    opment .Howev er
    EAsor ttonotj usti ncl
    udewomeni nt
    odev elopmentpr oject
    sbutal sor ei
    nforcetheir
    l
    evelofpr oductivi
    tyand ef fect
    iveness i
    nt he labormar ket.So t hi
    sr equired t
    he
    developmentofi nfrastr
    uctur
    eandequi pmentt hataidedtoincreasewomen’ sear ni
    ngs
    andpr oduct
    ivi
    ty(especiall
    ywomeni ntheruralareas).

    Mai
    nst
    reami
    ngGenderEqual
    it
    y(MGE)appr
    oach

    Mai
    nstr
    eami ngGenderEqual i
    ty(MGE)appr oachalsocommonl yrefer
    redt o,as
    gendermainstr
    eami ngi sthemostr ecentdevelopmentappr oachaimedonwomen.
    Gendermainstr
    eami ngensur est hatallgenderissuesareaddressandi nt
    egratedi nal
    l
    l
    evelsofsoci
    ety,polit
    ics,andpr ograms.I tor
    igi
    natedin1995att he4thUNconf erence
    onwomeni nBeiji
    ng,Chi na.Att heforum,189st at
    erepresentati
    vesagreedt hatthe
    i
    nclusi
    onofbot hwomenandmeni nev erydevelopmentprojectwast heonlywayt o
    succeedandprogressi nanat i
    oneconomi cgrowthanddev el
    opment .

    TheWI Dapproachhadbeendr opbyv ari


    ousaidagenciesl i
    keCIDA,duet oit
    snegati
    ve
    i
    nterpr
    etati
    onf r
    om supporter
    s,asbeingt oofeministandbr oughtabouthostil
    i
    tyfr
    om
    ment owardssuchpr ogr
    ams.Sobasi cal
    lyorganizati
    onlikeCIDAnow hast oincl
    ude
    menandwomeni nthei
    rannualdev el
    opmentr eportconcerni
    ngt heal
    locati
    onoffunds
    spenttowardseducati
    on,healt
    hcare,andempl oymentofbot hsexes.

    Concl
    usi
    on

    Despitetheefforttorei
    nforcegendermainstr
    eamingintosociet
    ywesti
    llseea
    v
    astnumberofgenderi nequalit
    yespecial
    lyi
    nthedev el
    opingworld.Womenmakeup
    t
    he70%ofi ndi
    v i
    dualsli
    vinginpov er
    tyandinsub-Sahar
    anAf r
    ica57%ofHIVinfect
    ed
    i
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    sar ewomen.Thi sal
    soi ncl
    udesthedi
    sproport
    ionat
    er at
    ioofwomentomen
    i
    nthej
    obmar ketandatl eadershi
    ppositi
    on,l
    owlevelofeducati
    onamongwomen,and
    l
    owsoci
    o-economi cstat
    usamongwomen.

    106|Page
    TheThr
    eeSchool
    sOfThought
    /Appr
    oachesof

    GenderandDev
    elopment

    WI
    D,WADandGAD

    Thef i
    eldhast husbeenf erti
    leforaf undament alshif
    tintheperspecti
    v esofand
    approachest owomeni ndev elopmentdi scour seandpol i
    cy.EvaRat hgeber( 1990)
    i
    dentifi
    esthreedisti
    nctschool soft houghtongenderanddev elopment,namely ,Women
    i
    nDev el
    opment( WID) ,WomenandDev elopment( WAD)andGenderandDev elopment
    (GAD).Ast heoldestandmostdomi nantappr oach,t
    heWI Daroseoutoft hesear chf or
    practi
    calsoluti
    onstot hefail
    uresofdev el
    opmentconceptandt hegrowthoff eminism
    basedonamor esystemat icassessmentoft her ootsofwomen’ sdi
    sadvantage.I twas
    bornasat r
    ans-nati
    onalmov ement ;henceitsemer gencewasbui l
    tuponast rongsense
    ofcohesi on among women acr ossnat i
    onalboundar i
    es.Bel ow we outli
    ne a br i
    ef
    accountoft hesethreeschool s:

    I
    . Womeni
    nDev
    elopment(
    WID)

    I
    npopul ardiscour se,Womeni nDev el
    opment (WID)isassociated witht hewi de
    rangeofact i
    v i
    tiesconcer ni
    ngwomeni nt hedev el
    opmentdomai n,whichdonor
    agencies,gov ernment sandNGOshav ebecomei nvolv
    edinsincet he1970s.The
    1975Wor l
    dConf erenceoft heI nt
    ernationalWomení sYearatMexi coCity,andt he
    UnitedNat ionsDecadef orWomen( 1976-1985),gaveexpressiont othemaj or
    preoccupationsofwomenar oundt hewor l
    d:improvededucat
    ionalandempl oyment
    opportunit
    ies;equal i
    tyinpolit
    icalandsoci alpart
    ici
    pati
    on;andincreasedheal t
    hand
    welfar
    eser vi
    ces.I n sum,t heWI D mov ementt hatemerged during t
    hisper iod
    demandedsoci al justi
    ceandequi t
    yforwomen.

    Backgr
    ound

    Theterm womeni ndevel


    opmentwascoinedintheearl
    y1970sbyaWashi ngton-
    basednet wor
    koff emaledev
    elopmentprof
    essi
    onal
    s.Ont hebasisofthei
    rown
    exper
    iencesinov
    erseasmissi
    ons,t
    heybegantochal
    lenget
    rickl
    edowntheori
    esof

    107|Page
    dev
    elopment
    ,ar
    gui
    ngt
    hatmoder
    nizat
    ionwasi
    mpact
    ingdi
    ff
    erent
    lyonmenand
    women.

    Or
    igi
    n:

    TheWI Dper spectiv


    eev ol
    vedintheearly1970sf rom a‘ l
    i
    beral’f
    emi nistframewor k
    andwaspar ti
    cularl
    yinfluent
    iali
    nNor t
    hAmer ica.Itwasar eacti
    ontowomenbei ng
    seenaspassi vebenef i
    ciari
    esofdev el
    opment .Itmar kedani mpor tantcor recti
    ve,
    highl
    ighti
    ngthef actthatwomenneedt obei ntegrat
    edi nt
    odev elopmentpr ocesses
    asact i
    veagent sifeff
    icientandeffect
    ivedevelopmenti stobeachi ev ed.TheWI D'
    s
    oppositi
    ont othis“welfareapproach”wasi npar tmot i
    vatedbyt hewor kofDani sh
    economi stEsterBoserupi ntheear
    ly1970s,whochal lengedt heassumpt i
    onsoft he
    said approach and hi ghli
    ghted t
    he role women bywomen i nt he agr icult
    ural
    producti
    onandeconomy .

    b)Theor
    eti
    cal
    Base

    I
    naddi t
    iontotheWI Dagenda,therewast hesimult
    aneousef f
    ortbyli
    beral
    feminists
    togetequalr ight
    s,empl oy
    ment ,equit
    yandci ti
    zenshi
    pf orwomeni ntheUnit ed
    Stat
    esi not herwords,t heideaofget t
    ing ajustpolit
    icalsystem i
    npl acef or
    Americanwomen.Thel iber
    alfeministapproachhasbeenv eryimport
    antglobally
    ,
    andwascr iti
    cali
    ndet ermini
    ngt helanguageofpol i
    ti
    calstrat
    egyusedbyWI D
    advocates.

    c)Focus:

    TheWI Dapproachhel pedt oensure,t


    heintegr
    ati
    onofwomeni ntot heworkfor
    ce
    andincr
    easetheirlevelofproduct
    ivi
    tyi
    nordertoimprovet
    heirli
    ves.Howev ersome
    havecri
    ti
    cizedthisappr oachasbeingverywestern.Si
    nceitisaper cept
    ionofthe
    gl
    obalsouthfrom global nor
    thper
    specti
    ve.

    d)Feat
    ures:

    Genderabasicf
    act
    ori
    nt hedivi
    sionoflabor
    .Womenl
    aborathomeandonthe
    far
    mgener
    all
    y under-
    repor
    ted. Analyzed some of t he reasons f
    or

    108|Page
    regi
    onaldi
    ff
    erences (e.g. i
    n diff
    erent f
    arming systems)
    . Rel
    ated these to
    part
    ici
    pati
    oninof f
    -f
    arm employmentandlabormigr
    ation.Hi
    ghl
    i
    ghtedthenegat
    ive
    i
    mpact sofcoloni
    ali
    sm andthepenetr
    ati
    onofcapi
    tal
    ism.

    e)Cr
    it
    ici
    sm ofWI
    D

    Bythemi d-l
    ate1970si twasbecomi ngcleart hatwomenhadof tenf ar
    edwor se
    undermodernizationandt hedev elopment effortsofthepastdecade.WI Dfocused
    onint
    egrati
    onandadv ocacyforgreaterparticipati
    on.Itdi
    dn’t
    questionwhywomen’ s
    posi
    ti
    on wasof t
    en decl i
    ning and what t he sour cesand nat ure of
    women’ssubordinati
    onandoppr essi
    onwer e.Itwasof t
    enahi st
    oricalandshar ed
    i
    nmanyoft heweaknessesoft hemodernizationpar adi
    gm.WI Dalsot endedtofocus
    onwomenaspr oducersandignor eormi nimizet heirr
    eproduct
    iverole

    Concl
    usi
    on

    WI D adv ocat
    eshav eadopted a strategyofr elevance.I
    n otherwor ds,their
    demandsf ortheallocat
    ionofdev el
    opmentr esourcest owomenhi ngeoneconomi c
    effi
    ciencyar gumentsaboutwhatwomencancont r
    ibutet othedevelopmentpr ocess.
    Theconv ergenceofequi tyandeffi
    ciencyconcer nsi nt hi
    sst r
    andofWI Dthoughthas
    provi
    dedt hebasisforapower fulpol
    iti
    calstrategy.Ithasal sohadal ast
    ingimpacton
    thewayi nwhi chdev el
    opmentplannerst hinkaboutwomen.I nthediscussiont hat
    fol
    lows, weconcent ratepri
    mari
    lyonthisstr
    andofWI Dt hought.

    I
    I. WomenandDev
    elopment(
    WAD)

    Int
    roducti
    on
    I
    nessence,theWADappr oachbeginsfr
    om theposi
    tionthatwomenalwayshave
    beenani ntegr
    alpartofdev el
    opmentprocessesinaglobalsystem ofexpl
    oit
    ati
    onand
    i
    nequalit
    y,anditisfrom thi
    sperspect
    ivethatweneedt oexaminewhywomenhadnot
    benefi
    tedfrom thedev el
    opmentstrat
    egiesofthepastdecades,thati
    s,byquesti
    oni
    ng
    thesourcesandnatur eofwomen'ssubordinat
    ionandoppressi
    on.

    a)Or
    igi
    n:

    Emergedfr
    om acrit
    iqueofthemoderni
    zati
    ontheoryandtheWID appr
    oachinthe
    secondhal
    foft
    he1970s.I
    tsor
    igi
    ns,
    whichcanbetracedt
    otheFi
    rstWorl
    dConfer
    ence
    onWomeni nMexi
    coCityi
    n1975,or
    gani
    zedbytheUN.

    109|Page
    b)Theor
    eti
    cal
    base:

    Drawsfr
    om thedependencyt heor
    y.WADaroseoutofashi
    fti
    nthi
    nki
    ngaboutwomen’s
    rolei
    ndev elopment.
    Discusswomen’ si
    ssuesf r
    om aneo-Marxi
    standdependency
    theor
    yperspecti
    ve.

    c)Focus:

    Womenhav eal
    way
    sbeenpar
    tofdev
    elopmentprocess-
    ther
    efor
    eint
    egr
    ati
    ngwomenin
    developmentisamyt
    hFocusesonr el
    ati
    onshi
    pbet weenwomenanddev el
    opment
    process.

    d)Cont
    ri
    but
    ion:

    Acceptswomenasi mport
    anteconomi cact
    orsi
    ntheirsoci
    eti
    es.Women’swor ki
    nthe
    publ
    icandpr iv
    atedomaini scentraltothemai
    ntenanceoft hei
    rsoci
    etalstr
    uct
    ures.
    Looksatt henatur
    eofintegrati
    onofwomeni ndevelopment,whichsustai
    nsexi
    sti
    ng
    i
    nternat
    ionalst
    ruct
    uresofinequali
    ty.

    e)Feat
    ures:

    Fail
    st oanalyzether elati
    onshipbet weenpat ri
    archy,dif
    feri
    ngmodesofpr oduct ionand
    women’ ssubor di
    nat i
    onandoppr ession.Di scouragesast r
    ictanalyti
    calf ocusont he
    problemsofwomeni ndependentoft hoseofmensi ncebot hsexesar eseent obe
    disadvantagedwi thoppr essiv
    egl obalst ructurebasedoncl assandcapi tal.TheWAD
    approachr ecognizest hattheThi rdWor ldmenal sohav ebeenadv ersel
    yaf f
    ect edby
    thest r
    uctureoft hei nequali
    ti
    esandexpl oit
    ationwi thi
    nt heinter
    nationalsy stem,and
    discouragesast ri
    ctanal yti
    calfocusont hepr oblemsofwomeni ndependentoft hose
    ofmen, si
    ncebotht hesexesar edi sadv antagedwi thi
    nt heoppressiv
    egl obal structures
    basedoncl assandcapi tal

    Thustherei
    slit
    tl
    eanalyt
    ical
    att
    ent
    iontothesoci
    alrel
    ati
    onsofgenderwithinclasses.It
    fai
    lstoundert
    akeaf ul
    l
    -scal
    eanal
    ysisoftherel
    ati
    onshi
    pbetweenpat r
    iarchy,dif
    feri
    ng
    modesofpr oducti
    on,andwomen' ssubordi
    nati
    onandoppr essi
    on.Thati s,itgives
    scantatt
    enti
    ont ot
    hespher eofr
    eproducti
    onandhouseholdlevelrel
    ationsbet ween

    110|Page
    menandwomen.

    Conclusi
    on
    TheWADper specti
    veappear stoimplicitl
    yassumet hatwomen' spositi
    onwi l
    l
    i
    mpr ovewi t
    hmor eequi tableinternati
    onalstr
    uct ures,andi tsideswithWI Dinsolvi
    ng
    the pr obl
    em ofunder r
    epresentation ofwomen i n economi c,poli
    tical,and social
    structures by car eful
    ly designed i nter
    vention st rategies r at
    her t han by mor e
    fundament alshift
    si nthesocialr el
    ati
    onsofgender .SuchcommonWI D- WADf ocuson
    i
    nt erventi
    onst r
    ategiesint ermsoft hedev el
    opmentofi ncome- generatingactivi
    ti
    es,
    withoutcar i
    ngf orthet i
    mebur denst hatsuchst rategiespl aceonwomen,showst he
    singularpreoccupationoft heseappr oacheswi ththepr oduct i
    vesectoratt heexpense
    oft hereproducti
    vesi deofwomen' swor kandlives.

    I
    II
    . GenderandDev
    elopment(
    GAD)

    Theconcer nov erthi


    spr oblem l edt oaconsensust or eformt heWI D,wit
    h
    argument sf orapproachesinformed byagenderanal ysi
    sofsoci alrelat
    ionsand
    aspirati
    onf ortheult
    imateempower mentofwomen.Hencet heshiftcamet oGender
    AnalysisinDev el
    opmentorsi mplyGenderandDev elopment( GAD)i nthe1980s.The
    focuson‘ gender
    ’rat
    herthan‘women’wasi nf l
    uencedbyt hef eministwrit
    erssuchas
    Oakley( 1972)andRubin(1975),whower ewor r
    iedaboutthegener alwayofper cei
    vi
    ng
    thepr oblemsofwomeni ntermsoft heirsex,theirbiol
    ogicaldiffer
    encef r
    om men,
    ratherthani nter
    msoft hei
    rgender ,thesoci alrel
    ationshi
    pbet weenmenandwomen,
    wher ewomenhav ebeensystematicallysubor di
    nated.

    a)Or
    igi
    n:

    TheGenderanddev elopmentapproachorigi
    nat
    edint he1980’
    sbysocial
    istfemi
    nism.
    I
    tser ve as a t
    ransi
    tioni
    ng poi
    nti nthe wayi n which f
    emini
    sthav e under
    stood
    devel
    opment.Itservedasacompr ehensiv
    eov er
    view ofthesoci
    al,economicand
    pol
    iti
    calr
    eali
    ti
    esofdev el
    opment.

    b)Theor
    eti
    cal
    base:

    I
    nfluencedbysoci
    ali
    stfemini
    stthi
    nking.TheGenderandDevel
    opment( GAD)approach
    focusesont hesoci
    all
    yconst r
    uctedDi f
    fer
    encesbetweenmenandwomenandt he
    needtochall
    engeexist
    inggenderrol
    esandr el
    ati
    ons.
    GADchallengedtheWIDfocuson
    womenasani mport
    ant‘tar
    getgroup’and‘unt
    appedresour
    ces’fordevel
    opment.GAD

    111|Page
    markedashiftinthi
    nki
    ngaboutt
    heneedt
    ounder
    standhow womenandmenar
    e
    soci
    all
    yconst
    ruct
    ed

    c)Focus:

    Offer
    sahol i
    sticper spectiv
    el ooki
    ngatal laspect sofwomen’ sli
    v es.Itquesti
    onst he
    basisofassigningspeci fi
    cgenderr olestodiff
    er entsexes.TheGADwasgr oundedi n
    theargumentt hatananal ysisfocusingonwomenal onecouldnotadequat elycapt ure
    thenatureofsubor di nat
    ionwi t
    houtl ooki
    ngatt heconcer nedsoci alandinsti
    tutional
    rul
    esandpr acticest hroughwhi chgenderr el
    ationsar econstr
    ucted.And‘ power ’isa
    generalchar
    act eri
    sticofgenderr elati
    ons.Henceananal y
    sisofsoci alrelat
    ionsof
    genderanddev el
    opmentmustst artfrom domest i
    car enaandgobey ondthebr oader
    economicarenai nwhi chtheser el
    ationsareart
    iculatedandreconstitut
    ed.

    d)Cont
    ri
    but
    ion:

    Doesnotexcl
    usi
    vel
    yemphasizefemalesoli
    dari
    ty-wel
    comescont
    ri
    buti
    onsofsensit
    ive
    men.Recogni
    zeswomen’ scont
    ribut
    ioninsi
    deandout si
    dethehousehol
    d,i
    ncludi
    ng
    non-
    commoditypr
    oduct
    ion.

    e)Feat
    ures:

    GADr ejectst hepubl icorprivatedi chotomy .Itgivesspeci alattenti


    ontooppr essionof
    womeni nt hef ami l
    ybyent eri
    ngt he` privat
    espher e’.Itemphasi zesthestate’sdutyto
    providesoci alserv i
    cesinpromot i
    ngwomen’ semanci pati
    on.Womenseenasagent sof
    changer athert hanaspassi ver ecipientsofdev elopmentassi stance.St
    ressest heneed
    forwoment oor ganizethemsel vesf oramor eef fectivepolit
    ical voi
    ce.Recognizesthat
    patriarchy oper ates withi
    n and acr oss cl asses t o oppr ess women.Focuses on
    strengt heningwomen’ slegalrights,includi
    ngt her eform ofi nherit
    anceandl andlaws.
    Ittalksi nter msofupset ti
    ngt heexi sti
    ngpowerr elati
    onsi nsoci et
    ybetweenmenand
    women.

    Concl
    usi
    on

    Gendersubordi
    nat
    ionisembeddedi nthehierar
    chicst
    ruct
    uresofdivi
    sionof
    l
    aborandgender,asoneaspectofsoci
    alr
    elat
    ions,i
    snottheonl
    yform ofi
    nequali
    tyi
    n

    112|Page
    thelivesofwomenandmenast her
    ear eotherformsofsocialinequali
    ti
    esresul
    ting
    from classandracedif
    ferent
    iat
    ion.Hence,aholi
    sti
    cframewor
    kt hatlooksatthetot
    alit
    y
    ofsoci alorgani
    zati
    onsandeconomi candpol i
    ti
    calli
    feisneededt ounder st
    andany
    parti
    cularaspectofrel
    ati
    ons.

    I
    tisastrategyformaki
    ngwomen’ saswel
    lasmen’sconcernsandexperi
    ences
    anint egr
    aldimensi onofthedesign,impl
    ement
    ati
    on,monitor
    ingandev aluat
    ionof
    poli
    ciesandpr ogrammesi nal
    lpoli
    ti
    cal
    ,economi
    candsocialspheressothatwomen
    andmenbenef i
    tequal l
    yandinequal
    it
    yisnotperpet
    uat
    ed.Theul t
    imat
    egoali sto
    achi
    ev egenderequal i
    ty.

    Compar
    ati
    veAnal
    ysi
    sofWI
    D,WAD,
    GAD

    Changi
    ngPer
    spect
    ivesonWomen,
    GenderandDev
    elopment

    Womeni
    nDevel
    opment(
    WID) Womenand Genderand
    Devel
    opment(
    WAD) Devel
    opment(
    GAD)

    Or
    igi
    ns Earl
    y1970safterthe Emergedfr
    om a
    publ
    icat
    ionofEster cr
    it
    iqueoft
    he
    Asanal
    ter
    nat
    ivet
    o
    Boser
    up’
    sbookWomen’
    sRol
    e moder
    nizat
    iont
    heor
    y theWI
    Dfocus
    i
    neconomic andt
    heWI D
    thi
    sapproach
    Devel
    opment
    .Ter
    m WI
    D approachint
    hesecond devel
    opedinthe
    ar
    ti
    culat
    edby hal
    foft he
    1980s.
    Amer
    icanl
    i
    ber
    alf
    emi
    nist
    s. 1970s.

    Theor
    eti
    cal Linkedwit
    hthemoder
    nizat
    ion Drawsfrom t
    he Inf
    luencedby
    theoryoft
    he dependencyt
    heor
    y. social
    istf
    emini
    st
    Base
    1950st
    o1970s.Byt
    he1970s, t
    hinki
    ng.
    i
    twasreal
    i
    zed

    thatbenef
    it
    sofmoder
    nizat
    ion
    had

    113|Page
    somehownotr
    eachedwomen,
    andi
    nsome

    sect
    orsunderminedt
    hei
    r
    exi
    sti
    ngposit
    ion.

    Focus Needtoi
    ntegr
    atewomeni
    n Womenhaveal
    way
    s Off
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    Women’sproduct
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    .

    Cont
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    Women’ swor kinthe
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    Looksatt henat ur
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    exi
    sti
    ngi
    nter
    nat
    ional

    114|Page
    st
    ruct
    uresof

    i
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    ty.

    Feat
    ures WIDwassoli
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    n Fai
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    Itacceptedexi
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    Non- conf r
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    Itdidnotquest ionwhywomen
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    r
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    Focusedexcl usiv elyon
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    mor eequi t
    able,

    115|Page
    women’
    sposi
    ti
    on Recognizest
    hat
    woul
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    WADdoesnotquest
    ion operat
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    bet
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    ooppr
    esswomen.

    Focuseson
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    engtheni
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    women’
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    ncl
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    t
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    ruct
    uralAdj
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    es(
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    I
    ntr
    oduct
    ion

    "
    Iti
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    .
    Al
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    he
    i
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    ty.Duet
    othi
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    nvi
    sibi
    l
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    ,"womenmayof
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    untof
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    elopi
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    ri
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    ecei
    vef
    inanci
    alai
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    om i
    nter
    nat
    ional
    i
    nst
    it
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    othe"condi
    ti
    onal
    i
    ty"oft
    hesel
    oans.

    I
    nthi
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    ,thr
    ought
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    l
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    aint
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    Expl
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    ust
    mentPol
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    es

    116|Page
    I
    MF descr
    ibes i
    ts"
    cor
    eresponsi
    bil
    i
    ty"as bei
    ng t
    o"pr
    ovi
    de l
    oans t
    o count
    ri
    es
    exper
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    anceofpay
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    spr
    obl
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    not
    herwor
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    count
    ri
    est
    hatar
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    sofdebtandf
    indt
    hemsel
    vesunabl
    etopay
    .The
    economi
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    hese count
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    e weak and unst
    abl
    e.I
    MF expl
    ains t
    he f
    inanci
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    o"r
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    ize t
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    Thet
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    Gr
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    ease i
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    rom

    117|Page
    somewher
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    por
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    Anov
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    onal
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    o be

    118|Page
    economi
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    nsoci
    ety
    .Maggi
    eHumm def
    inedpat
    ri
    archal
    soci
    etyas:asy
    stem ofmal
    eaut
    hor
    it
    ywhi
    choppr
    esseswoment
    hroughi
    tssoci
    al,
    pol
    i
    ticalandeconomi
    cinst
    it
    uti
    ons.Pat
    ri
    archyhaspowerf
    rom men'
    sgr
    eat
    eraccesst
    o,
    andmedi
    ati
    onof
    ,ther
    esour
    cesandr
    ewar
    dsofaut
    hor
    it
    yst
    ruct
    uresi
    nsi
    deandout
    side
    t
    hehome)
    .

    Iwi
    l
    lnextev
    aluat
    est
    ruct
    uraladj
    ust
    mentpol
    i
    ciesi
    nter
    msofneo-
    femi
    nism.Iwi
    l
    lfocus
    onhow I
    MFt
    ri
    vi
    ali
    zesori
    gnor
    eswomen'
    sissues,how t
    hepat
    ri
    archaldomi
    nat
    ionof
    soci
    etyandI
    MFsetwomenupf
    orgr
    eat
    erabuseandnegl
    ectwhenSAPsar
    einst
    it
    uted,
    andhowt
    her
    esear
    chdoneonwomeni
    sof
    tenanunf
    airr
    epr
    esent
    ati
    on.

    TheI
    nvi
    sibi
    li
    tyofWomenatI
    MF

    Womenar
    eshocki
    ngl
    yunder
    repr
    esent
    edatI
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    het
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    fi
    cial
    satI
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    onl
    ythr
    eear
    ewomen.Thei
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    ti
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    eAf
    ri
    candepar
    tmentdi
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    or,
    ext
    ernal
    rel
    ati
    ons

    119|Page
    depar
    tmentdi
    rect
    or,andst
    ati
    sti
    csdepar
    tmentdi
    rect
    or.Oft
    het
    enmanagi
    ngdi
    rect
    ors
    ofI
    MF,notonehasev
    erbeenawoman.Oft
    het
    went
    y-f
    our
    -per
    sonexecu-
    ti
    veboar
    d,
    onl
    ytwoar
    ewomen.Oft
    hef
    our
    -per
    sonmanagementt
    eam,notonei
    sawoman.
    IMF
    doeshav
    eadi
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    sit
    yst
    atementemphasi
    zi
    ngt
    hat
    :Ef
    fect
    iveengagementi
    nal
    lmember
    count
    ri
    es-
    int
    hecont
    extofgl
    obal
    i
    zat
    ion,
    thei
    ncr
    easi
    ngpr
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    nenceofemer
    ging-
    mar
    ket
    andl
    ow-
    incomecount
    ri
    es,andt
    hechangi
    ngr
    oleofwomeni
    ntheeconomy
    -makes
    di
    ver
    sit
    yincr
    easi
    ngl
    ycr
    it
    ical
    toal
    lact
    ivi
    ti
    esoft
    heFund.

    Notonl
    yar
    ethewomeni
    gnor
    edandt
    ri
    vi
    ali
    zed,butt
    hel
    ackofwomeni
    nseni
    orr
    oles
    al
    soser
    iousl
    yimpact
    stheamountofwei
    ghtanddi
    scussi
    onwomen'
    sissueshav
    eat
    I
    MF.Wi
    thoutwomenont
    heboar
    dtoei
    therf
    ightf
    orwomen'
    sissuesbe-
    ingt
    ri
    vi
    ali
    zedor
    br
    ingf
    orwar
    dwomen'
    sissuesbei
    ngi
    gnor
    ed,
    theef
    fectofSAPsonwomenwi
    l
    lcont
    inue
    t
    ogounseenort
    ri
    vi
    ali
    zed.

    I
    nvi
    sibi
    li
    tyofWomen'
    sIssuesatI
    MF

    I
    nor
    dert
    odet
    ermi
    newhet
    herornotwomen'
    sissuesar
    ebei
    ngdi
    scussedandev
    aluat
    ed
    byI
    MP,
    IlookedatI
    MP'
    spubl
    i
    shedmagazi
    neofj
    our
    nal
    art
    icl
    es.Asear
    choft
    heFi
    nance
    andDev
    elopmentdat
    abasebr
    oughtup135ar
    ti
    cl
    eswi
    tht
    hewor
    d"women.
    "Thi
    smay
    seem l
    i
    keal
    argenumber
    ,butcompar
    edt
    other
    oughl
    ythousandpl
    usar
    ti
    clesi
    nthe
    dat
    abase,i
    tisr
    elat
    ivel
    ysmal
    l
    .Notonl
    ywasi
    tasmal
    lnumber
    ,butt
    hemaj
    ori
    tyoft
    he
    ar
    ti
    cleswi
    tht
    hewor
    d"women"wer
    ereadercomment
    ari
    es,
    notact
    ual
    art
    icl
    es.

    I
    ntheJune2007i
    ssueent
    it
    ledUnl
    eashi
    ngt
    heEconomi
    cPower0FWomen,t
    her
    ewer
    e
    sev
    eralgood ar
    ti
    clest
    hatdi
    scussed women and t
    heeconomy
    .Onear
    ti
    clecal
    l
    ed
    "
    Budget
    -i
    ngwi
    thWomeni
    nMi
    nd"di
    scussedgenderi
    nequal
    i
    tyandt
    hei
    mpor
    tanceof
    gender par
    it
    y.I
    t expl
    ained t
    he i
    mpor
    tance of i
    ncor
    por
    ati
    ng women i
    nto
    macr
    oeconomi
    csandhow t
    oaddr
    esst
    hedi
    ff
    erentneedsofwomeni
    ndev
    elopment
    pl
    anni
    ng.

    120|Page
    Anot
    herent
    it
    led"
    Smar
    tEconomi
    cs"di
    scussedbenef
    it
    sthatcoul
    dar
    iseoutofgender
    par
    it
    yinsoci
    etyandgender
    -consci
    ouseconomi
    cpol
    i
    cies.Despi
    tet
    hisgl
    i
    mmerofhope
    t
    hatI
    MFser
    iousl
    yconsi
    der
    swomen'
    sissuesi
    nthei
    rpubl
    i
    cat
    ions,noneoft
    hear
    ti
    cles
    of
    ferspeci
    fi
    cev
    aluat
    ionofI
    MFpol
    i
    ciesorspe-
    cif
    iccr
    it
    iquest
    ohel
    pIMFbemor
    e
    genderconsci
    ousi
    nthei
    rpol
    i
    cies.Thi
    sgl
    ari
    ngl
    ackofi
    nfor
    mat
    ionhel
    pst
    oshow t
    hat
    I
    MFi
    scur
    rent
    lynotaddr
    essi
    ngt
    hei
    ssueofst
    ruct
    uraladj
    ust
    mentpr
    ogr
    amsandt
    he
    ef
    fectt
    hatt
    heyhav
    eonwomeni
    ndev
    elopi
    ngcount
    ri
    es.Ther
    eisl
    i
    ttl
    eev
    idencet
    hatany
    suchr
    esear
    chhasbeendi
    scussedl
    etal
    onecar
    ri
    edoutbyI
    MF.

    Ther
    ear
    emanydet
    ri
    ment
    alef
    fect
    sont
    hepoor
    ,par
    ti
    cul
    arl
    yonwomen,
    duet
    ost
    ruct
    ural
    adj
    ust
    mentpr
    ogr
    ams.Wi
    tht
    hepat
    ri
    archalsoci
    etyt
    hatexi
    stsi
    nthewor
    ld,cul
    tur
    al
    const
    ruct
    sensur
    ethatwomenhav
    elessaccesst
    oresour
    cesandpowert
    hanmendo.
    The st
    ruct
    uraladj
    ust
    mentpr
    ogr
    ams exacer
    bat
    e women'
    s al
    readyunequalaccess,
    whi
    chf
    urt
    herhar
    mswomen.I
    nit
    ial
    l
    y,i
    tmayappeart
    hatSAPsar
    ewor
    king.GDPappear
    s
    t
    o bei
    ncr
    easi
    ng and debt
    sar
    ebei
    ng pai
    d of
    f.Howev
    er,t
    hisdat
    aismi
    sleadi
    ng.
    St
    ruct
    uraladj
    ust
    mentpr
    ogr
    amshav
    ebeenchar
    act
    eri
    zed,t
    hroughgr
    owi
    ngamount
    sof
    ev
    idence,ascr
    eat
    inganeconomi
    candsoci
    alenv
    ironmenti
    nwhi
    cht
    her
    ichbecome
    r
    icherandt
    hepoorbecomepoor
    er.I
    nfact
    ,recentWor
    ldBankev
    aluat
    ionsoft
    her
    esul
    ts
    ofSAPsacknowl
    edget
    hatwhi
    l
    emacr
    oeconomi
    cst
    abi
    l
    izat
    ionpol
    i
    ciesar
    enecessar
    yfor
    gr
    owt
    h,t
    heyar
    enotsuf
    fi
    cienti
    nreduci
    ngpov
    ert
    yori
    ncomei
    nequal
    i
    tyi
    nal
    lcount
    ri
    es.

    Despi
    tet
    hegoalofI
    MFl
    oansbei
    ngt
    ohel
    ppoordev
    elopi
    ngcount
    ri
    esgr
    ow,t
    hepr
    o-
    gr
    amsdonot
    hingt
    oal
    l
    evi
    atepov
    ert
    y.Ther
    eisnow a.
    ..gr
    owi
    ngv
    olumeofl
    i
    ter
    atur
    e
    t
    hatnotonl
    yshowshow genderbi
    asi
    nneocl
    assi
    caleconomi
    ctheor
    yrender
    sthe
    ef
    fect
    sofSAPsonwomeni
    nvi
    s-i
    ble,i
    nanyst
    andar
    dmeasur
    eofpol
    i
    cyev
    aluat
    ion,but
    al
    so pr
    ovi
    desempi
    ri
    calev
    idenceoft
    heheav
    ytr
    ansi
    ti
    onalcost
    sofadj
    ust
    menton
    women.

    Thi
    ssect
    oroft
    heeconomyi
    swher
    ethemaj
    ori
    tyofwomenwor
    k.Theeconomi
    sts
    assumet
    hatt
    her
    epr
    oduct
    iveeconomywi
    l
    lcont
    inuet
    hesamewayi
    tal
    way
    shas
    despi
    tear
    eal
    l
    oca-
    ti
    onofr
    esour
    cest
    hatoccur
    sdur
    ingadj
    ust
    ment.Byv
    iewi
    ngt
    he
    economyi
    nthi
    sway
    ,women'
    slabori
    s"i
    nvi
    sibl
    e"andt
    her
    efor
    e,"
    obscur
    est
    heeconomi
    c

    121|Page
    andsoci
    alcost
    sofst
    ruct
    ural
    adj
    ust
    mentonwomen'
    swor
    kandl
    i
    ves"
    .

    How muchcoul
    dthi
    sov
    ersi
    ghtofl
    aboract
    ual
    l
    ybe?"
    Womendo70per
    centoft
    he
    wor
    ld'
    swor
    kbutr
    ecei
    veonl
    y10per
    centoft
    her
    evenues,
    andownonl
    y1per
    centoft
    he
    weal
    th"(
    Mot
    her
    ing2003)
    .Women'
    swor
    k,al
    thoughext
    remel
    yimpor
    tant
    ,of
    -t
    engoes
    i
    gnor
    edandunpai
    d.Forexampl
    e,womeni
    nAf
    ri
    capr
    oduce78per
    centoft
    hef
    ood-
    bot
    h
    meatandagr
    icul
    tur
    e(Wor
    ldVi
    sion2000)
    ."Ei
    ghtoutoft
    enwor
    kingf
    armer
    sinAf
    ri
    caar
    e
    women.I
    nAsi
    a,t
    her
    ati
    oissi
    xoutoft
    en"
    .

    Howev
    er,
    themaj
    ori
    tyoft
    hesewomendonotgai
    ncashdi
    rect
    lyf
    ort
    hei
    rwor
    k,andt
    hei
    r
    l
    abori
    sdi
    scount
    edi
    ncensusesandst
    ati
    sti
    cs.
    Dai
    l
    ywor
    kforwomeni
    nsubsi
    stence
    economi
    esi
    ncl
    udesev
    ery
    thi
    ng f
    rom househol
    d wor
    ksuch aschi
    l
    d car
    e,cooki
    ng,
    cl
    eani
    ng,gat
    her
    ingwat
    er,andf
    uel
    i
    ngt
    hehomet
    owor
    kingi
    nthebam andf
    iel
    dlabor
    .
    Womenhav
    epr
    imar
    yresponsi
    bil
    i
    tyov
    ert
    hecar
    eofal
    ltheani
    mal
    sincl
    udi
    ngf
    eedi
    ng,
    t
    endi
    ng,gat
    her
    ingeggsandmi
    l
    k,andgat
    her
    ingf
    odder
    .Womenal
    sohav
    epr
    imar
    y
    r
    esponsi
    bil
    i
    ty ov
    erpost
    -har
    vestwor
    k,as wel
    las hel
    ping dur
    ing pr
    e-har
    vestand
    har
    vest
    ing.

    Al
    so,womengener
    all
    ywor
    kmor
    ehour
    sadayt
    hanmeni
    ndev
    elopi
    ngcoun-
    tr
    ies.I
    n
    Asi
    aandSub-
    Sahar
    anAf
    ri
    ca,womenwor
    ktwel
    vet
    othi
    rt
    eenmor
    ehour
    saweekt
    han
    men.Thi
    str
    ansl
    atest
    otwel
    vet
    oei
    gh-
    teenhour
    sadayf
    orwomencompar
    edt
    omen'
    s
    ei
    ghtt
    otwel
    vehour
    sofwor
    keachday
    .Notonl
    ydowomenwor
    kmor
    ehour
    s,t
    heyal
    so
    "
    spendt
    wiceasmanyhour
    sperweekwor
    kingt
    osuppor
    tthei
    rfami
    l
    ies".Ev
    ent
    hough
    womencont
    ri
    but
    e"al
    i
    on'
    sshar
    eofwor
    k,"i
    tisv
    iewedas"
    unpr
    oduct
    ivei
    ntheey
    esof
    gov
    ernmentst
    ati
    sti
    ci
    ans,
    economi
    sts,
    dev
    elopmentexper
    ts,
    andev
    ent
    hei
    rhusbands".

    Suchanov
    ersi
    ghti
    nacknowl
    edgi
    ngwomen'
    slaborhasagr
    avei
    mpactonwomenand
    soci
    etywhenst
    ruct
    uraladj
    ust
    mentpr
    ogr
    amsar
    eputi
    ntopl
    ace.Womenandf
    emal
    e-
    headedhousehol
    dsar
    ethemostat
    -r
    iskgr
    oupf
    orpov
    ert
    y.Ther
    ear
    eap-
    proxi
    mat
    ely700
    mi
    l
    li
    onwomenl
    i
    vingi
    npov
    ert
    yindev
    elopi
    ngcount
    ri
    es.Womencompr
    iseagr
    eat
    er
    por
    ti
    ont
    hanmenoft
    hosel
    i
    vingbel
    ow t
    hepov
    ert
    yli
    neandt
    hosel
    i
    vingwi
    thoutt
    he
    basi
    cessent
    ial
    s."
    Thenumberofwomeni
    nrur
    alcommuni
    ti
    esl
    i
    vingbel
    owt
    hepov
    ert
    y
    l
    i
    ner
    osemor
    ethant
    henumberofr
    uralmenl
    i
    vingbel
    owt
    hepov
    ert
    yli
    ne-
    incr
    easi
    ngby

    122|Page
    47per
    centf
    orwomenv
    ersus30per
    centf
    ormen".Notonl
    yar
    ewomenmor
    eatr
    iskf
    or
    pov
    ert
    y,buthouse-
    hol
    dsheadedbywomenar
    easwel
    l
    .Femal
    e-headedhousehol
    dsar
    e
    ont
    her
    iseacr
    osst
    hewor
    ld."
    Dat
    acompi
    l
    edbyt
    hePopul
    ati
    onCounci
    lshow ar
    isei
    n
    f
    emal
    e-headedhousehol
    dsi
    nei
    ght
    eenoutoft
    went
    ysi
    xcensusesandsur
    vey
    srev
    iewed
    gl
    obal
    l
    y".

    Ev
    aluat
    ionofSt
    ruct
    uralAdj
    ust
    mentPol
    ici
    es

    Next
    ,Iwi
    l
    lev
    aluat
    esomeoft
    hespeci
    fi
    cpol
    i
    ciesusedi
    nSAPst
    ospurgr
    owt
    hint
    he
    economy
    .Iwi
    l
    lev
    aluat
    ehow a pat
    ri
    archalsoci
    etycr
    eat
    escul
    tur
    alconst
    ruct
    sfor
    women,whi
    chgr
    eat
    lyexacer
    bat
    etheef
    fect
    sofst
    ruct
    uraladj
    ust
    mentpr
    ogr
    ams.Iwi
    l
    l
    f
    ocuspar
    ti
    cul
    arl
    yont
    hepr
    ivat
    izat
    ionofst
    ate-
    ownedi
    ndust
    ri
    es,decr
    easedspendi
    ngt
    o
    soci
    alpr
    ogr
    amssuchasheal
    thcar
    eandeducat
    ion,decr
    easedagr
    icul
    tur
    alsubsi
    dies
    di
    es,
    eff
    ect
    sofani
    ncr
    easei
    ntheexpor
    tdr
    iveneconomy
    ,andt
    hecur
    rencydev
    alua-
    ti
    on
    andhi
    ghi
    nter
    estr
    atesusedt
    oencour
    agef
    orei
    gni
    nvest
    ment
    ,andt
    hewayt
    heyaf
    fect
    women.Byl
    ooki
    ngatt
    heseSAPpar
    tsandt
    hewayt
    heyaf
    fectwomen,Iwi
    l
    lev
    aluat
    e
    speci
    fi
    ceconomi
    cpol
    i
    ciesandt
    hei
    rdet
    ri
    ment
    alef
    fect
    s.

    I
    nTanzani
    a,f
    orexampl
    e,sev
    ent
    y-onemot
    her
    sdi
    edi
    nthef
    ir
    stt
    hir
    teenweeksof1988,
    wheneconomi
    cref
    ormswer
    einf
    orce-
    fourt
    imest
    hemat
    ernaldeat
    hrat
    eofpr
    e-v
    ious
    y
    ear
    s.Thedeat
    hswer
    eat
    tri
    but
    edt
    opoorhospi
    talcondi
    ti
    onsaswel
    lasashor
    t-
    ageof
    bl
    ood,dr
    ugs,andt
    ranspor
    tfaci
    l
    iti
    es;mor
    etel
    l
    ingl
    ytheywer
    eani
    ndi
    cat
    ionoft
    he
    det
    eri
    orat
    ingphy
    sical
    condi
    ti
    onsi
    nwhi
    chwomencar
    ri
    edoutt
    hei
    rrepr
    oduct
    iver
    oles.

    Al
    thought
    hegov
    ernmentwasr
    esponsi
    blef
    ordecr
    easi
    ngt
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    th-
    car
    ebudget
    ,IMF
    ensur
    edt
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    nor
    dert
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    vet
    hem f
    undi
    ng.I
    tdi
    dnotmat
    terwher
    e
    t
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    rom asl
    ongast
    her
    ewasadecr
    easei
    nspendi
    ng.Mot
    h-er
    sdi
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    nadequat
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    thcar
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    chst
    emmedf
    rom al
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    fi
    cientf
    undi
    ng.
    Thosewhohadaccesst
    omedi
    calat
    tent
    ionwer
    eunabl
    etogetadequat
    ecar
    etosav
    e
    t
    hei
    rli
    ves,andt
    hisnumberdoesnoti
    ncl
    udet
    hewomenwhower
    eunabl
    etoaccess
    medi
    cal
    car
    ebecauseofhi
    ghcost
    sornotbei
    ngal
    l
    owedt
    oseekmedi
    cal
    car
    e.

    Acuti
    ngov
    ernmentf
    undst
    oeducat
    ionhasamuchgr
    eat
    eri
    mpactongi
    rl
    sthanon

    123|Page
    boy
    s.Thi
    s occur
    s because oft
    he pat
    ri
    archalcul
    tur
    alconst
    ruct
    s al
    readyi
    n pl
    ace
    r
    egar
    dingf
    emal
    eeducat
    ion.Thepat
    ri
    archalsoci
    etydeni
    esaccesst
    oeducat
    ionf
    or
    women.I
    ngener
    al,womenar
    emuchl
    essl
    i
    kel
    ytohav
    eaccesst
    oorcompl
    eteev
    ena
    basi
    cpr
    imar
    yeducat
    ion."
    Inf
    our
    teenoft
    hedev
    elopi
    ngcount
    ri
    eswi
    thl
    i
    ter
    acydat
    a,onl
    y
    oneoutoff
    iveadul
    tfemal
    escanr
    ead,
    andi
    nlessdev
    elopedcount
    ri
    esonl
    y5per
    centof
    women ar
    eli
    ter
    ate" Ov
    eral
    lli
    ter
    acyst
    ati
    sti
    cs show t
    he educat
    ionaldi
    scr
    epancy
    bet
    weenmenandwomen;t
    hel
    i
    ter
    acyr
    atef
    ort
    hewor
    ldi
    n2005was18.
    3per
    cent
    i
    l
    li
    ter
    acy(
    13.
    3per
    centmal
    eand23.
    3per
    centf
    emal
    e).Thi
    sshowst
    hatev
    ent
    hough
    t
    her
    ear
    ebot
    hmenandwomenwhoar
    eil
    l
    iter
    ate,t
    henumberofi
    l
    li
    ter
    atewomeni
    s
    al
    mostdoubl
    ethatofmen.

    Fi
    rst
    ,cash cr
    ops doubl
    ethe wor
    kload bur
    den ofwomen.Women mustbearf
    ull
    r
    esponsi
    bil
    i
    tyf
    orf
    oodcr
    opsandal
    sohel
    pthei
    rhusbandswi
    thcash-
    cropcul
    ti
    vat
    ion
    wi
    thoutget
    ti
    nganyshar
    eoft
    hei
    ncome.Womenmustnow f
    armt
    wof
    armsatonce
    i
    nst
    eadofj
    ustt
    hesi
    ngl
    esubsi
    stencef
    arm sheoncehadt
    ocul
    ti
    vat
    e.Thi
    sdoubl
    e
    wor
    kdayt
    akesconsi
    der
    abl
    etol
    l
    sont
    heheal
    thandwel
    lbei
    ngoft
    hemot
    heraswel
    las
    t
    hef
    ami
    l
    y.Shemaynothav
    eti
    met
    opr
    epar
    ecl
    eandr
    inki
    ngwat
    er,getenoughf
    uelf
    or
    t
    hehouse,
    takeherchi
    l
    drent
    ogetmedi
    cal
    car
    e,ordomanyot
    hernecessar
    ythi
    ngs.The
    f
    arm mustt
    akepr
    ecedenceov
    erot
    herr
    esponsi
    bil
    i
    tieswhi
    chof
    tenl
    eadst
    oser
    ious
    consequences,
    suchasdeat
    hordi
    sease.

    Cashcr
    opsal
    sodecr
    easet
    heamountf
    oodandi
    ncomef
    orwomenandt
    hei
    rfami
    l
    iesas
    awhol
    e.Forexampl
    e,i
    nGhana,
    duet
    oani
    ncr
    easei
    nthenumberofcashcr
    opsandan
    i
    ncr
    easei
    ntheamountofl
    andusedt
    ogr
    owcashcr
    ops,
    Ghanai
    anwomenar
    elef
    twi
    th
    smal
    l
    erhol
    dingsandpoor
    ersoi
    l
    ,wi
    thoutt
    heabi
    l
    ityt
    opr
    act
    icecr
    opr
    otat
    ion."
    Asar
    esul
    t,
    soi
    lbecomes er
    oded and l
    ess f
    ert
    il
    e.Food pr
    oduct
    ion decl
    i
    nes and mal
    nut
    ri
    ti
    on
    deepens".Menusemor
    elandf
    orcashcr
    ops,
    andt
    her
    eisl
    essl
    andl
    eft
    overf
    orwomen
    t
    ofar
    mtof
    eedt
    hei
    rfami
    l
    ies.Notonl
    yist
    her
    elessl
    andav
    ail
    abl
    e,butt
    heycanonl
    yuse
    t
    hel
    eastpr
    oduct
    iveandl
    eastf
    ert
    il
    eland.

    Thecashcr
    oppr
    omot
    erssayt
    hati
    nst
    eadoft
    hewomenhav
    ingt
    ofar
    mfood,t
    hemen
    wi
    l
    lhav
    eenoughmoneyt
    obuyf
    oodf
    ort
    hef
    ami
    l
    y.Unf
    ort
    unat
    ely
    ,thi
    sisnott
    her
    eal
    i
    ty

    124|Page
    oft
    hesi
    tuat
    ion."
    InAf
    ri
    ca,accor
    dingt
    oaWor
    ldBankr
    epor
    t,i
    tisnotuncom-
    monf
    or
    chi
    l
    dren'
    snut
    ri
    ti
    ont
    odet
    eri
    orat
    ewhi
    l
    ewr
    istwat
    ches,r
    adi
    os,andbi
    cycl
    esar
    eacqui
    red
    byt
    he adul
    tmal
    e househol
    d member
    s".Men ar
    e buy
    -i
    ng ext
    rav
    aganti
    tems f
    or
    t
    hemsel
    vesi
    nst
    eadofspendi
    ngmoneybuy
    ingf
    oodf
    ort
    hei
    rwi
    vesandchi
    l
    dren.Thi
    sis
    ar
    ami
    fi
    cat
    ion ofSAPs because oft
    he r
    equi
    rementt
    oincr
    ease f
    orei
    gn expor
    ts.
    Al
    thoughI
    MFdoesnotf
    orcement
    obuyf
    ancyt
    hingsf
    ort
    hemsel
    vesr
    athert
    hanf
    ood
    f
    ort
    hei
    rfami
    l
    y,i
    tist
    her
    eal
    i
    tyofwhatmendowi
    tht
    hei
    rexpor
    tmoney
    .Thel
    i
    nkbet
    ween
    r
    equi
    redi
    ncr
    easedt
    radeandcashcr
    opsi
    sreal
    .

    Ther
    efor
    e,t
    hel
    i
    nkbet
    weent
    her
    esul
    tsofcashcr
    opscan,i
    ndi
    rect
    ly,bel
    i
    nkedt
    oSAPs.
    Ashi
    ntedabov
    e,mal
    nut
    ri
    ti
    onbecomesr
    ampantwhencashcr
    opsbegi
    ntot
    akeov
    era
    count
    ry.Mal
    nut
    ri
    ti
    ont
    akest
    hegr
    eat
    estt
    ollont
    hewomen.Duet
    othepat
    ri
    -ar
    chal
    soci
    ety
    ,womenr
    egul
    arl
    yeatl
    ast
    -af
    teral
    lthemeni
    nthef
    ami
    l
    y-anddonotgetenough
    f
    oodt
    osust
    aint
    hei
    rbasi
    cnut
    ri
    ti
    onalneeds.I
    fther
    eisl
    essf
    ood,t
    hemenr
    ecei
    vet
    he
    sameamountoff
    ood,
    whi
    l
    ethewomenr
    ecei
    veev
    enl
    ess.

    Al
    so,womenr
    egul
    arl
    ygi
    vet
    hei
    rmal
    ebabi
    esmor
    efoodt
    hant
    hei
    rfemal
    ebabi
    es
    becausemenar
    econsi
    der
    edt
    obemor
    eval
    uabl
    ethanwomen."
    Ther
    eisaconsi
    stent
    pat
    ter
    n-wher
    erat
    esofmal
    nut
    ri
    ti
    onar
    ehi
    gh,genderdi
    scr
    imi
    nat
    ioni
    spr
    eval
    ent
    "Inf
    act
    ,
    duet
    ochr
    oni
    cmal
    nut
    ri
    ti
    oni
    nchi
    l
    dren,
    upt
    o50per
    centofgi
    rl
    sar
    est
    unt
    ed.

    Per
    hapst
    hemostwor
    ryi
    ngpar
    tofi
    ncr
    easedf
    emal
    emal
    nut
    ri
    ti
    onduet
    ocashcr
    opsi
    s
    t
    hati
    tiscy
    cli
    cali
    nnat
    ure.Mal
    nour
    ishedgi
    rl
    sbecomemal
    nour
    ishedadol
    es-
    cent
    swho
    t
    hen mar
    ryear
    ly,hav
    e chi
    l
    dren ear
    ly,and hav
    elow-
    bir
    th-
    wei
    ghtbabi
    es who t
    hen
    become mal
    nour
    ished chi
    l
    dren and adol
    escent
    s.The cy
    cle ofmal
    nour
    ishmenti
    s
    ext
    remel
    ydanger
    ousanddet
    ri
    ment
    alt
    otheheal
    thofwomenandt
    hei
    rchi
    l
    dren.Duei
    n
    par
    ttoSAPsandcashcr
    ops,f
    emal
    emal
    -nut
    ri
    ti
    oni
    snotgoi
    ngaway
    ;incr
    easesi
    nthe
    downwar
    dtr
    endofmal
    nour
    ishmenti
    sfal
    l
    ingatl
    esst
    han1per
    centay
    ear.

    Anot
    herwor
    ryi
    ngpar
    tofcashcr
    oppi
    ngi
    sthati
    tdecr
    easest
    hepossi
    bil
    i
    tyofawoman
    owni
    ngf
    arml
    and.Near
    lyal
    llandi
    stakenupbyt
    hegov
    ernmentorpr
    i-
    vat
    eent
    erpr
    ises
    andsol
    dtomenf
    orcashcr
    oppi
    ng.Ver
    yrar
    elywi
    l
    llandbesol
    dtoawomanf
    orcash
    cr
    oppi
    n,l
    etal
    onesubsi
    stencef
    armi
    ng.I
    nfact
    ,"Despi
    teWor
    ldFoodPr
    ogr
    am f
    indi
    ngs

    125|Page
    t
    hatwomenpr
    oduce90per
    centofal
    lfoodconsumedi
    nthehomesoft
    heThi
    rdWor
    ld,
    t
    heyownonl
    y1per
    centoft
    hef
    arml
    and".

    Cashcr
    oppi
    ngdecr
    easest
    heal
    readyl
    owpossi
    bil
    i
    tyf
    orwoment
    oownl
    and,
    whi
    chhas
    manysoci
    alandeconomi
    cimpact
    s.Fi
    nal
    l
    y,SAPsencour
    agegov
    ernment
    stoal
    l
    ow
    cur
    rencydev
    aluat
    ionandi
    n-cr
    esedi
    nter
    estr
    atesi
    nor
    dert
    opr
    omot
    efor
    eigni
    nvest
    ment
    .
    I
    n or
    dert
    oincr
    ease f
    orei
    gn cur
    rency
    ,gov
    ernment
    srespond t
    othe needs oft
    he
    mul
    ti
    nat
    ionalcor
    por
    a-t
    ion'
    s(MNC)needf
    orcheapl
    abor
    .Al
    so,ader
    egul
    ati
    onoft
    he
    mar
    ketal
    l
    owsf
    or-
    eigncompani
    est
    opaywhatt
    heywantorhav
    ewhat
    everwor
    king
    condi
    ti
    onst
    heywant
    .Thecombi
    nat
    ionoft
    heset
    woconsequencescr
    eat
    esadanger
    ous
    expl
    oit
    ati
    veenv
    ironmentf
    orwomeni
    nthewor
    kpl
    ace.Duet
    othepat
    ri
    archalsoci
    ety
    ,
    "
    Womenar
    eri
    gor
    ousl
    ysoci
    ali
    edt
    owor
    kuncompl
    aini
    ngl
    y,underpat
    ri
    archalcont
    rol
    ,at
    anyal
    l
    ott
    edt
    askhowev
    erdul
    l
    ,labor
    ious,
    phy
    sical
    l
    yhar
    mful
    orbadl
    ypai
    ditmaybe".

    I
    nIndi
    a,f
    orexampl
    e,"
    96per
    centoft
    hef
    emal
    ewor
    kfor
    cei
    sint
    hedecent
    ral
    i
    zedsect
    or
    whi
    chhasahi
    ghdegr
    eeofl
    aborr
    edundancyandobsol
    eteness.Thesewomenhav
    e
    l
    esscont
    rolov
    ert
    hei
    rwor
    kandhav
    enochancesf
    orupwar
    dmobi
    l
    ity
    ".Thi
    sisa
    br
    eedi
    nggr
    oundf
    orMNCst
    oexpl
    oitt
    hecheap,
    uncompl
    aini
    ngl
    aborofwomen.

    Howev
    er,
    despi
    tesuchexpl
    oit
    ati
    on,
    thepl
    i
    ghtofwomengoesunnot
    iced.Thef
    ocusl
    i
    es
    onani
    ncr
    easei
    nfor
    eigni
    nvest
    mentandexpor
    ts.Al
    thoughSAPsar
    enotr
    esponsi
    ble
    f
    orMNCsex
    ploi
    ti
    ngwomen,t
    heycr
    eat
    efur
    therpr
    obl
    emsbyf
    orci
    ngandencour
    agi
    ng
    t
    heent
    ranceoft
    hef
    orei
    gncompani
    esandi
    nvest
    menti
    ntot
    hesedev
    elopi
    ngcount
    ri
    es'
    economi
    es.

    Ev
    aluat
    ionoft
    heFemi
    nistExpl
    anat
    ion

    Thr
    ought
    est
    ingt
    heneo-
    femi
    nistt
    heor
    y,Ihav
    eshownsomeoft
    hei
    nadv
    ert
    entef
    fect
    s
    ofSAPsonwomenduet
    opat
    ri
    archyandt
    het
    ri
    vi
    ali
    zat
    ionofwomen.Al
    -t
    houghIcoul
    d
    notpr
    ovet
    hatmyef
    fect
    swer
    edi
    rect
    lyduet
    oSAPs,
    Icoul
    dshowast
    rongl
    i
    nkbet
    ween
    SAPr
    equi
    rement
    s,gov
    ernmentact
    ions,andt
    heef
    fectonwomen.Myt
    heor
    iesgett
    o
    t
    her
    ootoft
    hepr
    obl
    emsofSAPsbyl
    ooki
    ngathow pat
    ri
    archalsci
    eti
    esenactt
    he
    pol
    i
    cies.Al
    thoughi
    tist
    hegov
    ernmentt
    hatul
    ti
    mat
    elydeci
    deshow t
    ocar
    ryoutt
    he

    126|Page
    condi
    ti
    onal
    i
    tyr
    equi
    rement
    s,t
    her
    equi
    rement
    sthemsel
    vesar
    ewhatcausegov
    ernment
    s
    t
    omaket
    hechoi
    cest
    hatt
    heydo.Theeconomi
    cchoi
    cesmade,asshownabov
    e,of
    ten
    hav
    edet
    ri
    ment
    alef
    fect
    sonwomen.Ihav
    eal
    soshownhowt
    her
    ami
    fi
    cat
    ionsofSAPs
    ar
    elar
    gel
    yunseenandun-
    resear
    chedbyI
    MFduet
    oal
    ackofseni
    orwomeni
    nthe
    pr
    ogr
    am andl
    i
    ttl
    edesi
    ret
    oresear
    cht
    hei
    mpact
    sonwomen.

    Anot
    hert
    heor
    ythati
    spopul
    arl
    yusedt
    oexpl
    aint
    heef
    fect
    sofst
    ruct
    uraladj
    ust
    ment
    pr
    ogr
    amsi
    sst
    ruct
    ural
    i
    sm,at
    heor
    ypr
    omot
    edbyJosephE.St
    igl
    i
    tz.Heexpl
    ainedsome
    oft
    hesamei
    deasIputf
    orwar
    dbutappl
    i
    edt
    hem br
    oadl
    ytoal
    lpoor.Thi
    scanbehel
    pful
    becauseofhi
    sbr
    oaderv
    iew;
    howev
    er,
    itmi
    ssest
    heunder
    lyi
    ngdi
    scr
    imi
    nat
    ionofwomen.
    I
    tdoesnotseet
    hatwomenar
    ethemaj
    ori
    tyoft
    hei
    mpov
    eri
    shedandwhyt
    hisi
    s.I
    tdoes
    notseet
    hatpoormenandr
    ichmenal
    i
    keexpl
    oitwomenf
    orbot
    hthei
    rpr
    oduct
    iveand
    r
    epr
    oduct
    ivel
    abor
    .Itl
    eav
    esmanyoft
    hequest
    ionsunanswer
    edbyl
    eav
    ingt
    hef
    ocusof
    f
    ofwomen.Ther
    efor
    e,al
    thoughst
    ruct
    ural
    i
    sm i
    sanot
    heral
    ter
    nat
    ivet
    oexpl
    aini
    ngmy
    economi
    cphenomenon,
    Ithi
    nki
    tisgenderbi
    ast
    hathar
    msourf
    ullunder
    standi
    ngoft
    he
    si
    tuat
    ion.

    Concl
    usi
    on

    I
    nconcl
    usi
    on,
    IMF'
    sst
    ruct
    ural
    adj
    ust
    mentpr
    ogr
    amsi
    ndi
    rect
    lycauseasev
    erei
    mpacton
    womenduet
    opat
    ri
    archyofsoci
    etyandt
    hei
    nvi
    sibi
    l
    ityofwomenatI
    MF.Al
    thoughI
    MF
    doesnotspeci
    fyhow t
    hei
    rcondi
    ti
    onsshoul
    dbecar
    ri
    edout
    ,gov
    ernment
    shav
    eli
    tt
    le
    choi
    ce.Theymustcutf
    undi
    ng t
    oimpor
    tantpr
    ogr
    ams such as heal
    th car
    e and
    educat
    ion;t
    heymusti
    ncr
    easecashcr
    ops;t
    heymustdr
    aw i
    nfor
    eigncompani
    esand
    i
    nvest
    ors.I
    MFdoesnotf
    orcet
    hesespeci
    fi
    cact
    ions,buti
    tdoesr
    equi
    rei
    mpr
    ovement
    s
    i
    nfi
    scalaust
    eri
    tyandi
    ncr
    easesi
    nexpor
    tsandi
    nvest
    mentoppor
    tuni
    ti
    esf
    ordi
    ff
    erent
    count
    ri
    es.Thei
    ssuei
    sthatt
    hegov
    ernmentdoesnothav
    eal
    otofchoi
    cei
    nwhatt
    hey
    candot
    oenactt
    hesecondi
    ti
    ons.Ther
    efor
    e,t
    her
    ami
    fi
    cat
    ionsofdecr
    easedpubl
    i
    c
    f
    undi
    ng,
    cashcr
    ops,
    andf
    orei
    gnexpl
    oit
    ati
    oncanbel
    i
    nkedt
    oSAPs.

    Thr
    oughoutt
    hispaper
    ,Ihav
    eshownt
    hedi
    spar
    atei
    mpactofSAPsonwomenandt
    he
    unaccept
    abl
    e"f
    emi
    nizat
    ionofpov
    ert
    y"i
    nmanycount
    ri
    esi
    neconomi
    ctr
    ansi
    ti
    on.Ihav
    e
    shownt
    hatt
    hedi
    spr
    opor
    ti
    onat
    ecostofSAPsbor
    nebywomenv
    iol
    atest
    hei
    rmostbasi
    c

    127|Page
    humanr
    ight
    stodev
    elopmentguar
    ant
    eedbybot
    hint
    ernat
    ionalandnat
    ionalt
    reat
    ies.
    Not
    onl
    yist
    heSAP'
    simpactonwomencl
    ear
    ,butI
    MFi
    sdoi
    ngnot
    hingt
    ochanget
    hei
    r
    at
    ti
    tudet
    owar
    dwomenbesi
    despubl
    i
    shi
    ngaf
    ewj
    our
    -nalar
    ti
    cles.Wi
    thoutmor
    eseni
    or
    womenandi
    ncr
    easedr
    esear
    cht
    heSAP'
    simpactonwomen,
    not
    hingi
    sli
    kel
    ytochange.
    Duet
    osuchov
    erwhel
    mingcost
    s,i
    tisnecessar
    ytoseet
    hatdev
    elopmentt
    hatcomes
    wi
    thsuchapr
    icei
    ssur
    elyunsust
    ainabl
    e.

    Gl
    obal
    izat
    ionandGender

     I
    ntr
    oduct
    ion

    The20t hCent ur
    yendsast hewor l
    dmov est owardsanew er acharacteri
    zedbya
    global
    lyintegrat
    edeconomy ,wher
    edeci si
    onsr egardi
    ngpr oducti
    onconsumpt ionand
    otheraspectsofsocialrel
    ati
    onsincreasingl
    yincludestransnati
    onaldi mensions.Forces
    ofglobali
    zationarerealandt hei
    rinfl
    uencesar ef eltever
    ywher e.Itentail
    sf r
    eet rade,
    free mobil
    ity ofbot hf i
    nanci
    aland r ealcapi tal
    ,and rapid diffusion ofpr oducts,
    technol
    ogies,inf
    ormationandconsumpt ionpatterns.

    Asi ndicatedinthe1999Wor l
    dSur veyont heRoleofWomeni nDev elopment ,
    inthe
    ageofgl obalizat
    ion,Gov er
    nments’poli
    cychoi ceshav eshi f
    tedinfav ourofopennessof
    tr
    adeandf i
    nancialf
    low.Polici
    escall
    ingf orlighterregul
    at i
    onofindust ry
    , priv
    atizat
    ionof
    state-ownedent erpri
    sesandl owerpublicspendi nghavechar act
    erizedt hepr ogrammes
    ofgov er
    nment sar oundt hewor l
    d.Liber al
    izat i
    onpol i
    ciescoupledwi tht echnological
    advancesi ncommuni cati
    onsacceleratedt hei mpactofeconomi cint egrat
    ion,thus
    erodingconv enti
    onal boundari
    esparti
    cular l
    yt hatofthenat i
    onalstate.

    In many i nstances,gov ernment s pr oceeded wi t


    h der egulat
    ion without the
    i
    ntroducti
    onofnew f ormsofr egulati
    ont oensur etheobservanceofsoci alprotecti
    on
    andpr ovisi
    oningofneeds.Thi sincreasedt her i
    sksofgl obal
    izationformanysoci al
    groups.Recentst udiessuchasUNCTAD’ sTr adeandDev el
    opmentRepor t(
    1997)and
    theUNDP’ sHumanDev el
    opmentRepor t
    s( 1997and1999)suggestt hateconomi c
    growthf osteredbyr ecentli
    ber al
    izati
    onpol ici
    escanbeaccompani edbyi ncreased
    i
    nequalit
    yandadecl i
    neinli
    v ingst andards.Ast heEastAsi ancr i
    sishasr evealed,
    fai
    lur
    esi nfinancialmar ket
    scancausesev eredislocat
    ionsinther ealeconomyar ound
    theglobe.

    The Sur
    veyalso poi
    nts outthatt
    he cul
    tur
    al,pol
    i
    ticaland soci
    alcorr
    elat
    es of
    i
    ncr
    easi
    nginter
    nati
    onali
    ntegrat
    ionhasal
    sobeenpr ofound.Populat
    ionsar
    oundthe

    128|Page
    worldarebeingfamili
    ari
    zedthr
    ougheconomi cexchangesandexposur et oadverti
    sing,
    the media and tel
    e-communicat
    ions,to a cultur
    e ofi nstantgr at
    ifi
    cati
    on through
    materialconsumption.Additi
    onall
    y,globali
    zati
    on istied t o moment ous polit
    ical
    changesofthepresenterasuchastheriseofidenti
    typol
    i
    tics,transnat
    ionalci
    vi
    l soci
    ety,
    newf ormsofgovernanceanduniver
    sal
    izati
    onofhumanr ights.

    The Wor l
    d Bank Shapi ng the 21stCent ury
    .Wor l
    d DevelopmentRepor tdr aws
    attentiont othest r
    ongr eacti
    onspr ovokedbygl obalizati
    on,bothposi ti
    veandnegat i
    ve.
    Accor dingt othisrepor tglobali
    zati
    oni spr ai
    sedfort heoppor t
    unitiesi tbrings,suchas
    accesst o marketsand t echnologyt ransfer
    ,buti ti sal so f
    ear ed and condemned
    becauseoft hei nstabili
    tyandr iskst hatcanaccompanyi t
    .For eigni nv estmentand
    i
    nter nationalcompet i
    tion can hel p pooreconomi es to moder ni ze,incr ease their
    product ivi
    tyandr aiselivingstandards.Att hesamet i
    me, itcanthreat ent hel i
    vel
    ihoods
    ofwor kers.I
    tcanunder mi nebanks, anditcandest abil
    izewholeeconomi eswhenf lows
    off oreigncapitalov er
    whel mt hem.Thegl obali
    zati
    onpr ocessthusof fersoppor t
    uniti
    es,
    aswel laschallengesf orhumandev elopmentandgenderequal i
    ty.

     Gl
    obal
    izat
    ionandi
    tsi
    mpactongenderequal
    it
    y

    Thesi gni
    ficantgenderdi ff
    erencesanddi spar
    iti
    eswi t
    hr especttodecisi
    on-maki
    ng
    power s,par t
    icipati
    on,andr et
    urnsforef f
    ortthatprevai
    lindiffer
    entsoci
    etiesneedtobe
    takeni nt
    oaccountwhenr espondingt othef or
    cesofgl obali
    zati
    on.Becauseofgender
    i
    nequal it
    ies and di scri
    minati
    on in allpar t
    s oft he wor l
    d,women can be af f
    ect
    ed
    negat i
    velybygl obal
    izati
    onprocessest oagr eaterextentthanmen.Ont heotherhand,
    there can be si gnifi
    cantgains f orwomen wi th global
    izati
    on.Itis necessaryto
    systemat ical
    lymoni torthegenderimpactofchangesot hatthegoalsofgenderequal
    ity
    andt heexpansi onofhumancapabi li
    ti
    esarenotsacr i
    fi
    ced.

    Ther el
    ati
    onshi pbetweengl obal
    izati
    onandgenderequal it
    y ,andtherelevanceof
    globali
    zati
    onfort r
    ansf orminggenderrelati
    onshasbeeni ncr
    easinglywelldocumented.
    TheSur v
    eyi sa maj orcont ri
    buti
    on towardsappl ying a genderper spectivet othe
    analysis of the globalizati
    on.Whi let he survey f ocuses on t he labourmar ket
    parti
    cipat
    ionwi thi
    nt hechangi ngwor l
    dofwor k,f ur
    therr esear
    chi sneededt oassess
    theimpactofgl obali
    zat i
    ononot heraspectsofli
    fe.

    Att hepolicyl evel,t heimpactofgl obalizati


    ononwomenandgenderr elati
    ons
    cont i
    nuestobenegl ect ednati
    onallyandi nternati
    onally
    .Ent it
    iesoft heUni t
    edNat i
    ons
    system aretakingst epst oint
    egratethegoal sofmacr o-economi cswi t
    hthoseofsoci al
    development.Yetmor er emai
    nst obedonet oi nt
    egrategenderequal i
    tydimensi onsin
    theirnormati
    ve, pol
    icyandoper ationalworksoast oensur ethecont i
    nuingleadershipof
    thesy st
    em inpr omot inggenderequal i
    ty,dev elopmentandpeacewi thinthecont extof
    globali
    zati
    on.TheBei jing+5pr ocesspr ov i
    desanoppor t
    unitytor ef
    lectont heimpact

    129|Page
    ofglobal
    i
    zationi
    ndeter
    mini
    ngf
    urt
    heract
    ionsandi
    nit
    iat
    ivesf
    ort
    hef
    ulli
    mpl
    ement
    ati
    on
    oftheBeij
    ingcommit
    ments

    Towar
    dsthisend,t
    her emainderofthepaperatt
    empt
    stor
    aiseawar
    enesswi
    th
    r
    egar
    dtogenderi
    mpactofglobal
    izat
    ioni
    nsel
    ectar
    eas.

     Gl
    obal
    izat
    ionandt
    hel
    abourmar
    ket

    The extension ofthe mar ketcan hav e bot h posit


    ive and negat i
    ve effectsfor
    women’ s sit
    uation and genderr el
    ations.Posi ti
    v e eff
    ects may i nclude increased
    empl oymentopportunit
    iesforwomeni nnont radit
    ionalsectors,thusenabl i
    ngt hem to
    earn and controlincome.Thi sis potent ial
    ly empower i
    ng and may cont ri
    butet o
    enhancingwomen’ scapacitytonegoti
    at et heirrol
    eandst atuswi thi
    nthehousehol dand
    society
    .Negat i
    veeffectscanincludeincr easedexpl oitat
    ionanddependencyondi r
    ect
    engagementwi ththemar ket
    ,andparticularlyont hev agar
    iesoft hemar ket.

    Inthepasttwodecades, t
    her el
    ocati
    onoflabourint
    ensiveindustri
    esfrom advanced
    marketeconomiestomi ddleincomedev elopi
    ngeconomi eshasincreasedempl oyment
    ofwomeni nthelat
    ter
    .Ev enthoughf emaleemploymentremainsconcent r
    at edmainlyin
    l
    ow skil
    lsector
    sandt hegenderwagegapshowsnosi gnsofdi sappearing,t
    her apid
    i
    ncreaseinthefemalelabourf or
    cepar t
    ici
    pati
    onratehasaconsi derablepositi
    veeffect
    onwomen’ seconomicwel lbei
    ngandt hatofthei
    rfamil
    ies.

    Nevert
    hel
    ess,t
    hei ssueofthepoorcondi ti
    onsunderwhi chmanywomenent erthe
    l
    abourmar ketneedst obeconsi st
    entl
    yr aised.Thepr obl
    em ispart
    icul
    arl
    yacut
    ei n
    sweatshops i
    nt he infor
    malsect or,whi ch through arr
    angement
    s such as sub-
    contr
    acti
    ngandout sourci
    ngbecameani ntegralpartofthefor
    maleconomyandhav e
    exper
    iencedanexplosiv
    egrowthinrecentyears.

    I
    nt hedev elopedcount r
    ies,ont heotherhand,asindust
    ri
    esrelocat
    eel sewher
    ein
    searchofcheaperl abourandpr oducti
    on,l
    abourdemandhasbeenshi f
    ti
    ngt owar
    ds
    rel
    ativ
    elyhigh-skil
    lmanuf acturi
    ng,whi l
    eemploymentgr owt
    hint r
    aditi
    onall
    ylow ski
    ll
    sectors such as relati
    vel
    yl ow-skil
    lsector
    si ntext
    il
    es and apparel
    ,wher e women
    workerspredomi nate,hasbeendecl i
    ning.

    Theimpactoft hesetrendsasobserved,i
    nbothdev el
    opinganddevel
    opedcountr
    ies,
    ongenderr el
    ati
    onsisstillnott
    ooclear.Evi
    dencefrom aroundtheworldonwomen’ s
    l
    abourmar ketpart
    ici
    pat
    ionandgenderinequali
    ti
    es(e.g.wagegap,powerrel
    ati
    ons,
    etc.)
    i
    ssti
    llmixed.Clear
    lythi
    sisanarearequiri
    ngfur
    therresear
    ch.

     Gl
    obal
    izat
    ionandt
    radei
    nser
    vices

    Formanycount
    ri
    es,t
    radecoul
    dbet
    hepr
    imar
    yvehi
    clef
    orr
    eal
    i
    zingt
    hebenef
    it
    sof

    130|Page
    gl
    obali
    zat
    ion. Tr
    ade poli
    cies aff
    ect employment, pr
    oducti
    on, di
    str
    ibuti
    on and
    consumpti
    onpatt
    erns,
    cul
    tur
    alval
    ues,soci
    alr
    elat
    ionsandtheenvi
    ronment
    , al
    lofwhi
    ch
    engageandaff
    ectwomenaswel l
    asmen.

    I
    ncreasesinwor l
    dt r
    ade,par ti
    cular
    lyint heser vi
    ces,hasi ncreasedt hei nvolvement
    ofwomeni nthev ariousoccupat ionsandpr ofessionsoft heser v
    icessect or.Women
    aroundt hewor l
    dhav emadei mpressiveinroadsi nt
    opr ofessionalser vicessuchasl aw,
    banking,account ing,and comput i
    ng;i nt ourism r elated occupat ions;and i nt he
    i
    nf ormationservi
    ces,i ncludingoffshoreairli
    nebooki ng,mai lor der,credi tcards,word-
    processingforpubl ishers,telephoneoper ator s,andsoon.Thewor d-tradei nser vi
    ces
    alsof avorswomen’ slabourmi grat
    ioni ncont rasttot hedemandf ormal el abourin
    manuf acturi
    ngindust ri
    esdur ingearl
    ierperiodsofi ndust r
    ial
    izat i
    oninEur opeandUni ted
    States.Theageingpopul ationinthedev el
    opedcount riesandt hecor respondi ngdecline
    i
    nt hestateprovisionofwel f
    areservi
    cesi ndi catet hatt hedemandf orf emal elabour
    fr
    om t hecountri
    esoft hesout hascar egiveswi llcont inuetobeont her iseint heyears
    tocome.

     Gl
    obal
    izat
    ionandgov
    ernance

    I
    ntegrati
    onofnat i
    onaleconomi esintotheglobaleconomyar eincreasi
    ngl yshifti
    ng
    thef ormulati
    onandi mplement at
    ionofpoli
    cyawayf r
    om localandnat i
    onallev elstothe
    i
    nt er
    nat i
    onall evel.Increased shif
    tofgov er
    nance t ot he i
    nternati
    onalar ena may
    under minet hemoder nistnot i
    onofci ti
    zenshi
    p,whi chov ert hey earspr ov i
    ded the
    women' smov ementwi t
    hast ronggroundforadvancingtheirci
    vili
    dentit
    yandcl aimsfor
    equalr i
    ghtsv is-à-
    visthesov erei
    gnstate.New actorsabov e(gl
    obal)andbel ow ( l
    ocal)
    thenat ionalst atearenow asser ti
    ngalter
    nati
    vei denti
    ti
    esandr ol
    esf orwomen,t hus
    fragment i
    ngt heirpoli
    ti
    cal ci
    ti
    zenshi
    p.

    At t he same t i
    me,howev er ,globalizat
    ion is gener
    ating an unpr ecedent
    ed
    understandingt hateconomicandsoci alr i
    ghtsarepar toftheinternati
    onalhuman
    ri
    ghtsdi scourse.Simil
    arl
    y,t
    hegr owingf orceofinter
    nati
    onalwomen’ smov ementand
    thei
    ri nfluenceov ertheinter
    gov er
    nment alprocessesar eempower ing women and
    creat
    ingspacef orwomen’sorganizat
    ionsatt henat
    ionalandlocall
    evel
    st ogrow.

     Gl
    obal
    izat
    ionandpov
    ert
    y

    TheSur veyshowst hatunderconditi


    onsofgl obal
    izat
    iontheli
    mitsont hestate’
    s
    abili
    tyt o provide socialprotect
    ion,provisi
    oning of needs and human capi tal
    i
    nv estmentshasbecomemor est r
    ained.Thisposesamaj orchallengeto poverty
    eradicati
    onpr ogrammesandt heef f
    ortstorespondt otheneedsoft hel
    essv i
    sibl
    e
    segment soft hepopulati
    onespeciall
    ywomenandchi l
    dren,i
    nrespondingtothei
    rri
    ght
    tobasi cser
    vicesanddev el
    opmentoft hei
    rcapabil
    i
    ties.

    131|Page
    Thewi t
    heringawayoft hewel f
    arestat
    eandi ncreasi
    ngcostofsoci alser
    viceshas
    constit
    utedauniformlynegat iv
    eout comef orpoorwomen, indevel
    opedanddev el
    oping
    countri
    esalike.Theshiftofsoci et
    alcostsofreproducti
    onandmai ntenanceofl abour
    powerandot herwelfarepr ovisionsfr
    om t hepubli
    csect ortoaspher ewher et hese
    costsarenol ongervisi
    ble,i.
    e.t hehousehold,i
    smadepossi bl
    ebyincreasi
    ngwomen’ s
    workloadwithinthehousehol d.

    Theshockofmar ketf luctuat


    ions,yetanotherimmediat
    eimpactofintegrat
    ioninto
    gl
    obalmar ket
    swi t
    hi ntensi f
    yingeffectsonpov ert
    y,ar
    ealsoabsorbedbypoorwomen
    bywor ki
    ngharderbot hi nsideandout si
    dethehousehold.Inmanyi nst
    ances,women
    combinehomemaki ngandpi ecewor ki
    ngwi threpr
    oduct
    iveact
    ivi
    ti
    esinthehousehol d
    andrelymoreextensivelyont heuseofchildren’
    slabourf
    ordomesticwork,households
    producti
    onandcashear nings.

    Byandl arge,theadjustmentcostsassociatedwitheconomicrestructur
    inginmany
    countri
    eshav ei ncreasedtheeconomi chardshi
    pf orthepoor .Thehumandamage
    causedbyeconomi cdepr iv
    ati
    oni ntermsofone’ scapabi
    li
    ti
    esandf utureprospectsin
    l
    ife,i
    sgreat estforthosewhoar eleastpreparedt
    owi t
    hstandit
    ,i.
    e.poorwomen.I nthe
    l
    ongr un,thei mpactoft heshif
    tingandadj ust
    mentcostsontosociet
    y’smostv ulner
    able
    groupsr esultsi ndi si
    nvestmentinhumancapabi li
    ti
    eswi t
    hf arreachingef f
    ectson
    societ
    yatl arge.

     Gl
    obal
    izat
    ionandmi
    grat
    ion

    Emer gi
    nggl obalt rendsar ealsosi gnificant l
    yal teringt hespat i
    alandcr oss-border
    fl
    owsofl abour .Globalizat i
    onhascr eatedl abourdemandpat ter
    nswhi chi nher entl
    y
    fav ourshor t
    -t
    erm,t empor aryempl oyment .Asar esult,ashor t-t
    erm contractedl abour
    mi grati
    onappear stobeont her i
    sewi t
    hdi stinctgenderdi ff
    erenti
    atedconsequences.
    Women,whosel abourhasl ow oppor tunitycosti nt hemar ketandwhoar esoci all
    y
    consi deredtobef l
    exiblelabourar eent eri
    ngi ntonewl abourengagement smor esot han
    ev erbef or
    e.Whi l
    emi grationmayi mpr ov ewomen’ sl ifechances,mi grantwomeni n
    somepar t
    soft hewor ldar eincreasinglyv i
    ct imt otraf ficki
    ng,includi
    ngf orthepur pose
    ofsexualexpl oit
    ati
    on.Duet ot hel ackofef fect
    iv ei nternati
    onalmechani smst hat
    regul at
    eandpr otectther ightsofl abourmov ingacr ossnat ionalbordersbothl egaland
    i
    llegal migrantsar evulnerablet ohumanr ight sabuses.

    Gl
    obal
    izationoncouldal sopromotemor eegalit
    ari
    angenderr ol
    esandnor msThe
    changes unleashed by global
    izat
    ion—especial
    lythe greateraccess to economi c
    opport
    uni
    tiesandi nf
    ormationamong omen—coul dalsoinfl
    uenceexisti
    nggenderroles
    andnorms,ul ti
    matel
    ypromot i
    ngmor eegalit
    ari
    anv i
    ews.Theev i
    denceont hi
    seffectis
    morelimi
    tedandt entat
    ivethanthatinpr
    evioussecti
    onsbutsuffi
    cientl
    ysuggest
    ive( we
    thi
    nk)tomer itsomedi scussi
    onher e,i
    nt hespiri
    tofspurri
    ngf urt
    herwor kont hese

    132|Page
    i
    ssues.

     Changi
    ngGenderRol
    es

    Woment ur
    nedi ncomeear nersmaybeabl etolever
    aget heirnewposi ti
    ont ochange
    genderr ol
    esint heirhouseholdsbyi nfluenci
    ngt heall
    ocat i
    onoft i
    meandr esour ces
    amonghousehol dmember s,shift
    ingr elati
    vepowerwi thinthehousehol ds,andmor e
    broadl
    yexer ci
    singst r
    ongeragency .I nfact,womenappeart ogai nmor econt r
    olov er
    thei
    rincomebywor ki
    ngi nexport-
    orientedactivi
    ti
    es,al
    thought hei mpactonwel l
    -being
    andagencyi smor eposi ti
    veforwomenwor ki
    nginmanuf act
    ur i
    ngandawayf rom t hei
    r
    malerelati
    vesthanf orthosewor ki
    ngi nagr i
    cult
    ure.Womeni nfactor i
    esfeelthei rstatus
    hasimpr oved.Theyar emor elikel
    yt omar ryandhav etheirfirstbabyl atert hanot her
    womenofsi mil
    arsoci oeconomicst atusandt ohav ebetterqual i
    tyhousi ngandaccess
    tomoder ninf
    rastruct
    ure.Theyal sor eportgreaterself
    -esteem anddeci sion-maki ng
    capacit
    y,wi t
    hbenef i
    tsextending to ot herfamilymember s.I ncont rast,womeni n
    agri
    cult
    ur ehavenotexper i
    encedsi gni f
    icantchangesi ndeci sion-makingcapaci tyor
    agencyasar esultofcommer ci
    alizati
    onandhi gherexpor tor ientat
    ion,ev enwhen
    typi
    cal“women’ scrops”arepromot ed.

     Ol
    dpr
    obl
    ems,
    emer
    gingr
    isks

    Therisi
    ng t
    ideofglobali
    zati
    onhasnotl i
    ft
    ed everybody.Genderdif
    fer
    encesin
    endowments,ti
    meusepat t
    erns,accesstoproduct
    iveinputs,andagencyhavemuted
    posit
    ivei
    mpactsforsomeand,atti
    mes, addedt
    oinequali
    tiesbetweenmenandwomen
    andamongwomen.

    Even among t hose who hav e benef it


    ed f rom higher access to economi c
    opportuniti
    es,oldpat ternsofempl oymentsegr egati
    onbygendercanemer ge.Signsof
    defeminizati
    on of ( formal ) empl oyment i n some count r
    ies, industr
    ies, and
    occupat i
    ons—combi nedwi thi ncreasedi nformality
    — suggestthatsomeoft hegains
    maynotbesust ai
    nable.Publ i
    cact iont oclosegendergapsi nagency,endowment s,and
    accesst oeconomi coppor tuniti
    esi sthusnecessar yforcount
    ri
    est ofull
    ycapital
    izeon
    thepot enti
    alofglobal izationasaf orcef ordev el
    opmentandgr eatergenderequal i
    ty.
    Womencaughtatt hei ntersectionof“ ol
    d”gendergaps( i
    nendowment s,ti
    meav ai
    l
    abil
    it
    y,
    access t o productiver esources,and agency )and the new forces unleashed by
    global
    izati
    onr iskfalli
    ngf artherbehi ndbot hmenandwomenwhohav emanagedt o
    benefi
    tf r
    om tradeopenness, technol ogicalchange,andaccesstoinformation.

    Fi
    rst
    ,genderdi
    ff
    erences i
    n educat
    ion hav
    eli
    mit
    ed women’
    s access t
    o new

    133|Page
    empl oyment opportuni
    ti
    es.I n agr
    icult
    ur e,besi
    des havi
    ng a posit
    ivei mpact on
    producti
    v i
    tyeducat
    ionaf f
    ectsfar
    mer s’capacit
    ytoadoptimprovedseedv ar
    iet
    iesand
    fert
    ili
    zerand,mor ebr oadly
    ,to compl ywi t
    houtputstandardsand otherimport
    ant
    factorsthatdet
    ermineaccesstothenont radi
    ti
    onalandhi
    gh-v
    alueexpor
    tsector.

    Becauseoflowereducationlevel
    s,f
    emalepr
    oducer
    sexper
    iencemor
    econst
    rai
    ntsi
    n
    accessi
    nginter
    national
    mar ket
    st hanmalepr
    oducer
    sinSamoaandinMozambi
    queand
    otherSub-Saharancountr
    ies.

     Femi
    nizat
    ionofPov
    ert
    y

    Globally,70% oft hepoorar ewomen.Thi sphenomenoni scalledf eminizat


    ionof
    poverty,thatis, t
    hepr ocessthroughwhi chwomenar edisproporti
    onat el
    ymor el i
    kel
    yt o
    becomeandst aypoor .Feminizati
    onofpov ert
    ycanoccurasar esultofbrutalshiftin
    theeconomy .Whencommuni stcount ri
    esinEast ernEur opet r
    ansitionedt oamar ket
    economy ,women wer e di
    spropor t
    ionatel
    y affected:80% oft hem l ostt heirjobs,
    especiall
    yi nhi ghlyskil
    ledfi
    elds,suchasmedi cine.Thesewomenwer eunablet ofind
    wor katt hesamel evelthanwhatt heyusedt odo.Theyhadt oset tl
    ef orlow-paying
    servi
    cej obs,i ncludingsexwor ker
    s.Asar esult,thewagegapi ncreaseddr amat i
    cally
    :
    beforethef allofcommuni sm, Russianwomenmade70%oft heav eragemal ewage; by
    2005,t heyonl ymade40%. Andseet hisgraphf ortheUni tedSt ates.Atev eryage
    category( exceptf ortheyoungest )
    ,thereisasigni f
    icantdisadvantagef orwomen.

    Jobl ossandtheresul t
    ingpov er
    tyar ethemselv
    estheproductofanot heraspectof
    global
    izati
    on:priv
    ati
    zation.Privati
    zati
    onoccur swhenf or
    merst ate-
    ownedcompani es
    aresoldt opri
    vateinvestorsandowner s.Asment i
    onedbefore,pri
    vati
    zati
    onisof t
    ena
    requir
    edcondi t
    ionofst ructur
    aladjustmentpr ogr
    amsi mposedoncount ri
    esfrom the
    GlobalSouthlookingfordebtr el
    ieffr
    om t heWorldBankandtheI nt
    ernati
    onalMonetary
    Fund

     Femi
    nizat
    ionofMi
    grat
    ion

    According to Mar y Hawkeswor th( 2006: 14),“ Some 60 mi lli


    on women,dr awn
    predominant l
    yfrom poornat ions,const it
    uteamobi lelaborf orcecr iss-crossi
    ngt he
    globeinsear choflivelihood.Cer t
    ainmi gratoryci r
    cuit
    shav ebeenwel l
    -mapped:Sout h
    Asiatot heMi ddleEast ,formerSov ietst atestoWest er
    nEur ope,Mexi coandCent ral
    Amer i
    cat oCanadaandt heUni tedStates,andAf r
    icatoEur ope.”Thi smassmi gration
    hasbecomeessent i
    alt otheeconomi esofcer t
    aincountr i
    esliket hePhi li
    ppineswher e
    remitt
    ancesf rom ov erseaswor kerscont ri
    butet hepay mentoft hecount ry’sdebt .In
    addit
    ion,iftheseov erseaswor kerswer et ot r
    yt ofindjobsi ntheFi li
    pinol abormar ket ,
    theunempl oymentr atewoul dgoup40%.Sendi ngwomenov erseas,inot herwor ds,has
    becomeessent i
    altosuppor tthenat i
    onal economy .

    134|Page
     Femi
    nizat
    ionoft
    heLaborFor
    ce

    I
    nt hepast20y ears,aswehav eseen,mor eandmor ewomenhav eenteredthepaid
    workfor
    ce.Thiscomesi nadditi
    ont ot heinformalwor ktheydo( smallscale,home-
    basedproduction)aswel lasthesubsistencewor kt
    heypr ovi
    deforfr
    eetot hei
    rfamili
    es.
    Thisincreasei nthenumberofwomeni npai d employmentisr ef
    erred to asthe
    femini
    zationoft helaborf or
    ce.Itsi
    mpl ymeanst hat,byandl ar
    ge,thepr oporti
    onof
    femalewor ker
    shasi ncr
    easedindifferentsectorsoftheeconomy ,beyondhousehol d-
    basedproduction.Thistrendisdi
    rect
    lyr el
    atedtoglobali
    zati
    on.

     Gl
    obal
    izat
    ionandt
    echnol
    ogi
    cal
    change

    Duet ot heexpandingreachofnewcommuni cati


    ont echnologiest heuseoft echnol ogy
    fort heempower mentofwomenhasbeeni mpressive.Forexampl e,manywomenwor l
    d
    -widear emaki ngef f
    ectiv
    euseofI nternetande- mailfordevelopmentpur posessuchas
    networ king,adv ocacy,disseminati
    on and exchangeofi nformat ion,and cr eati
    vee-
    commer ce ini
    ti
    ativ
    es designed to helpl ocalar t
    isans and pr oducer s mar kettheir
    product sgl oball
    y.Nev ert
    heless,itmustber ecognizedt hatmi lli
    onsoft hewor ld’
    s
    poor estwomenandmenst il
    ldonothav eaccesst ot hesefacil
    iti
    es.I ssuessuchascost ,
    l
    ocat i
    onalbi as,and time constraint
    spose i mpedi ment st ot he di ff
    usi
    on oft hese
    technol ogies.Mechanismsneedt obedev el
    opedt oav oidnewf ormsofexcl usionand
    i
    sol ati
    on.

    Empl oymentopportuni
    ti
    esini nformati
    onpr ocessingwork–par ti
    cul
    arl
    yint heserv i
    ces
    sector–hav eopenedupnov eloppor t
    uniti
    esinsomedev elopingcountr
    ies,forwomen
    aswel lasmen.Telematics-
    relateddistanceworklikewi
    ser epresentsnewoppor tuniti
    es
    sinceitoffer
    sawi derangeofmodesofwor king,fr
    om home- basedteleworkingt o
    empl oymentintel
    ecentresort elecot
    tages.Thesemodesofwor ki
    ngofferf l
    exi
    bili
    tyin
    l
    ocat i
    onandhour sofempl oymentandt huscanov ercomesomeoft heconst rai
    nts
    facingwomen.

     Concl
    udi
    ngRemar
    ks

    Theobj ect
    iveofthispaperwast oexpl oreintotheimpactofemer gi
    ngglobaltrendson
    thesituati
    onofwomenandongenderr elat
    ionswi t
    hinthecontextofselectareasof
    concern.I tdoes not ,theref
    ore,cl aim t o be a compr ehensi
    ve discussi
    on.The
    underpinni
    ngsoft heabov ediscussionemphasi zest heneedt osustainthegl obal
    genderagenda,thatiswellroot
    edint hef ourwor l
    dconferencesonwomenaswel lasall
    theglobalconferencesoft he1990's,t obalancet heeconomi cagendaofgl obali
    zi
    ng
    marketf or
    cesforwomeni nbot hdevelopingaswel l
    asdev el
    opedcountr
    ies.

    Themassi
    veent
    ryofwomeni
    ntot
    hewor
    kfor
    cear
    oundt
    hewor
    ldcoi
    nci
    deswi
    tht
    he

    135|Page
    poli
    ticalmobi l
    i
    zat i
    onofwomenandt heexpansionofwomen’ sor ganizati
    onsofal l
    types.Thesent imentsbehindthisgr
    owi ngfor
    cear ewellcapt ur
    edintheConv enti
    onon
    theEl imination ofAl lFormsofDi scr
    iminat
    ion againstWomen,and i nt heBei j
    i
    ng
    Platf
    or mf orAct ion.Safeguar
    dingthegai nsmadei nt hear eaofgenderequal i
    tyand
    furt
    heradv ancingi ntheful
    limplementati
    onoft heBei j
    ingcommi t
    ment sr emaintobe
    centraltothegoal softhegenderagendaatnationalandi nt
    ernati
    onallevels.

    Itmustbebor nei nmindt hati nv estmentinhumancapabi l


    it
    iesenhancest hegr owth
    potenti
    alofaneconomy ,disinvest mentlower sit.The1999Wor ldSurveyont heRol eof
    Womeni nDev el
    opmentar guest hat,nati
    onaleconomi esmustbecapabl eofcont i
    nually
    adjusti
    ngt hemselvestothechangi ngcondi ti
    onsoft hewor l
    deconomyi nt hisr egard
    beforet hey can reap the economi c benef i
    ts associated wi t
    h globalization.The
    chall
    engef ortheBei j
    i
    ng+5pr ocessandt heagent sofgenderequal i
    ty,dev elopment
    andpeaceatnat ionalandi nternat i
    onallevels,then,istoest abli
    shnew al li
    ancesand
    developnew modal i
    ti
    est owar dsbui l
    dingani nclusi
    veglobalsoci etywher et het win
    goalsofeconomi cgrowthandt heexpansi onofhumancapabi l
    it
    ies,ascont ainedi n
    Beiji
    ngDecl ar
    ati
    onandPl atformf orAction,
    ar etackledintandem.

    St
    atusofWomeni
    nPaki
    stan

    TheIdeol
    ogy-“Nonati
    oncanrisetotheheightofgl
    oryunl
    essthei
    rwomenar esi deby
    sidewit
    hthem…Itiscri
    meagai nsthumanit
    ythatourwomenar eshutupwi t
    hi nthe
    fourwal
    lsofthehousesaspr
    isoners.Ther
    eisnosancti
    onanywhereforthedeplorabl
    e
    condi
    ti
    oninwhichourwomenhav etoliv
    e.”

    MuhammadAliJi
    nnah,Fat
    heroftheNat
    ionTheReali
    ty-“
    Paki
    stanwasmadeonl
    yfor
    t
    hepower
    fulandf
    orthemen.Itwasnotmadeforweakandpoorwomenli
    keme.What

    136|Page
    ar
    ewewor
    thandwhati
    sourst
    atusher
    e?Not
    hingatal
    l…"

    BasheeranBibi
    ,oneoft henumerousfemal evict
    imsofvi
    olencei
    nPakist
    anThesociet
    y
    ofPakistanisnodiff
    erentfr
    om anyot herparochi
    alandmaleobsessedcount
    ry,wher
    e
    thedomi nantpatr
    iar
    chalset-upseldom givesachancet otheotherhal
    fofhuman
    popul
    ationtofl
    ouri
    shandst andupforitsowncause.

    Sucht r
    endt heref
    ore,l
    eadstoasociet
    ythataccor
    dder
    ogat
    oryposi
    ti
    ont
    owomeni
    n
    pract
    ice,Pakist
    anbeingthecl
    assi
    cal
    example.

    Thecount r
    yhasgivenInt
    ernat
    ionalPoli
    ti
    cs–BenazirBhuttot
    hefir
    stExecuti
    veheadof
    anIslamiccountry
    ,andalsoothersli
    ke:Sher
    ryRehman,Fehmi daMi r
    za,Hi
    naRabbani
    Khar.Ont heotherhand,ther
    ear einst
    ancesofMukht aranBibi
    ,
    Tehmi naDurraniand
    MalalaYusafzai.Thesewomenar enotconfinedtoanypar ti
    cularsoci
    o-economi c
    segmentorany r ur
    al-
    urban di
    v i
    de.They have suff
    ered inthe hands ofv i
    olent
    perpetr
    ator
    smai nl
    yduetosocialandpoli
    ti
    cal
    reasons.

    Accordingt otheWorldEconomi cForum' sGlobalGenderGap,amongt heworstplaces


    forwomeni nthewor l
    d.Ther ecentrepor tofUni t
    edNat i
    onsDev elopmentProgram
    (UNDP),r ankedPakistanat123outof148count ri
    esi nthe2012GenderI nequalit
    y
    I
    ndex( GII)(UNDP,2013).I
    naddi t
    ion,
    lowf emaleli
    teracyrateisoneoft hemaincauses
    ofwomen' sal
    l r
    ounddepri
    vati
    onandv iolenceasexper iencedbyt hem.Ital
    socausel ow
    part
    ici
    pat i
    onint hepoli
    ti
    cal
    ,economi candsoci alacti
    v i
    ti
    es.Theycannotachi ev
    et hei
    r
    ri
    ghtsandcompet eforavai
    labl
    eoppor tuniti
    esint hejobmar ket.Thissit
    uati
    onhasl ed
    tothe soci aland economic dependence ofwomen whi ch inturn ensures male
    dominationinsociet
    y.

    Theav ai
    labi
    l
    ityofeducationalfaci
    li
    ti
    esaswel last hei
    rstandardisfarawayfrom
    perfect
    ion.Ononehand,t heeducat i
    onalinf
    rast
    ruct
    ureisunsati
    sfact
    ory
    ;whil
    eont he
    otherhand,t hesocialconductandper cepti
    onsarenotalway sinfavouroffemale
    education.Povert
    ymakesanot herreasonforlow enrol
    mentandhi ghdropoutrate,
    especiall
    yamongf emalestudents.

    Theanalysi
    sbeginswit
    hthest at
    usofwomanasenshrinedinI
    slam andhowincourse
    oft
    imedev i
    ati
    onanddeter
    ior
    ationoccur
    red.Thest
    udyal
    sofocusesonlegal
    ,soci
    aland
    pol
    i
    tical
    aspectsandter
    ror
    ism aff
    ecti
    ngwomeni nt
    hecountr
    y.

    Demogr
    aphi
    cBackgr
    ound

    Pakist
    anisaf ederati
    onoffourprov
    incesconjoi
    nedwiththefeder
    alcapi
    talar
    ea,the
    Federal
    lyAdmini
    steredTri
    balAr
    eas(FATA),theFeder
    all
    yAdminist
    eredNort
    hernAreas
    (FANA),andAzadJammuandKashmi r.Accor
    dingtothecensusconduct
    edinMar ch
    1998,thetot
    alpopulati
    onofthecountr
    yis130.6mill
    ionwi
    thanannualgrowthrat
    eof

    137|Page
    2.
    6per
    cent
    .

    About55. 6percentoft hispopulationi sinPunj ab,23per centinSindh,13.4per centin


    theNor t
    hWestFr ontierProv i
    nce( NWFP) ,
    5per centinBal ochist
    an,2.
    4percenti nFATA,
    and0. 6percentinI slamabad.Womenf orm 48per centoft hetot
    alpopulationand52
    percentaremen.Thepopul ati
    on ofwomen hasi ncreased sli
    ghtl
    ymor et han the
    populati
    onofmen.Thel atestintercensalaveragegr owt hrat eperannum isest i
    mat ed
    at2.6percentforwomenand2. 5per centformendur i
    ng1981–1998.Accor dingtot he
    1998censusdat a,88mi ll
    ionpeopl el i
    veinruralareas,wher eas42mi ll
    ionliveinur ban
    areas.Thedat ar evealedt hat45per centofthepopul at
    ionar ebelow15y earsofage.
    About52per centofadol escentsar emal eand48per centar efemale.

    Thedependencyr ati
    oi sappr oxi
    mately87.1.Onav erage,oneper soninthewor kingage
    grouppopul ati
    onwoul dhav eonedependenti nt hey ear1998.Theav erageageof
    womenf ormar ri
    agehasi ncreasedf r
    om 17.9yearsi n1951t o20.8yearsin1981.About
    23per centoff emal esbet weent heagesof15and19ar emar ri
    ed,compar edwi t
    h5
    percentoft hemal epopul ationinthesameagegr oup.Amaj or
    ityofwomenar emar ri
    ed
    totheircloser elat
    ives, i
    .e.
    ,firstandsecondcousi ns.Only37per centofmar r
    iedwomen
    arenotr elated tot hei
    rspousesbef oremar ri
    age.Thedi vorcer at
    ei n Paki stan i
    s
    extremelyl ow duet ot hesoci alsti
    gmaat t
    achedt oit.In1996–1997,accor dingto
    offi
    cialst ati
    stics,women- headed households const i
    tuted only 7 per centoft otal
    households.The shar e ofwomen- headed households isl ess in urban ar eas as
    compar edwi thr ur
    al areas.

    TheSoci
    alandCul
    tur
    alCont
    ext

    Thesoci alandcul t
    uralcont extofPaki st
    anisocietyispredomi nantl
    ypatri
    archal.Men
    andwomenar econcept uall
    ydi v i
    dedi ntotwosepar at
    ewor l
    ds.Homei sdefinedasa
    woman’ sl egi
    ti
    mat eideologi calandphy sicalspace,whil
    eamandomi nat
    est hewor l
    d
    outsi
    det hehome.Thef alsei deologi
    caldemar cat
    ionbetweenpubl icandpriv
    at e,
    insi
    de
    andout sideworldsi smai ntainedt hrought henotionofhonorandi nst
    it
    uti
    onofpur dah
    i
    nPaki stan.Sincet henot i
    onofmal ehonorandi zzat(honor )i
    slinkedwithwomen' s
    sexualbehav i
    or,thei
    rsexual ityisconsi der
    edapot enti
    althreattothehonoroft hefamil
    y.
    Therefore,women’ smobi l
    ityisst ri
    ctlyrestri
    ctedandcontr ol
    ledthroughthesy st
    em of
    purdah,sexsegr egati
    on, andv i
    olenceagai nstthem.

    Inthegi v
    ensocialcont ext,Pakist
    aniwomenl acksoci alv alueandst at
    usbecauseof
    negationoft
    heirrolesaspr oducer
    sandpr ovi
    der sinallsoci alrol
    es.Thepreferencefor
    sonsduet othei
    rpr oductiv
    er oledict
    atest
    heal locati
    onofhousehol dresourcesi nthei
    r
    favor.Malemember soft hef amil
    yar egi
    v enbet t
    ereducat ionandar eequippedwi th
    ski
    llstocompetef orresourcesi nthepubl
    i
    car ena, whil
    ef emal emember sar eimparted
    domest i
    cski
    ll
    stobegoodmot hersandwives.Lackofski lls,limit
    edopportunit
    iesinthe

    138|Page
    j
    obmarket
    ,andsoci
    alandcul
    tur
    alr
    est
    ri
    cti
    onsl
    i
    mitwomen’
    schancest
    ocompet
    efor
    r
    esour
    cesi
    nthepubl
    i
    carena.

    Thissi t
    uationhasl edt othesoci alandeconomi cdependencyofwoment hatbecomes
    thebasisf ormal epowerov erwomeni nallsocialrel
    ati
    onships.Howev er
    ,thespreadof
    patri
    archyi snotev en.Thenat ur eanddegr eeofwomen’ soppr essi
    on/subordi
    nati
    on
    varyacr osscl asses,r egions,and ther ural
    /urbandi vi
    de.Pat r
    iarchalstruct
    uresare
    rel
    ati
    v el
    yst rongerint her uralandt ri
    balsetti
    ngwher elocalcust omsest abl
    ishmale
    authorit
    yandpowerov erwomen’ sliv
    es.Womenar eexchanged,sol d,andboughti n
    mar r
    iages.Theyar egi venl i
    mitedoppor tuni
    tiestocr eatechoicesf orthemselvesin
    ordertochanget herealit
    iesoftheirli
    ves.

    Ont heotherhand, womenbel ongingtotheupperandmi ddl


    ecl asseshav ei
    ncr easingly
    great eraccesst oeducat ionandempl oymentopportuni
    ti
    esandcanassumegr eater
    cont rolovert hei
    rli
    ves.Themostpower f
    ulaspectofsocialandcul turalcontexti sthe
    i
    nt ernali
    zationofpat ri
    archalnormsbymenandwomen.I nlear ningtobeawomani n
    thesoci ety,womeni nter
    nali
    zet hepatr
    iarchali
    deol
    ogyandpl ayani nst
    r umentalrolei n
    transf er
    ri
    ngandr ecreati
    ngthegenderi deologythr
    oughthepr ocessofsoci al
    izati
    onof
    theirchi ldren.Thi s aspectofwomen’ sl iv
    es has been l argelyi gnored by t he
    dev elopmenti nit
    iat
    ivesinthecount r
    y.

    Educat
    ionalSt
    atus

    • Despi
    tet he i
    mpr ov
    ement in Pakistan'
    slit
    eracy r
    ate si
    nce independence si
    nce
    i
    ndependence(1947),i
    tsoveralll
    i
    ter
    acyrateof45% (56.
    5% formalesand32. 6% f
    or
    femal
    esin1998)issti
    ll
    farbehindmostofthecount
    ri
    esintheregi
    on.

    • Wit
    hincr
    easei
    npopul
    ati
    on,t
    henumberofil
    li
    ter
    atePakist
    ani
    shasmor
    ethandoubl
    ed
    si
    nce1951,
    whi
    lenumberofi
    l
    li
    ter
    atewomenhadtri
    pled.

    • Stronggenderdispar
    it
    iesexi
    stineducat
    ionalattai
    nmentbetweenr
    uralandurbanareas
    amongt heprovi
    nces.In1996-1997,
    li
    ter
    acyr ateinurbanar
    easwas58.3%whi l
    einrural
    areasitwas28.3%andonl y12%amongr uralwomen.Despitet
    hehi
    gherrat
    eoff emale
    enroll
    ment,t
    hegendergapi nl
    iter
    acyrat
    ei swidening.

    • Atpresenthasthan3% ofagegr oupsbetween17-23havelimit


    edoppor t
    unit
    iesto
    acqui
    rehighereducati
    onandat tainprofessi
    onaldegr
    eesduet olesserquotainthe
    uni
    versi
    ti
    es.Thi
    sisduet ocul
    turalprescr
    ipti
    onofgenderr
    olesandinadequat
    enumber
    oftr
    aini
    ngandprofessi
    onali
    nsti
    tutes.

    • I
    nter
    est
    ingl
    y,howev
    er,womenhav
    emor
    eeducat
    ionalachi
    evement
    sascompar
    edt
    o
    men.

    139|Page
    • Heal
    thSt
    atus

    • Maj
    ori
    tyofwomendon'
    thav
    eaccesst
    obasi
    cheal
    thcar
    eduet
    oinadequat
    eheal
    th
    f
    aci
    l
    iti
    es.

    • Paki
    stani
    soneofthef
    ewcountr
    ieswher
    ewomen'
    li
    feexpect
    ancyi
    slowert
    hant
    hatof
    men.Ther
    eare108menforev
    ery100women.

    • Femaleinf
    antmort
    ali
    tyr
    atei
    shigher(
    85per1000li
    vebi
    rt
    hs)t
    hanofmal
    echi
    l
    dren(
    82
    per1000li
    vebi
    rt
    hs).Mor
    ethan40%oftot
    alfemal
    epopul
    ati
    oni
    sanemi
    c.

    • Thefer
    ti
    li
    tyr
    ate5.4perwoman,onewomani n39diesf
    rom chi
    l
    dbi
    rt
    hs.Onl
    y20%
    womenareassi
    stedbyat
    rai
    nedpr
    ovi
    derdur
    ingdel
    i
    ver
    y.

    • Soci
    alandf amil
    ialcont
    rolov
    erwomen’
    ssexual
    ity
    ,theireconomi
    cdependenceupon
    menandrest r
    ict
    ionsonmobil
    it
    ydet
    ermi
    nesdi
    ff
    erenti
    alaccessofmal
    e,andfemal
    esto
    heal
    thser
    vices.

    • I
    ntr
    ahouseholdbi
    asinfooddist
    ri
    but
    ion,ear
    lymarr
    iages,excessi
    vechi
    l
    dbear
    ing,hi
    gh
    l
    evelofi
    l
    li
    ter
    acyadver
    sel
    yaff
    ectswomen'sheal
    th.

    • Ther i
    seofpover
    tyexacerbat
    escondit
    ionsofoppressi
    onforwomenandchi l
    dren.
    Woment husgooutt
    owor kharderandearnf
    ort
    heirfami
    li
    eswhi
    chfur
    therdet
    eri
    orate
    thei
    rheal
    th.

    Economi
    cSt
    atus

    • Women i n Pakistan par


    ti
    cipateful
    lyin economic act
    ivi
    ti
    es in product
    ive and
    r
    eproducti
    vespheres.Howeverther
    oleofwomenasanunpaid,unpai
    d,full
    -t
    imelabor
    er
    i
    ntheirhomesisnotaccountedforI
    '
    m nati
    onalst
    ati
    sti
    cs.

    • The1997laborf
    reesur
    veyreport
    edthe"r
    efi
    nedact
    ivi
    tyr
    ate"forwomenas1.
    6%and
    70%formen,whi
    let
    hecrudeacti
    vi
    tyr
    atewas9%and47%r espect
    ivel
    y.

    • I
    nthecult
    uralcont
    extofPaki
    stan,woman'
    swagewor
    kisconsi
    der
    edasat
    hreatt
    o
    makeegoandident
    it
    y.

    • Paki
    stan'
    swomenandgirl
    sspendthei
    rti
    meindoi
    ngthedail
    yhouseholdchor
    es.Not
    onl
    yaretheyphy
    sical
    l
    yhar
    dandtimeconsumi
    ng,t
    heyal
    sorobgir
    lsf
    ortheopport
    uni
    ty
    tost
    udy.

    140|Page
    • Womendonotent erthelabormar ketonequalt ermsasmen.Thei roccupati
    onal
    choi
    cesarelimit
    edduet osocialandcult
    uralconst
    rai
    nts,inher
    entgenderbiasi
    nlabor
    marketandlackoffaci
    li
    ti
    essuchaschi l
    dcare,tr
    ansportandaccommodat i
    oninfemale
    sect
    oroflabormarket.

    • Womenar enormall
    yconsider
    edashousewor
    kssot
    hei
    ropi
    nionandpr
    esencei
    n
    gener
    all
    ynotr
    equi
    redinl
    abormarket
    .

    • Rur
    alwomen,
    howev
    er,
    aregener
    all
    yfoundv
    eryact
    ivei
    ntheagr
    icul
    tur
    alsect
    or.

    • Genderdiscr
    imi
    nat
    ion,vul
    garenv
    ironmentduet ohar
    assmentbymenandlowwagesof
    woment endtor
    estrai
    nwomenf r
    om parti
    cipat
    ingint
    heeconomydevel
    opedi
    fPaki
    stan.

    LegalMeasur
    esTakeni
    nPaki
    stan/
    WomenandLaw

    • Paki
    stanisacountr
    ywherepar
    all
    elj
    udi
    cialsyst
    emsar eoper
    ati
    ng.Someoft hem ar
    e
    excl
    usiv
    elyappl
    i
    cabl
    etot
    ri
    balar
    easandothersareappl
    i
    cablet
    hroughoutt
    hecountr
    y.

    • Theconsti
    tut
    iongrant
    eesequal
    ityofr
    ight
    stoallcit
    izensofsex,r
    aceandcl
    assare
    empowersgov er
    nmentto pr
    otectwomen'sr
    ights.However,somelawsarehighl
    y
    di
    scr
    iminat
    ory.

    • UndertheMusli
    mf ami l
    ylaw,womenhaveunequalr i
    ghttoinher
    it
    ance,terminat
    ionof
    marri
    age,mi
    nimum ageofmar ri
    ageandnatur
    alguardianshi
    pofchil
    dren;pol
    ygamyhas
    notbannedandt hereareinadequat
    eprov
    isi
    onsf orwomen' sfi
    nancialsecuri
    tyaft
    er
    ter
    minati
    onofmarriage.

    • Musl
    i
    mfami
    l
    yLawsOr
    dinance(
    MFLO)of1961.

    • TheWestPaki
    stanFami
    l
    yCour
    tsActof1964.

    • Dowr
    yandBr
    idal
    Gif
    tsRest
    ri
    cti
    onAct
    ,1976.

    • Cr
    imi
    nal
    Law(
    Amendment
    )Act
    ,2004.

    • Pr
    otect
    ionofWomenAct(
    2006)
    ,rev
    isedt
    heHudoodOr
    dinance.

    • Cr
    imi
    nal
    Law(
    Amendment
    )Act
    ,2010(
    onsexual
    har
    assment
    ).

    • Pr
    otect
    ionagai
    nstHar
    assmentofWomenatt
    heWor
    kpl
    ace,
    2010.

    • Pr
    event
    ionofAnt
    i-
    WomenPr
    act
    ices(
    Cri
    minal
    LawAmendment
    )Act
    ,2011.

    • Cr
    imi
    nalLawAct( SecondAmendment
    ,2011)
    ,ref
    err
    edasAci
    dCont
    rolandAci
    d
    Cr
    imePrevent
    ionAct.

    141|Page
    • Cr
    imi
    nalLaw Act(Thi
    rdAmendment
    ,2011)
    ,ref
    err
    edt
    oasPr
    event
    ionofAnt
    i-
    WomenPract
    ices.

    • TheWomeni
    nDi
    str
    essandDet
    ent
    ionFund(
    Amendment
    )Act
    ,2011

    • Domest
    icVi
    olence(
    Prev
    ent
    ionandPr
    otect
    ion)
    ,Act2012.

    • Nat
    ional
    Commi
    ssi
    onont
    heSt
    atusofWomenAct
    ,2012.

    • Enf
    orcementofWomenOwner
    shi
    pRi
    ght
    sAct2012.

    • TheKhy
    berPakht
    unkhwaEl
    i
    minat
    ionofCust
    om ofGhagAct2013.

    I
    naddi ti
    on,Paki
    stanhasbeenpar t
    yt ov ar
    iousi nternati
    onalandr egi
    onalconventi
    ons
    forprotecti
    ngwomenandgi vi
    ngt hem equalst atus.Pakistanisasi gnatorytothe
    I
    nternati
    onalConferenceonPopul ati
    onandDev elopment( ICPD) ,t
    heBei j
    i
    ngPl anof
    Action and the Unit
    ed Nations Conv ent
    ion on t he Eli
    mination ofallFor ms of
    Discri
    minati
    onAgainstWomen( CEDAW) ,Pakistanaccededt oCEDAW i n1996,making
    adeclarati
    onontheConv ent
    ionandent eri
    ngar eser vat
    iononAr t
    icle29,Decl
    arati
    on:

    “The accessi
    on byGov ernmentoft he I
    slamic Republ
    ic ofPakist
    an t
    ot he (
    said
    Conv enti
    on)i
    ssubjectt otheprovi
    sionsoft heConstit
    uti
    onoftheIslami
    cRepubli
    cof
    Pakistan.
    ”Reservat
    ion:“TheGov er
    nmentoft heIsl
    amicRepubli
    cofPakist
    andeclares
    thatitdoesnotconsiderit
    sel
    fboundbypar agraph1ofar t
    icl
    e29oftheConventi
    on.
    ”

    Pakistaniwomendof acesecl
    usionandexcl
    usi
    onduetosocio-cul
    tur
    alnormsbasedon
    patri
    archywhichult
    imatel
    ydeniesaccesstobenef
    it
    sofdevelopment.Oneofthemain
    factor
    swhi chcur
    tai
    ltheempower mentandaut
    onomyofwomeni nPaki
    stani
    sthemale
    perceptionoft
    heroleofwomen.

    Womendoexper i
    encedomi nantformsofsocialevilsatti
    mesundert hegar bofr eli
    gion
    andsomet i
    mesaspar tofcust om.Thephenomenoncanal sobei denti
    fi
    edi nter msof
    genderv iolencemet edoutt owomeni nform ofhonourki lli
    ng,f orcedmar r
    iage,chi l
    d
    mar r
    iage,br i
    de bur ni
    ng,aci d attacks,etc.The AnnualRepor tof t he Nat i
    onal
    Commi ssionont heSt atusofWomen,Amnest yInternat
    ional,2012,pr ovi
    desadet ai
    led
    profi
    leofv ariousindi
    catorsf ortheappall
    i
    ngsituati
    onofwomeni nPakistan.TheRepor t
    stat
    est hatt heAur atFoundat i
    ondocument ed8,539casesofv iolenceagai nstwomen,
    i
    ncluding1, 575mur ders,827r apes,610i nci
    dentsofdomest i
    cv iol
    ence,705honour
    ki
    lli
    ngsand44aci dat tacks.Theseneedsf urt
    herelaborati
    on:

    Concl
    usi
    on

    Acount
    rythatcameint
    oexist
    encewi
    tht hepr
    e-t
    extofIsl
    am,iti
    sver
    ydisheart
    eningto
    seet
    hatrel
    igi
    ousandQura'
    ani
    cpri
    nci
    plesaref
    requent
    lyavoi
    dedandtwi
    sted,especi
    all
    y

    142|Page
    regardi
    ng status ofwomen.I ncidentall
    yt he socialev i
    ls againstwhi ch Prophet
    Muhammadf oughtf
    ortheenti
    retyofhisl i
    fe,aredeep-root
    edi nthePaki st
    anisociet
    y.
    Andt heso-call
    edguardi
    ansoft
    hef ait
    ht akethem ascust omaryto‘punish’womenand
    ostraci
    zethem.Thecommonpr acti
    ceofj usti
    fyi
    ngviolenceandbr utal
    i
    tyinthenameof
    I
    slam needst obeimpeded.

    Undersuchsituation,fr
    equenttr
    aini
    ngandawar enesspr ogrammesar eneededt obe
    arr
    anged peri
    odicallyto make women aware oft hei
    rr ight
    s and equipt hem for
    exercisi
    ngj
    ustdemands.Ashasbeensuggest ed,v ari
    ouscot tageindust
    ri
    esbyt he
    publi
    caswellaspr i
    vatesector
    sshouldbeestabli
    shedt opr ovi
    dejobopportunit
    iesto
    rur
    al womensot hattheycanearnincomeandhelptheirheadsinhousehold’
    sexpenses.

    Moreov er
    , accordi
    ngtoHRCPRepor t
    ,theneedsofr uralwomenwer eacknowledgedas
    economi cempower mentprojectswer eintroducedt hroughbothgov er
    nmentandci vil
    societygroups.Aspar tofat
    tempt stoimpr ovet heeconomi csit
    uati
    onofwomeni nt he
    countrysi
    de,t heBenazirIncomeSuppor tPr ogrammei nt
    roducedav ocat
    ionalskill
    s
    developmentagendai nwhicheachpar ti
    cipantwast obegi venaUSD12cashgr ant
    everymont hal ongwit
    hhealthinsurance.

    I
    n addit
    ion,the exi
    sti
    ng laws need to be r
    evi
    ewed.Mor eimpor t
    antl
    y,adequate
    i
    mplementati
    onofl awsar everycruci
    altoprovi
    desafeandsecur eenv i
    ronmentto
    womenf orpr
    osperi
    ngthemselves,i
    nadogmat i
    csoci
    etyofPaki
    stan.Andthereisneed
    t
    oestabl
    ishalegalassi
    stancecent
    reforfemal
    eatNati
    onalanddi
    stri
    ctlev
    el.

    InthecontextofPaki stan,t
    hev i
    talpr
    obl
    em i
    sRel i
    gionhasnotbeenablet oaboli
    shthe
    centuri
    esoldun- I
    slamicandal soinhumansocialevi
    ls,pr
    acti
    cedintheland.Ther
    efore,
    tr
    ibal,
    clan,
    vil
    lagesy mbol i
    sm hasbecomemor edomi nantandconveni
    entthanthefai
    th
    ofIsl
    am.Thei ll
    -pr
    acticesofJahili
    yyahar
    esti
    llconti
    nuinginPaki
    stan.

    Theyar econdi ti
    onedt obei gnor
    antnotonl yaboutlegalri
    ghtsbut,al
    soaboutt he"true
    tenetsofI slam" .Thus,whi l
    ediscussingt hestatusofwomen,i tbecomesv eryobv i
    ous
    thatPaki stani sj uggl
    ingbet weenr epr essi
    vecustomsandbor rowedmoder nizat
    ion.
    Becauseofl ackofknowl edgether el
    igionhast akenupt he‘non-Isl
    amic’traditi
    onsof
    thelandandi sjusti
    fyi
    ngsuchcont inuance.Ont heot herhand,onecansayt hatl i
    keany
    otherpost -colonialsociet
    ymoder nizati
    onhasbeeni mposedonPaki stan,t
    heref or
    et he
    societyhasnotf ull
    ychangedf r
    om wi thin.Ther
    efore,theconstanttusslebetweent he
    twoi stakingi tstoll
    ont hefemalepopul ation.

    143|Page
    St
    atusofWomanEducat
    ioni
    nPaki
    stan

    StatusofWomani nEducat i
    on:
    Educat i
    onmustpr ovidetheoppor tuni
    ti
    esforsel f
    -f
    ulfi
    ll
    mentsitcanatbestpr ov i
    dea
    ri
    chandchal lengingenv i
    ronmentf ortheindivi
    dualtoexpl or
    e,inhi s(her)ownway .
    Although,Paki stanisasi gnatoryofUN Educat ion forAllFrameWor kf orAction
    Document s,
    whi chplacesconsi der
    ableemphasisonwomeneducat ion.Part
    icular
    lythe
    eli
    mi nati
    onofgenderdi sparit
    iesinpr i
    mary,secondaryandhi ghereducat i
    on,butt he
    tar
    getofachi evingeducationforallinPaki
    stanisstil
    lfarfr
    om sati
    sfactory
    .Thest ateof
    educat i
    onespeci al
    lyfemaleeducationisst
    il
    l aby
    smal .

    CurrentSituat
    ion
    Pakistanhast hethi
    rdhighestnumberofoutofschoolf emal
    estudentsinthewor
    ld:
    55% ofoutofschoolchi l
    dreninPakistanaregir
    ls.However
    ,itshouldcameasno
    surpri
    set hatPakist
    ani sli
    stedasoneoft hecountri
    eshavelargegendergapsin
    education, and theref
    ore requi
    res heft
    yi nv
    estment in gir
    ls educat
    ion f
    or a
    socioeconomicuplif
    t.

    Pict
    ureofeducat
    ionalcondi
    ti
    oni
    sgrimi
    nPakist
    an.Morethan40%ofgi
    rl
    snever
    enr
    olli
    nschool.Thesituati
    onisespeci
    all
    yal
    armi
    nginruralar
    easduetosocialand
    cul
    tur
    alobstacl
    e.

    Morespecifi
    call
    yi nKPKandBal ouchistanwomenar esever
    elybondtocultural
    constr
    aintsandprejudices.Theyar einv olvedproductive,repr
    oducti
    veandcommuni ty
    workfor14- 18hours,int heseareast hef emal eli
    teracyratestandbetween15% and
    25%.Adayaswel lasinnor ther
    nt r
    ibalar eastheeducat ionofgir
    lsisst
    ri
    ctl
    yprohibi
    ted
    asreli
    giousgrounds.Thosegi r
    lswhogot oschool stheiratt
    endancerateinpri
    mar y,
    secondary,and post -
    secondary school s arel owert han boys.Thisi s a gross
    misint
    erpret
    ati
    onofIslam.

    Pakistani saMusl im countr


    y,thedominantrel
    igi
    onisIsl
    am and96% oft he
    populati
    oni sMusl i
    m, j
    ustli
    keallr
    eli
    gionur
    gesmenandwoment oacqui
    reeducat
    ion.I
    n
    I
    slam,i tiscl earl
    yment i
    onedt hatitisobl
    igat
    oryforeverymanandwomanshoul d
    recei
    vet hequal i
    tyeducat
    ion.

    Probl
    emsofAccesst oEducation:
    I
    naccessibi
    li
    tyofpr imaryeducat i
    oni sar esul
    tofdist
    ance,chi
    ldlabor,mal e
    pref
    erence,scarci
    tyoft eacher
    s,localleaderfearoflosi
    ngpowerandfrequentpolicy
    changes.Thepr obl
    em ofaccessappl iestobot handgirl
    sandboyshoweveritismor e
    seri
    ousf orgi
    rls.Gir
    ls’schoolsarefarawayf r
    om thehomesinmanyr uralareas,gir
    l
    144|Page
    chi
    ldbecausecultur
    all
    ytheyar
    esupposedt ost
    ayclosetohomeandt heycannottr
    avel
    al
    oneinoursoci etyfreel
    y,manyfamil
    iescannotaffordt
    ravel
    l
    ingexpansesf ort
    heir
    chi
    ldr
    en.Thosewhocannotaf fordtr
    ansportitisoftennotavai
    labl
    einr ur
    alareas.
    Moreoverteacher
    sthatdonotbelongtothesamecommuni tyar
    esomet i
    mesunableto
    att
    endschool dai
    l
    yduet oabov
    ement i
    onedproblem

    GenderGaps:
    Accordi
    ngtoGl obalGenderGapRepor t(2014)publi
    shedbythewor
    ldeconomic
    st
    forum rankedPakist
    an141 outof142count r
    iesinter
    msofgendergapi nfourkey
    areas:economicpart
    icipat
    ion, educat
    ionat
    tai
    nment,heal
    thandpoli
    ti
    cal
    empowerment.

    UNDPgenderi
    ndexforPaki
    stanis0.5%whi ank127th outof187count
    chr r
    ies.
    Onl
    y19%offemalesi
    nPakist
    anabovetheageof25haver
    eachedsecondaryeducati
    on
    comparedwi
    th46%count
    erpar
    tmales.

    Problem ofSeparateSchools
    I
    nasocietycoeducationi
    snotacceptedev eninprimaryschools,famil
    yand
    parentsdon’tal
    low thei
    rgir
    lstost
    udyincoeducat
    ionschoolsduet oseveralr
    easons.
    The gov er
    nmentof ten fai
    l
    ed totake measur
    es to prov
    ide separat
    e schools and
    cl
    assr oomsforgir
    ls.

    FearofExt r
    emi sts
    InPakistan,Parti
    cul
    arl
    yinKPKmi l
    it
    antgr
    ouphaveblastedt
    housandsofschools,
    especiall
    ygirlsschool sthousandsofchi l
    drenhavel
    ostt heirl
    ivesduri
    ngstudyi
    ng.
    Extremistsgroupsar eagainstgirl
    sandwomeneducat ionaswel lastheyhavegiven
    threat
    sand t hr eat
    ening l
    ett
    erst o sev
    eralgover
    nmentand pr i
    vategir
    lschoolsfor
    stoppinggir
    lseducat i
    on

    Inshort
    ,women,whi
    char e51%ofthecount
    rypopul
    ati
    on,hav
    ebeenf
    orcedt
    o
    j
    ustbearchi
    ldr
    enfort
    hei
    rhusbandsandr
    emainwit
    hint
    hehouse.

    FearofLosingPower
    Locallandl or
    dsopposegi
    rl
    seducat
    ionoutoff earoflosi
    ngpower .Theyoppose
    themeasurest akenbythegover
    nmentandnon- gover
    nment alorgani
    zat
    ion,appar
    entl
    y
    outoffearthatpeoplewhobecomeli
    ter
    atewillceasetofol
    lowt hem wit
    hblindpath.I
    n
    thi
    sconditi
    ongov er
    nmenthasnotsofartakenanyst epstopr omoteliter
    acyorgirl
    s
    educat
    ion.

    FrequentChangei
    nEducationPoli
    cies
    Gover
    nment announced dif
    ferent pl
    ans and poli
    cies to promotel i
    teracy
    ,
    especial
    l
    yamong women,as gov ernment s hav
    e announced var
    ious progr
    ams t o
    achiev
    eitseducat
    ionalobj
    ect
    ivesbuttheyhavebeenunablet ot
    ransl
    atetheirwordsin

    145|Page
    t
    oact
    ionbecauseofv
    ari
    oussoci
    al,
    cul
    tur
    al,
    economi
    candpol
    i
    tical
    obst
    acl
    es.

    Sol
    uti
    on
    1.Changeofmi ndofleaders
    2.Changepol i
    ciesofeducat i
    on
    3.Br i
    ngchangei nlocall
    evelthroughawareness
    4.Equal accessofeducat i
    ontomal eandfemales
    Governmentshoul dt akesoli
    dstepsonthi
    sissueofeducat
    ionsy
    stem of
    Pakistan.I fgov er
    nmentf ocuses on impl
    ementat
    ion i
    nst
    ead ofproject
    ing
    pol
    iciest hent hi
    sproblem wi l
    lbesol
    vedwithi
    nnoti
    me.

    RayofHope
    Intherecentdecadesithasbeenobser vedthatasi gnif
    icantpropor
    ti
    onofgirl
    s
    aregett
    ingeducati
    onathigherlev
    eldespi
    teculturalbarri
    ers.Eveninsomecases,girl
    s
    outnumberboy sathi ghereducati
    onallevel.Thist rend seemst o begood f ora
    devel
    opmentofPaki st
    aniSocietybecause signif
    icantpr oporti
    on ofpopulat
    ion i
    s
    comingoutandtakingparti
    nacademicacti
    vi
    ties.

    Accordi
    ngtoUN,womenperfor
    m 66% ofworl
    d’swor
    k,pr
    oduce50% f
    oodbut
    ear
    n10%incomeandcompr
    isewor
    ld’
    s70%poorbei
    ngs.

    Post-
    colonialwri
    ter
    sdisplayt
    heki ndofsensi
    bil
    i
    tyt
    hatal
    soworkstoweaken
    col
    oni
    al,pat
    riarchal
    ,andcapi
    tal
    istcl
    aims.Thusi
    twasseenthati
    mper
    ial
    ism r
    emai
    ned
    i
    ncult
    ureatlarge.

    GlobalFemi ni
    stAct i
    vi
    sm andModer nit
    y
    In 1992,Guat emalat he newly el
    ected governmentbacked a “ One Mil
    l
    ion
    Si
    gnat ur
    e”campai gndevotedt omobi l
    izi
    ngt heMor occanciti
    zenr
    yt obackwomen
    ri
    ghts,bothpoliti
    calandpersonal.Thebackingofgov ernmentasapar tofgov
    ernment
    asapar tofnationalmodernizat
    ionandadv ancementmadeabi gdiff
    erence.

    In2000, abi
    gmarchinsupportofNati
    onalPl
    anofAct ionforintegrat
    ingwomen
    i
    ntodev el
    opment,whi
    chwasproposedtothenati
    onalassembl y
    .Thislawwoul dmodif
    y
    famil
    ylawasembodi edi
    nShari
    ah,Isl
    amiclawoffamil
    y,personalandot herrel
    ati
    onsi
    n
    ordert
    obr i
    ngthosemorei
    nli
    newithwestern“Uni
    ver
    sal”law.

    Non- stat
    eGov ernmentalOrganizati
    ons( NGO’s)
    NGO’scanalsoempowerwoment oenterpol
    it
    icstochangethei
    rsoci
    albehavi
    or
    thati sharmfultothem andt heirfamil
    ies.Theyemphasi zedt
    hatwomenshoul dbe
    strongenought oparti
    cipat
    einpol it
    icsandthusensurethatthet
    ransi
    ti
    ontodemocracy
    woul dnotbeal l
    maleev ent
    .

    146|Page
    St
    atusofWomen’
    sHeal
    thi
    nPaki
    stan

    St
    atusofWomeni
    nPaki
    stan
    I
    nPaki
    stanst
    atusofwomenv
    ari
    esconsi
    der
    abl
    yacr
    osscl
    asses,r
    egi
    onsandr
    ural
    ur
    bandi
    vi
    deduet
    ounev
    ensoci
    oeconomi
    cdev
    elopmentandt
    hesi
    gni
    fi
    canti
    mpactof
    t
    ri
    bal
    ,feudal
    andcapi
    tal
    i
    stsoci
    alf
    ormat
    ionofwomen’
    sli
    fe
    Al
    thought
    her
    ehav
    ebeenat
    tempt
    sbyt
    hegov
    ernment
    sandenl
    i
    ght
    engr
    oupst
    o
    el
    evat
    ethest
    atusofwomeni
    noursoci
    etybutonav
    erage,si
    tuat
    ioni
    snotwel
    lin
    Paki
    stan.Af
    amouswr
    it
    ersay
    sthat“
    Mani
    samomentbutwomani
    sal
    i
    fe”
    .Al
    lthese
    beaut
    if
    ull
    yconst
    ruct
    edsent
    encest
    akea180degr
    eet
    urnwhi
    l
    econsi
    der
    ingt
    hest
    atus
    ofspeci
    fi
    cal
    l
    ywomeni
    nPaki
    stan.Ourwomenst
    il
    lseem t
    obel
    i
    vingi
    ndar
    kages.I
    tisa
    mat
    terofdeepsor
    row t
    hatbei
    ngMusl
    i
    m wehav
    ecompl
    etel
    yfor
    got
    tent
    hest
    atusof
    womengi
    venbyt
    heI
    slam.Anni
    eBessanti
    nherbook,“
    Thel
    i
    feandTeachi
    ngsof
    Muhammad (
    PBUH)
    ”say
    s,“
    Iof
    ten t
    hink t
    hatwomen ar
    efr
    ee i
    nIsl
    am t
    han i
    n
    Chr
    ist
    iani
    ty.Womenar
    emor
    erespect
    edbyI
    slam t
    hanbyt
    hef
    ait
    hwhi
    chpr
    eached
    monogamy
    ”.
    I
    slam wast
    hef
    ir
    str
    eli
    giont
    orecogni
    zet
    heequal
    i
    tyofsexesandgr
    ant
    edwomen
    r
    ight
    sunhear
    d1400y
    ear
    sago.I
    nPaki
    stant
    hest
    oryofwomen’
    sdepr
    ivat
    ionsst
    artev
    en
    bef
    oret
    hei
    rbi
    rt
    h,becauset
    hegi
    rlchi
    l
    disnotapar
    ti
    cul
    arl
    ywant
    edchi
    l
    d.Herl
    i
    fei
    sa
    j
    our
    neyofsubor
    dinat
    ion.Mai
    npr
    obl
    em i
    sthatt
    hisi
    sonl
    ypossi
    blewhenwomenar
    e
    educat
    edandsuppor
    tedbyt
    hegov
    ernmentasequalandf
    eel
    i
    ngbei
    ngst
    obenef
    itf
    rom
    t
    hel
    atestt
    echnol
    ogyandcont
    ri
    but
    eef
    fi
    cient
    lyt
    othecount
    ry’
    supl
    i
    ft.

    147|Page
    St
    atusofWomen’
    sHeal
    th
    Heal
    thi
    sast
    ateofcompl
    etement
    al,phy
    sicalandsoci
    alwel
    l
    -bei
    nganddoesn’
    tmean
    t
    hemer
    eabsenceofdi
    seasei
    nfer
    ti
    li
    ty.Heal
    thi
    sact
    ual
    l
    ysomet
    hingr
    elat
    edt
    opy
    scho-
    soci
    alandphy
    sical
    sat
    isf
    act
    ion.
    Theheal
    thi
    smer
    elyconsi
    der
    edasani
    mpor
    tanti
    ssuebecausewomenasa
    genderhav
    eli
    tt
    ler
    especti
    nthecommuni
    ty.I
    nthenameofcul
    tur
    e,t
    radi
    ti
    onandr
    eli
    gion
    t
    heywer
    enev
    ergi
    venequalst
    atusi
    nsoci
    ety
    .Theheal
    thoff
    ami
    l
    iesandnat
    ionsi
    s
    i
    nter
    li
    nkedwi
    tht
    heheal
    thofwomen.Heal
    thordeat
    hofwomencanhav
    eser
    ious
    i
    mpl
    i
    cat
    ionsf
    ort
    heheal
    thofherchi
    l
    drenandf
    ami
    l
    y.
    Cul
    tur
    ePat
    ter
    nDef
    ineHeal
    th

    St
    andar
    dsofheal
    thv
    aryf
    rom pl
    acet
    opl
    ace.I
    ntheear
    ly20th cent
    ury
    ,somedoct
    ors
    war
    nedwomennott
    ogot
    ocol
    l
    egebecausehi
    ghereducat
    ionwoul
    dst
    rai
    nthef
    emal
    e
    br
    ain.Weknowt
    hatt
    hisi
    deai
    sfal
    se.Though,t
    hei
    deaaboutheal
    thact
    sasaf
    orm of
    soci
    alcont
    rol
    ,encour
    agi
    ngconf
    ormi
    tyt
    ocul
    tur
    alnor
    ms.
    GenderI
    nequal
    it
    y
    Asy
    stem whi
    chi
    sbasedongenderi
    nequal
    i
    tywi
    l
    lnotadoptpol
    i
    ciesf
    ort
    hewel
    l
    -bei
    ng
    ofwomenwhoar
    epoor
    ,power
    less,pr
    egnantandweakasacl
    ass.I
    tisal
    sodi
    stur
    bing
    t
    onot
    ethatr
    eli
    gio-
    pol
    i
    tical
    par
    ti
    esandt
    radi
    ti
    onal
    pol
    i
    tical
    par
    ti
    eswi
    thl
    ethal
    imagehav
    e
    l
    i
    ttl
    eti
    mef
    orwomenandt
    hei
    rissues.
    I
    n Paki
    stan we ar
    elosi
    ng t
    hree women perhourbecause ofpr
    egnancy
    associ
    atedcompl
    i
    cat
    ions.Mor
    ethan30,
    000y
    oungwomendi
    eev
    eryy
    eari
    nPaki
    stan,
    375,
    000womensuf
    ferev
    eryy
    earf
    rom pr
    egnancyr
    elat
    edcompl
    i
    cat
    ions.
    Heal
    thI
    ssues
    Paki
    stanr
    ankst
    hir
    dlar
    gesti
    nthewor
    ldwi
    tht
    henumberofmat
    ernal
    deat
    hs.Ther
    ear
    e
    manyf
    act
    orsr
    esponsi
    blef
    orsuchpr
    obl
    ems.Howev
    er,
    mor
    eimpor
    tanti
    sthel
    ackof
    r
    esour
    cesev
    enf
    ort
    hosewhowi
    sht
    oseekt
    reat
    ment
    .Manychi
    l
    drenl
    oset
    hei
    rmot
    her
    s
    t
    ofr
    equentpr
    egnanci
    esandcompl
    i
    cat
    ions.Repr
    oduct
    iveheal
    thi
    samongt
    hemost
    ser
    iouspr
    obl
    em t
    hatwomenf
    acei
    nPaki
    stan.Theyhav
    enor
    ightt
    otakeanydeci
    sion
    r
    egar
    dingt
    hei
    rheal
    thwhi
    chaf
    fect
    sthedev
    elopmentoft
    hechi
    l
    dren.
    Mor
    ethanei
    ght
    yper
    centwomenar
    edel
    i
    ver
    edathomei
    nthepr
    esenceof

    148|Page
    unski
    l
    ledbi
    rt
    hat
    tendant
    s.Maj
    ori
    tyofourBasi
    cHeal
    thUni
    ts(
    BHUs)andRur
    alHeal
    th
    Uni
    ts(
    RHUs)ar
    enotf
    unct
    ional
    .

    Womenf
    rom Concept
    iont
    oOl
    dAge
    1.Ter
    minat
    ionofpr
    egnancyaf
    terdi
    agnosi
    soff
    emal
    econcept
    ions.
    2.I
    ncr
    easedr
    ateoff
    emal
    einf
    antdeat
    hbecauseofl
    ackofcar
    eforf
    emal
    echi
    l
    d,
    f
    eweroppor
    tuni
    ti
    esf
    orgi
    rlchi
    l
    dforeducat
    ion.
    3.Mor
    egi
    rl
    sar
    echi
    l
    dlabor
    sasdomest
    icwor
    ker
    s,f
    iel
    dchi
    l
    dfar
    mer
    sandcot
    tage
    i
    ndust
    rywor
    ker
    s.
    4.Nochoi
    cef
    orgi
    rl
    singet
    ti
    ngmar
    ri
    edi
    nmaj
    ori
    tyofcases.
    5.Womenar
    ehel
    dresponsi
    blef
    orgi
    vi
    ngbi
    rt
    htogi
    rl
    s.
    Gi
    rlChi
    ld
    Gi
    rlchi
    l
    disnotenj
    oyi
    ngal
    lri
    ght
    sinPaki
    stan.Fr
    om t
    het
    imeofconcept
    iont
    il
    lher
    adol
    escencesher
    emai
    nsundert
    hreat
    .Thegi
    rlchi
    l
    dhasnoequaloppor
    tuni
    tyi
    nthe
    soci
    ety
    .Theyhav
    eli
    mit
    edoppor
    tuni
    ti
    esf
    orpr
    imar
    yandsecondar
    yeducat
    ion.They
    hav
    elessaccesst
    opl
    aygr
    ound,soci
    alf
    unct
    ionsandot
    hercommuni
    tyact
    ivi
    ti
    esas
    compar
    edt
    othei
    rmal
    epar
    tner
    s.Of
    tengi
    rlchi
    l
    drenar
    esol
    dandbar
    ter
    edandgi
    venso
    compensat
    ionst
    oresol
    vef
    ami
    l
    yandt
    ri
    bal
    feuds.
    Gi
    rl
    sar
    eal
    sogi
    venas“
    Blood-
    Money
    ”toset
    tl
    ecr
    imessuchasmur
    der
    ,andar
    e
    expl
    oit
    edsexual
    l
    yandphy
    sical
    l
    y.Ahugenumberofgi
    rlchi
    l
    drenar
    eli
    vi
    ngundert
    hreat
    andneedhel
    p.I
    tisal
    sodi
    stur
    bingt
    onot
    ethatt
    radi
    ti
    onsl
    i
    keVANI
    ,SWARA,WATTA
    SATTA,
    DUNDEE,
    KAROKARIandot
    herki
    ndofact
    ivi
    ti
    esdi
    rect
    edt
    ogi
    rlchi
    l
    d.
    MenopausalWomen
    Themaj
    ori
    tyofmenopausalwomenhav
    enoaccesst
    oheal
    thcar
    einPaki
    stan.For
    menopausalwomenl
    i
    vingi
    nrur
    alar
    easandci
    tysl
    umsf
    acepr
    obl
    emsassoci
    atedwi
    th
    Ost
    eopor
    osi
    s.Menopausalel
    der
    lywomenhav
    eal
    sol
    i
    mit
    edaccesst
    oheal
    thf
    aci
    l
    iti
    es.
    Theyar
    evi
    cti
    msofquacker
    yast
    heyof
    tenr
    ecei
    veunsci
    ent
    if
    ict
    reat
    mentf
    rom dai
    sand
    quacksbecauseofeconomi
    creason.
    Abor
    ti
    on
    Un-
    saf
    einducedabor
    ti
    oni
    samaj
    orcauseofwomensuf
    fer
    ingi
    nPaki
    stan.Heal
    th

    149|Page
    pr
    ofessi
    onal
    s,notwel
    l
    -sensi
    ti
    ze,aboutt
    hecar
    eofwomenwi
    thi
    nducedabor
    ti
    onand
    mi
    scar
    ri
    age.Est
    imat
    ed abor
    ti
    on pery
    eari
    s appr
    oxi
    mat
    ely1 mi
    l
    li
    on (
    Nat
    uraland
    i
    nduced)
    .Medi
    calst
    udent
    s,nur
    ses,mi
    dwi
    vesandheal
    thwor
    ker
    sshoul
    dbesensi
    ti
    ze
    aboutt
    hismaj
    orheal
    thr
    elat
    edi
    ssuebychangei
    ncur
    ri
    cul
    um.
    Anemi
    ainWomen
    Anemi
    ainwomeni
    sver
    ycommoni
    nlow soci
    oeconomi
    calcl
    ass.Anemi
    adur
    ing
    pr
    egnancyi
    sassoci
    atedwi
    thmat
    ernaldeat
    handmor
    bidi
    ty.I
    rondef
    ici
    entnut
    ri
    ti
    oni
    s
    maj
    orl
    yresponsi
    blef
    oranemi
    a.Lackofpr
    opersewer
    agesy
    stem andcl
    eanwat
    eri
    sa
    causeofwor
    minf
    est
    ati
    onwhi
    chcausesi
    rondef
    ici
    ency(
    anemi
    a)i
    nwomenl
    i
    vingi
    nci
    ty
    sl
    umsandr
    ural
    areas.
    Li
    ter
    acyRat
    e
    Anot
    hermaj
    ori
    ssuei
    sthatl
    i
    ter
    acyr
    ateofr
    uralwomen i
    sver
    ylow.Shecannot
    under
    standcompl
    i
    cat
    ionsofr
    epr
    oduct
    ivecy
    cleandf
    aceal
    otofpr
    obl
    emswhi
    chnot
    onl
    ydi
    stur
    bherf
    ami
    l
    ybutal
    soaf
    fectt
    hedev
    elopmentofPaki
    stan.Women’
    seducat
    ion
    i
    snotonl
    yimpor
    tantf
    ormot
    her
    ’sheal
    thbutv
    eryi
    mpor
    tantf
    orherbaby
    .Av
    ail
    abl
    e
    i
    nfor
    mat
    ionf
    rom 68count
    ri
    eswi
    thdat
    aonl
    esst
    hanf
    ivemor
    tal
    i
    tiesbymot
    her
    ’s
    educat
    ioni
    ndi
    cat
    est
    hatawomen’
    seducat
    ioni
    sakeyf
    act
    ori
    ndet
    ermi
    ningwhet
    her
    t
    hei
    rchi
    l
    drenwi
    l
    lsur
    viv
    epastt
    hef
    ir
    stf
    ivey
    ear
    sofl
    i
    fe.
    Concer
    nsofWomen
    Br
    east
    ,cer
    vical
    ,ov
    ari
    anandcol
    oncancer
    sar
    ethel
    eadi
    ngcausesofwomen’
    sdeat
    hin
    Paki
    stan.Thedepar
    tmentofheal
    thhasnoscr
    eeni
    ngpr
    ogr
    am t
    opr
    eventbr
    east
    ,ov
    ari
    an,
    col
    onandcer
    vicalcancer
    sint
    hecount
    ry.Chemot
    her
    apyi
    sext
    remel
    yexpensi
    veandi
    t
    i
    snotpossi
    blef
    orwoment
    oaf
    for
    dthi
    ski
    ndofexpensi
    vet
    her
    apy
    .
    Radi
    other
    apyi
    sav
    ail
    abl
    efr
    eeofcosti
    ngov
    ernmenthospi
    tal
    sbutt
    heyar
    e
    cr
    owdedwi
    thpat
    ient
    s.Sot
    her
    eisn’
    tanyki
    ndofpossi
    bil
    i
    tyt
    opr
    ovi
    dequal
    i
    tyt
    reat
    ment
    .
    Womeni
    nCommuni
    tyandVi
    olenceagai
    nstWomen
    Womenar
    efaci
    ngext
    remesoci
    alcondi
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    nat
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    por
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    Vi
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    nstwomeni
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    l
    li
    ngwomeni
    nthe

    150|Page
    nameofhonorandf
    ami
    l
    ytr
    adi
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    Domest
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    her
    eisnohel
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    stoi
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    Resear
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    iti
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    ty
    Paki
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    elopi
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    l
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    Iti
    ssai
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    obl
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    I
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    ght
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    edgest
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    ionatl
    eastupt
    ogr
    aduat
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    seducat
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    orsshoul
    dbeappoi
    ntedi
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    uralar
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    stani
    ssai
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    oducesome14,
    000doct
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    .Thr
    ough
    r
    esear
    chwewi
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    if
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    eresour
    cesmustbeal
    l
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    ed,
    equi
    tabl
    y.
    Ther
    eshoul
    d bea hospi
    tali
    n ev
    eryv
    il
    lage.Heal
    tht
    o women i
    sresponsi
    bil
    i
    tyof
    gov
    ernmentandbasi
    cheal
    thandemer
    gencyheal
    thcar
    eshoul
    dbeav
    ail
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    etot
    hem
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    thoutanycost
    .A count
    ryhasno f
    utur
    ewi
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    unheal
    thyandbat
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    Paki
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    ces,r
    esear
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    t
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    gencybasi
    s.

    151|Page
    GenderandGov
    ernance

     
    Def
    ini
    ngGov
    ernance

    Gov
    ernancer
    efer
    stodeci
    sion-
    maki
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    edpeopl
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    i
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    ordi
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    y'ci
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    hav
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    rli
    ves,ont
    her
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    t
    heyar
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    edt
    oabi
    deby
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    hest
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    urest
    hatdet
    ermi
    newher
    eandhowt
    hey
    wor
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    soshapehowpubl
    i
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    cesar
    eal
    l
    ocat
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    herser
    vices
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    akeaccountofbot
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    sandmen'
    sneedsandi
    nter
    est
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    Yetwomenar
    eof
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    sion-
    maki
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    hehi
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    ernmentand bey
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    ocesses -
    emphasi
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    anspar
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    beameanst
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    Packhopest
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    ret
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    ernance,
    incl
    udi
    nghowwecanensur
    e
    t
    hatt
    hepr
    inci
    plesofi
    ncl
    usi
    ve,account
    abl
    egov
    ernancegobey
    ondr
    het
    ori
    c.I
    tincl
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    anOv
    erv
    iewRepor
    tout
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    l
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    Resour
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    elopmentI
    nBr
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    nwi
    tht
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    shor
    tar
    ti
    clesont
    het
    heme.

    152|Page
    TheRel
    ati
    onshi
    pbet
    weenGenderandGov
    ernance

    Wi
    tht
    hei
    rfocusondemocr
    acy
    ,tr
    anspar
    ency
    ,account
    abi
    l
    ity
    ,incl
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    pand
    par
    ti
    cipat
    orypr
    ocessest
    her
    eishugepot
    ent
    iali
    nthei
    deasandpr
    act
    icesofgov
    ernance
    t
    ocat
    aly
    ser
    ealchangei
    nter
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    i
    ty.Howev
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    erv
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    tpoi
    ntst
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    elat
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    herf
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    l
    t
    i
    ntogov
    erni
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    uti
    onsf
    orcent
    uri
    es.

    I
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    guest
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    i
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    nthesedeci
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    hei
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    .Ther
    ehasbeensomepr
    ogr
    essi
    nredr
    essi
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    i
    mbal
    ancei
    nnat
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    ocalgov
    ernancepr
    ocessesandi
    nst
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    uti
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    y,
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    oralr
    efor
    m hasmeantt
    hei
    ncl
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    ngov
    ernmenti
    nst
    it
    uti
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    par
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    evel
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    hesemechani
    smsdonotguar
    ant
    eequal
    i
    tyandequal
    i
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    ofpar
    ti
    cipat
    ioni
    ngov
    ernancei
    nst
    it
    uti
    onsandpr
    ocesses.

    Ther
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    ionshi
    pbet
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    ernancehast
    ooof
    tenbeennegl
    ect
    edi
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    k.Unt
    ilv
    eryr
    ecent
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    uent
    ialpol
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    houghthas
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    l
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    ualdi
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    ween t
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    publ
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    c”r
    eal
    m ofpol
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    nist
    rat
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    he“
    pri
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    ami
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    icl
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    Women’
    srol
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    nawi
    der
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    radi
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    ntheor
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    hem,
    hast
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    cal
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    atedwi
    tht
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    pri
    vat
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    eal
    m,andmen’
    srol
    ewi
    tht
    he“
    publ
    i
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    r
    eal
    m.Thepubl
    i
    c/pr
    ivat
    edi
    sti
    nct
    ionhasbeent
    hor
    oughl
    ycr
    it
    ici
    zedasbei
    ngi
    nmany
    way
    smi
    sleadi
    ngandunt
    enabl
    e.

    Nonet
    hel
    ess,i
    tcont
    inuest
    oinf
    luencebot
    htheor
    eti
    calandempi
    ri
    calwor
    k,wi
    tht
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    r
    esul
    tthatwomen’
    sef
    for
    tst
    ogai
    nav
    oicei
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    ernancehav
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    tenbeeni
    gnor
    ed.
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    sai
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    ecor
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    rai
    ght
    .Theyadv
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    heor
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    ruct
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    h
    posi
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    mat
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    wit
    hinwhi
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    ionofgender
    edgov
    ernancemayusef
    ull
    y
    bepur
    sued.Theyal
    soanal
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    elopment
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    ingi
    ngov
    ernance,i
    nbot
    hgov
    ernmentandt
    he

    153|Page
    i
    nst
    it
    uti
    onsofci
    vi
    lsoci
    ety
    ,andt
    heobst
    acl
    est
    hatr
    emai
    n.

    GenderI
    nequal
    it
    yandGov
    ernance

    Genderequal
    i
    tydependsondemocr
    ati
    candgender
    -sensi
    ti
    vegov
    ernancesi
    ncet
    ypi
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    women,whoar
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    ginal
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    rom t
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    i
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    nist
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    f
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    eingov
    ernance.Mor
    eimpor
    tant
    ly,t
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    akest
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    omakechangest
    oensur
    ethatgov
    ernancei
    sgender
    -sensi
    ti
    ve.Asa
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    esul
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    aws,
    pol
    i
    ciesandgov
    ernmenti
    nst
    it
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    efl
    ectt
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    vet
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    agi
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    ogr
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    otect
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    sri
    ght
    s.

    Somewomenmayf
    eelt
    hatt
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    ti
    cipat
    eint
    hepubl
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    nst
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    npubl
    i
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    fe.

    UNagenci
    esl
    i
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    FEM andot
    hernon-
    gov
    ernment
    alor
    gani
    sat
    ionsi
    nvest
    i
    npr
    ogr
    ammest
    hatst
    rat
    egi
    cal
    l
    ybui
    l
    dthecapaci
    tyofwomenanddemocr
    ati
    csy
    stems
    t
    o encour
    age women'
    s pol
    i
    ticalempower
    ment
    .Impr
    ovi
    ng l
    i
    ter
    acy
    ,tr
    aini
    ng f
    utur
    e
    womenl
    eader
    sandhel
    pingwomeni
    ntoal
    llev
    elsofgov
    ernmentar
    ekeyt
    ool
    s.I
    n
    addi
    ti
    on,ensur
    ingt
    hatl
    egi
    slat
    ioni
    sgender
    -sensi
    ti
    vei
    sal
    soapr
    ior
    it
    y.Genderj
    ust
    ice
    r
    equi
    resev
    erydi
    mensi
    onofj
    ust
    icet
    oincor
    por
    ategenderper
    spect
    ives.I
    trest
    supont
    he
    f
    ullpar
    ti
    cipat
    ion ofwomen i
    n shapi
    ng l
    egali
    nst
    it
    uti
    onst
    hatpr
    omot
    ethei
    rri
    ght
    s,
    equal
    i
    tyandi
    ncl
    usi
    on.UNI
    FEM suppor
    tswomen’
    sef
    for
    tst
    ochangedi
    scr
    imi
    nat
    oryl
    aws,
    addr
    ess v
    iol
    ati
    ons ofhuman r
    ight
    s and warcr
    imes,and el
    i
    minat
    ethe i
    njust
    ices
    st
    emmi
    ngf
    rom pol
    i
    tical
    ,economi
    candsoci
    ali
    nequal
    i
    ties.

    Howgender
    -sensi
    ti
    vear
    ecur
    rentgov
    ernancei
    nst
    it
    uti
    onsandpr
    ocesses?

    I
    tisdi
    ff
    icul
    ttogener
    ali
    sebutcer
    tai
    nmar
    ker
    sindi
    cat
    ethat
    ,despi
    tegov
    ernancer
    efor
    ms,
    t
    her
    ehasbeenaf
    undament
    alf
    ail
    uret
    ochal
    l
    engeent
    renchedunequalgender
    edpower
    r
    elat
    ionsandot
    herf
    ormsofexcl
    usi
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    hathav
    ebeeni
    nbui
    l
    tingov
    erni
    ngpr
    ocesses
    andi
    nst
    it
    uti
    ons.Suchmar
    ker
    sincl
    ude:

    154|Page
    GenderI
    mbal
    anceI
    nDeci
    sion-
    Maki
    ng

    ender
    -sensi
    ti
    ver
    efor
    msi
    nnat
    ionalandl
    ocalgov
    ernmenti
    nthef
    orm ofel
    ect
    oralquot
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    sy
    stemsandt
    heest
    abl
    i
    shmentofwomen‟
    smi
    nist
    ri
    eshav
    eresul
    tedi
    nsomepr
    ogr
    ess
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    nachi
    evi
    ngabet
    tergenderbal
    ancei
    ngov
    ernance–f
    orexampl
    e,t
    hef
    actt
    hatRwanda
    hasoneoft
    hehi
    ghest
    fi
    gur
    esf
    orwomen‟
    srepr
    esent
    ati
    oni
    nit
    snat
    ionalassembl
    yis
    l
    argel
    yduet
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    i
    cat
    ionofquot
    as.Howev
    er,t
    her
    ear
    est
    il
    lfarf
    ewerwoment
    han
    meni
    ndeci
    sion-
    maki
    ngposi
    ti
    onsatgl
    obal
    ,nat
    ionalandl
    ocall
    evel
    sofgov
    ernance–
    i
    ncl
    udi
    ngt
    hemi
    cro-
    lev
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    d.

    WhoAr
    eTheDeci
    sion-
    Maker
    s?

     Thewor
    ldav
    erageofwomeni
    nPar
    li
    ament
    sinApr
    il2008wasonl
    y17.
    8percent
    ,
    wi
    tht
    hehi
    ghestnumberi
    nNor
    diccount
    ri
    es(
    41.
    4percent
    )andt
    hel
    owesti
    nthe
    Paci
    fi
    candAr
    abst
    ates.

     Ther
    ewer
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    emal
    epr
    esi
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    nIndi
    a,I
    rel
    and,Fi
    nland,t
    hePhi
    l
    ippi
    nes,Li
    ber
    ia,
    Chi
    l
    e,Ar
    gent
    ina,
    Bosni
    aHer
    zegov
    inaandReuni
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    ivef
    emal
    epr
    imemi
    nist
    ers
    (
    inNewZeal
    and,
    Mozambi
    que,
    Ger
    many
    ,Ukr
    aineandMol
    dov
    a)asof2008.

     I
    nthehi
    ghestdeci
    sion-
    maki
    ngbodi
    esofEUcent
    ralbankst
    her
    ear
    efi
    vet
    imesas
    manymenaswomen.

     Acr
    ossUNagenci
    es,bet
    ween1999and2007,t
    heshar
    eoff
    emal
    eSecr
    etar
    iatst
    aff
    i
    npr
    ofessi
    onalandhi
    ghercat
    egor
    iesi
    ncr
    easedbyanav
    erageofonl
    y0.
    35percent
    pery
    earbet
    ween2004and2006,i
    nspi
    teoft
    heUN‟
    scommi
    tmentt
    oa50–50
    genderbal
    ancei
    nit
    sst
    aff

    Womenar
    enott
    reat
    edequal
    lyi
    ngov
    ernancei
    nst
    it
    uti
    onsandpr
    ocesses

    Ev
    en when women ar
    e act
    ivel
    yinv
    olv
    ed i
    n gov
    ernance,t
    hei
    rst
    ruggl
    eforequal
    t
    reat
    mentandr
    ecogni
    ti
    oni
    snotov
    er.Womenar
    eof
    tenkeptont
    hemar
    ginsofdeci
    sion
    -
    maki
    ngi
    ngov
    ernment
    ,conf
    inedt
    o„sof
    t‟pol
    i
    cyar
    eassuchasheal
    thandeducat
    ion.
    Exi
    sti
    ngsy
    stemsofgov
    ernancer
    einf
    orcet
    hismar
    ginal
    i
    sat
    ion,
    wit
    himpor
    tantdeci
    sions
    of
    tenmadebet
    weenmeni
    ncl
    osed„
    innerci
    rcl
    es‟

    155|Page
    .Gov
    ernancei
    nst
    it
    uti
    onsal
    socont
    inuet
    odi
    scr
    imi
    nat
    eagai
    nstl
    esbi
    an,gay
    ,bi
    sexual
    andt
    ransgender(
    LGBT)peopl
    eont
    hegr
    oundsoft
    hei
    rsexual
    i
    ty.Thesef
    ormsof
    mar
    ginal
    i
    sat
    ionar
    ejustaspr
    eval
    enti
    nlocalgov
    ernmentandpr
    ocessesdesi
    gnedt
    o
    i
    ncl
    udeor
    dinar
    yci
    ti
    zensast
    heyar
    einnat
    ional
    andgl
    obal
    inst
    it
    uti
    ons.

    Gov
    ernancei
    nst
    it
    uti
    onsf
    ail
    tot
    akewomen’
    s‘doubl
    ebur
    den’
    int
    oaccount

    The wor
    king ar
    rangement
    s of gov
    ernance i
    nst
    it
    uti
    ons ar
    e usual
    l
    y
    i
    nfl
    exi
    ble,maki
    ngi
    tver
    ydi
    ff
    icul
    tforwoment
    obal
    ancewor
    kwi
    tht
    headdi
    ti
    onalcar
    ing
    r
    esponsi
    bil
    i
    tiest
    heyar
    eof
    tenexpect
    edt
    otakeon.Thi
    sisast
    ruef
    orci
    ti
    zen-
    focused
    par
    ti
    cipat
    orypr
    ocessesasi
    tisf
    orst
    ate-
    lev
    eland gl
    obali
    nst
    it
    uti
    ons.Gov
    ernance
    pol
    i
    ciesf
    ailt
    ochal
    l
    engegenderi
    nequal
    i
    tiesandt
    otaket
    hedi
    ff
    erentneedsofmenand
    womeni
    ntoaccount-Asar
    esul
    toft
    hesei
    nequal
    i
    tiesi
    ndeci
    sion-
    maki
    ng,gov
    ernance
    pol
    i
    ciesof
    tenr
    emai
    nbl
    i
    ndt
    othedi
    ff
    erentneedsofmenandwomen.

    Forexampl
    e,t
    her
    eisav
    astamountofev
    idencei
    ndi
    cat
    ingt
    hatwomenandot
    her
    mar
    ginal
    i
    sedgr
    oupshav
    ebeennegat
    ivel
    yaf
    fect
    edbyt
    radepol
    i
    cyl
    edbyt
    heWTO.At
    t
    hel
    ocall
    evel
    ,ser
    vicessuchast
    hepr
    ovi
    sionofheal
    th,wat
    erandeducat
    ionof
    tenst
    il
    l
    f
    ail
    tomeett
    heneedsofwomenandmen.

    Poori
    nst
    it
    uti
    onal
    account
    abi
    li
    tyongenderequal
    it
    yandwomen’
    sri
    ght
    s

    Ev
    en when i
    nst
    it
    uti
    ons commi
    tto genderequal
    i
    tyi
    nthei
    rpol
    i
    cies and
    pr
    act
    icesbyr
    ati
    fyi
    ngCEDAW,dev
    elopi
    ngagenderequal
    i
    tyact
    ionpl
    anorpr
    omot
    ing
    gender
    -sensi
    ti
    veel
    ect
    oralr
    efor
    m,t
    heyof
    tenf
    ailt
    otaker
    esponsi
    bil
    i
    tyf
    ort
    hese.Ther
    e
    canbemanyr
    easonsf
    ort
    his,i
    ncl
    udi
    ngi
    nfl
    exi
    bil
    i
    tywi
    thi
    nthei
    nst
    it
    uti
    on,butamaj
    or
    f
    act
    ori
    sof
    tent
    hatt
    her
    ear
    enocl
    earmechani
    smsi
    npl
    acet
    oensur
    ethatgender
    equal
    i
    tyr
    emai
    nsapr
    ior
    it
    y.Andgenderequal
    i
    tymaynotbeani
    ndi
    cat
    oragai
    nstwhi
    ch
    t
    heper
    for
    manceofgov
    ernanceact
    orsi
    sassessed.

    Whatar
    ether
    oot
    soft
    hegenderi
    mbal
    ancei
    ngov
    ernance?

    Whi
    l
    emanyr
    easonshav
    ebeeni
    dent
    if
    iedf
    ort
    hegenderi
    mbal
    ancei
    ngov
    ernance,t
    he

    156|Page
    mostcommonar
    gumenti
    sthatt
    hedi
    vi
    sionbet
    ween„
    publ
    i
    c‟and„
    pri
    vat
    e‟spaceshas
    cr
    eat
    edabar
    ri
    ert
    owomen‟
    spar
    ti
    cipat
    ioni
    ngov
    ernance.Pol
    i
    ticshast
    radi
    ti
    onal
    l
    ybeen
    consi
    der
    edamal
    ear
    enabecausei
    toper
    atesi
    nthepubl
    i
    cdomai
    n,whi
    l
    einmany
    soci
    eti
    es women ar
    e expect
    ed t
    orest
    ri
    ctt
    hei
    ract
    ivi
    ti
    es t
    othe househol
    d and
    i
    mmedi
    atecommuni
    ty.

    I
    tisi
    mpor
    tantt
    obeari
    nmi
    ndt
    hatt
    hesedi
    sti
    nct
    ionsbet
    weenpr
    ivat
    eandpubl
    i
    car
    enot
    „
    giv
    ens‟–t
    heyar
    ethemsel
    vespar
    tofasetofaccept
    edi
    deasaboutt
    hemal
    eand
    f
    emal
    epl
    acei
    nsoci
    etyt
    hathav
    ebeenf
    requent
    lyusedasaj
    ust
    if
    icat
    ion–of
    tenby
    par
    tner
    s,f
    ami
    l
    ies,communi
    ti
    esandwoment
    hemsel
    ves–f
    orwomen‟
    sabsencef
    rom
    publ
    i
    cli
    fe.

    Thepubl
    i
    c–pr
    ivat
    ear
    gumentdoesl
    i
    ttl
    etocount
    eractf
    ixedv
    iewsonf
    emal
    eandmal
    e
    soci
    alr
    oles,and may concealgenderi
    nequal
    i
    ties wi
    thi
    n househol
    d or„
    fami
    l
    y‟
    gov
    ernance t
    hatmay pr
    eventwomen f
    rom becomi
    ng i
    nvol
    ved i
    n mor
    efor
    mal
    gov
    ernancei
    nst
    it
    uti
    onsandpr
    ocesses.

    Thesei
    nequal
    i
    tiesmayber
    einf
    orcedbycul
    tur
    alorr
    eli
    giouspr
    act
    ices–f
    orexampl
    ein
    somecount
    ri
    est
    her
    ear
    est
    ri
    ctr
    ulesabouti
    nter
    act
    ionsbet
    weenmenandwomenwho
    ar
    enotr
    elat
    ed.Andwomenmaybepr
    event
    edf
    rom v
    oti
    ngor21par
    ti
    cipat
    ingi
    not
    her
    aspect
    sofgov
    ernancebymal
    epar
    tner
    sorr
    elat
    iveswhoar
    econcer
    nedt
    hei
    rsoci
    al
    powerwi
    l
    lbe er
    oded i
    fthei
    rwi
    ves,daught
    ers ormot
    her
    s ar
    e equalpar
    tner
    sin
    t
    radi
    ti
    onal
    l
    ymal
    ear
    enas.

    Ther
    ear
    eot
    herext
    ernalconst
    rai
    ntst
    hatpr
    eventwomenf
    rom bei
    ngf
    ull
    yint
    egr
    atedi
    nto
    gov
    ernancest
    ruct
    ures,i
    ncl
    udi
    ngl
    ackoff
    inanci
    alr
    esour
    ces,l
    ackofconf
    idenceanda
    l
    ackofper
    sonal
    orf
    ami
    l
    ycont
    act
    sof
    tenneededt
    o„makei
    t‟i
    ntogov
    ernanceposi
    ti
    ons.
    Gender
    -sensi
    ti
    vegov
    ernancer
    efor
    ms,
    suchasgenderquot
    as,
    hav
    efaci
    l
    itat
    edwomen‟
    s
    ent
    ryi
    ntopol
    i
    ticst
    oanext
    ent
    ,butar
    econsi
    der
    edbymanyt
    obeani
    mper
    fectand
    super
    fi
    cial
    sol
    uti
    ont
    hatdonott
    ackl
    ether
    oot
    sofunequal
    access

    Whatar
    ethesoci
    alr
    oot
    sofgenderi
    nequal
    it
    yingov
    ernance?

    Thel
    ownumberofwomenengagedi
    ngov
    ernancei
    nst
    it
    uti
    onspar
    tl
    yfuel
    spoorl
    evel
    s

    157|Page
    ofcommi
    tmentt
    ochal
    l
    engi
    nggenderi
    nequal
    i
    ty,butexi
    sti
    ngsoci
    ali
    nequal
    i
    tiesand
    unequal
    l
    ygender
    edpowerr
    elat
    ionsatt
    hemi
    crol
    evelal
    sopr
    esentbar
    ri
    erst
    ochange
    wi
    thi
    nthesei
    nst
    it
    uti
    ons.Househol
    ds‟i
    mpl
    i
    citgov
    ernancest
    ruct
    uresr
    evol
    vear
    ound
    deci
    si
    on-
    maki
    ngpower
    ,fr
    om whi
    chwomenmaybeexcl
    uded.Communi
    ti
    esof
    tenhav
    e
    soci
    alr
    ulesandi
    nfor
    mal
    gov
    ernancepr
    ocessest
    hatmaydi
    ff
    erf
    rom t
    hosepr
    omot
    edby
    nat
    ional
    orl
    ocal
    gov
    ernment
    .

    I
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    swor
    kingi
    ngov
    ernancei
    nst
    it
    uti
    onsl
    i
    vei
    nhousehol
    dsandcommuni
    ti
    esand
    br
    ingv
    aluesandexper
    iencesf
    rom t
    hisspher
    etonegot
    iat
    ionsandwor
    kingr
    elat
    ionshi
    ps.
    Forexampl
    e,menwho r
    ecei
    vemor
    epr
    ivi
    l
    egest
    hant
    hef
    emal
    emember
    soft
    hei
    r
    f
    ami
    l
    iesmayassumet
    hisshoul
    dal
    sobet
    hecaseatwor
    k.Si
    mil
    arl
    y,per
    cept
    ionsoft
    he
    r
    oleswomenshoul
    dpl
    ayi
    ngov
    ernancemaybecol
    our
    edbyt
    her
    olest
    heyar
    eexpect
    ed
    t
    opl
    aywi
    thi
    nthehousehol
    dandcommuni
    ty.

    Gov
    ernanceCannotBeEf
    fect
    iveUnl
    essI
    tHasGenderEqual
    it
    yAtI
    tsCent
    re

    Gov
    ernancemustl
    eadt
    oamor
    eequi
    tabl
    ewor
    ld,
    wher
    ewomenal
    sohav
    echoi
    cesand
    t
    hei
    rri
    ght
    sar
    ereal
    i
    sed.I
    tcannotbeef
    fect
    ivei
    fther
    eisnounder
    standi
    ngoft
    he
    di
    ff
    eri
    ngneedsofwomenandmeni
    npubl
    i
    cspendi
    ng,pol
    i
    cies,l
    egi
    slat
    ionandt
    reat
    ies.
    Norcani
    tbeef
    fect
    ivei
    fwomencannotexer
    ciset
    hei
    rri
    ghtt
    opar
    ti
    cipat
    eequal
    l
    yint
    he
    deci
    si
    onst
    hataf
    fectt
    hei
    rli
    ves.I
    nshor
    t,gov
    ernancecannotbeef
    fect
    ive,or„
    good‟
    ,
    unl
    essi
    tisgendersensi
    ti
    ve.

    WhatI
    sGender
    -Sensi
    ti
    veGov
    ernance?

    „
    Transf
    ormat
    ionr
    equi
    resmor
    eext
    ensi
    vechanget
    hansi
    mpl
    yincr
    easi
    ngt
    hei
    nfl
    uence
    ofpr
    evi
    ousl
    yexcl
    uded gr
    oups.I
    nter
    pret
    ati
    ons ofgender
    -sensi
    ti
    ve gov
    ernance wi
    l
    l
    dependont
    hei
    nst
    it
    uti
    onsconcer
    nedandt
    hei
    runder
    standi
    ngofgov
    ernance.Br
    oadl
    y,
    gender
    -sensi
    ti
    vegov
    ernancebegi
    nswi
    thput
    ti
    nggenderequal
    i
    tyandsoci
    alj
    ust
    ice
    i
    ssuesati
    tscent
    re.I
    tneedst
    orecogni
    set
    hedi
    ff
    erentneeds,i
    nter
    est
    s,pr
    ior
    it
    iesand
    r
    esponsi
    bil
    i
    tiesofmenandwomenandchal
    l
    engeent
    renchedgenderi
    nequal
    i
    ties.

    Genderequal
    i
    tyi
    ssues,suchasequalpay
    ,women‟
    sri
    ghtt
    opar
    ti
    cipat
    eindeci
    sion-
    maki
    ng,domest
    icv
    iol
    ence,andt
    her
    ecogni
    ti
    onofunpai
    dcar
    ewor
    k,mustbet
    aken

    158|Page
    ser
    iousl
    y.I
    tsi
    nst
    it
    uti
    onsandpr
    ocessesneedt
    obedesi
    gnedt
    oident
    if
    yandi
    ntegr
    ate
    genderdi
    ff
    erencesi
    nto al
    laspect
    sofdeci
    sion-
    maki
    ng so t
    hatpol
    i
    cies,pl
    ansand
    pr
    ogr
    ammesequal
    l
    ybenef
    ital
    lwomenandmenacr
    osssoci
    eti
    es.I
    mpor
    tant
    ly,gender
    -
    sensi
    ti
    vegov
    ernancemeanswomenandmenmusthav
    eequali
    nvol
    vementi
    npl
    anni
    ng
    andi
    mpl
    ement
    ingt
    hesei
    nst
    it
    uti
    onsandpr
    ocesses.Asnot
    edi
    nchapt
    er1,wor
    kon
    genderand gov
    ernance t
    ends t
    o equat
    eincr
    eased r
    epr
    esent
    ati
    on ofwomen i
    n
    gov
    ernmentwi
    thmor
    egender
    -sensi
    ti
    vegov
    ernance.

    Cer
    tai
    nly
    ,enabl
    i
    ng a di
    ver
    se,“
    cri
    ti
    calmass”(
    Ashwor
    th 1996)ofwomen t
    o ent
    er
    gov
    ernmentv
    iamechani
    smssuchasquot
    asy
    stems,enabl
    i
    ngt
    hem t
    oexer
    ciset
    hei
    r
    ci
    ti
    zenshi
    pbyv
    oti
    ngandbepar
    tofnat
    ionalandl
    ocaldeci
    sion-
    maki
    ngbodi
    esi
    sagood
    st
    art
    ingpoi
    nt–notl
    eastbecauset
    hismaycr
    eat
    eenoughst
    rengt
    hinnumber
    stomake
    i
    timpossi
    blet
    oignor
    ewomen‟
    scol
    l
    ect
    ivedemandsort
    hegender
    -f
    ocusedconcer
    nsof
    cer
    tai
    ngr
    oups.I
    nvol
    vi
    ngwomeni
    ntheaccount
    abi
    l
    itypr
    ocessest
    hatar
    eli
    nkedt
    o
    i
    nit
    iat
    ivespr
    omot
    ingef
    fect
    iveor„
    good‟gov
    ernancei
    sal
    soani
    mpor
    tantst
    epf
    orwar
    d.
    Buti
    tshoul
    dnotbeassumedt
    hatt
    heset
    ypesofst
    rat
    egi
    eswi
    l
    laut
    omat
    ical
    l
    yresul
    tin
    gender
    -sensi
    ti
    vegov
    ernance.Tobeef
    fect
    ive,suchst
    rat
    egi
    esneedt
    ober
    oot
    edi
    na
    changeofcul
    tur
    eacr
    ossgov
    ernancei
    nst
    it
    uti
    ons,pr
    ocessesandr
    elat
    ionshi
    ps.
    These
    changesneedt
    ohappenatal
    llev
    els,f
    rom gl
    obalgov
    ernancet
    othehousehol
    d,and
    f
    rom school
    stot
    hemedi
    a.

    Achi
    evi
    ng t
    hese changes r
    equi
    res a mul
    ti
    -di
    mensi
    onalappr
    oach whi
    ch i
    nvol
    ves
    assessi
    ng cur
    rentgenderi
    mbal
    ances and bar
    ri
    erst
    o women‟
    s par
    ti
    cipat
    ion,and
    dev
    elopi
    ngef
    fect
    ivesol
    uti
    ons.I
    fagenci
    esandi
    nst
    it
    uti
    onsatanyl
    evel
    areser
    iousabout
    achi
    evi
    ngamor
    egender
    -sensi
    ti
    veappr
    oacht
    ogov
    ernance,t
    heyneedt
    ost
    artwi
    tht
    he
    concept
    sthemsel
    ves–whati
    sthei
    rdef
    ini
    ti
    onofgender
    -sensi
    ti
    vegov
    ernanceandhow
    ar
    etheyf
    rami
    ng t
    hei
    rgoal
    s?Second,t
    heyneed t
    o cr
    it
    ical
    l
    yanal
    yse t
    he v
    ari
    ous
    el
    ement
    sthatconst
    it
    utet
    he„
    what
    ‟ofgov
    ernance–t
    hemechani
    smst
    hroughwhi
    ch
    gov
    ernancei
    s„done‟
    .Theseel
    ement
    scanbebr
    okendownbr
    oadl
    yint
    o:i
    nst
    it
    uti
    onsand
    pr
    ocessesofgov
    ernanceandt
    hehumanr
    elat
    ionshi
    pswi
    thi
    nandbet
    weeni
    nst
    it
    uti
    ons.
    Theyal
    soneedt
    ocar
    eful
    l
    yconsi
    dert
    hepr
    inci
    plesagai
    nstwhi
    cht
    heyassesst
    he„
    how‟
    ort
    hequal
    i
    tyofgov
    ernance.

    159|Page
    Towhatext
    entdoest
    hewayt
    heyunder
    standandputpr
    inci
    plesofaccount
    abi
    l
    ity
    ,
    r
    esponsi
    venessandsooni
    ntopr
    act
    icer
    efl
    ectt
    hesi
    tuat
    ionsofmenandwomen;and
    how gender
    -sensi
    ti
    vear
    ethei
    ndi
    cat
    orsusedt
    omeasur
    egov
    ernanceagai
    nstt
    hese
    pr
    inci
    ples?Fi
    nal
    l
    y,gov
    ernancei
    nst
    it
    uti
    onsandagenci
    esneedt
    oconsi
    dert
    hepr
    act
    ical
    appr
    oachest
    heywi
    l
    luset
    o br
    inggr
    eat
    ergenderequal
    i
    tyt
    othei
    rinst
    it
    uti
    onsand
    pr
    act
    ices,i
    ncl
    udi
    nghow t
    heywi
    l
    lappl
    ymor
    egender
    -awar
    epr
    inci
    plest
    obr
    ingabout
    ef
    fect
    ivegov
    ernance

    Ref
    rami
    ngt
    hegoal
    sofgov
    ernancet
    hroughagenderl
    ens

    Onceor
    gani
    sat
    ionshav
    eacl
    ear
    ernot
    ionoft
    hemechani
    smsofgov
    ernancet
    hatneed
    t
    obegender
    -sensi
    ti
    vet
    oenabl
    echange,
    theyneedt
    ocl
    ari
    fywhatt
    heymeanbygoodor
    ef
    fect
    ive gov
    ernance.Whatar
    ethei
    rgoal
    s ofef
    fect
    ive gov
    ernance,and ar
    ethey
    suf
    fi
    cient
    lyf
    ocusedongenderequal
    i
    ty?Whatar
    ethepr
    inci
    plest
    heyseeascr
    uci
    alf
    or
    achi
    evi
    ngt
    hesegoal
    s,howgender
    edar
    ethei
    runder
    standi
    ngsoft
    hesepr
    inci
    ples,and
    how wi
    l
    ltheyassess pr
    ogr
    ess t
    owar
    ds t
    he goal
    sthr
    ough t
    he appl
    i
    cat
    ion oft
    he
    pr
    inci
    ples?

    Gender
    ingdemocr
    acy

    I
    nst
    it
    uti
    onspr
    omot
    ingdecent
    ral
    i
    sed,democr
    ati
    sedgov
    ernanceappr
    oachesgr
    ounded
    i
    nthegov
    ernancepr
    inci
    plesofaccount
    abi
    l
    ity
    ,tr
    anspar
    ency
    ,incl
    usi
    venessandsoon
    mayseedemocr
    acyasapr
    imar
    ygoal
    .Yet
    ,howgender
    -sensi
    ti
    vei
    sthei
    runder
    standi
    ng
    ofdemocr
    acy
    ?Doesi
    tputr
    ight
    sandequal
    i
    ty–par
    ti
    cul
    arl
    ygenderequal
    i
    ty–ati
    ts
    cent
    re?Doesi
    tspeci
    fyt
    heneedf
    orgov
    ernancei
    nst
    it
    uti
    onst
    obeaccount
    abl
    efort
    hei
    r
    per
    for
    manceonachi
    evi
    nggenderequal
    i
    tyandf
    ort
    hei
    rcommi
    tmentt
    ocr
    eat
    ingequal
    par
    tner
    shi
    psbet
    weenmenandwomeni
    ngov
    ernancepr
    ocesses?Doesi
    tst
    resst
    he
    needf
    orr
    esponsi
    venesst
    omen‟
    sandwomen‟
    sneeds?

    Gender
    ingpov
    ert
    yreduct
    ion

    Thewayi
    nst
    it
    uti
    onsdef
    ineandunder
    standpov
    ert
    ywi
    l
    laf
    fectt
    heef
    fect
    ivenessoft
    hei
    r
    st
    rat
    egi
    esi
    naddr
    essi
    nggenderi
    nequal
    i
    ties.I
    ftheyv
    iewpov
    ert
    yreduct
    ionpur
    elyasan
    i
    ncr
    easei
    nmat
    eri
    algoodsandf
    inanci
    alr
    esour
    cesf
    ori
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    sandsoci
    eti
    es,t
    hey

    160|Page
    maynotaddr
    esst
    hesoci
    aldi
    mensi
    onsofpov
    ert
    y,suchasunequal
    accesst
    oresour
    ces
    oroppor
    tuni
    ti
    es,t
    hatr
    einf
    orcegenderi
    nequal
    i
    ty.Acapabi
    l
    iti
    esappr
    oacht
    opov
    ert
    y,on
    t
    heot
    herhand,r
    equi
    resi
    nst
    it
    uti
    onst
    ofocusonwhet
    herci
    ti
    zenshav
    eequalaccesst
    o
    r
    esour
    cesandoppor
    tuni
    ti
    es,
    incl
    udi
    ngeducat
    ion,
    goodheal
    thandr
    ight
    sandchoi
    ces–
    whi
    ch ar
    e seen as necessar
    yforwel
    l
    -bei
    ng.Accor
    ding t
    othi
    s appr
    oach,gender
    i
    nequal
    i
    tyi
    sanaspectofpov
    ert
    y,andneedst
    obeaddr
    essedbef
    orepov
    ert
    yreduct
    ion
    canbeachi
    eved.

    Gender
    ingt
    her
    eal
    isat
    ionofr
    ight
    s

    I
    nter
    nat
    ionalhumanr
    ight
    slegi
    slat
    ionpr
    ovi
    desaf
    ormalst
    ruct
    ure–asetofuni
    ver
    sal
    „
    nor
    ms‟andst
    andar
    dsagai
    nstwhi
    chcount
    ri
    es‟l
    egi
    slat
    ionandpr
    ocedur
    escanbe
    assessed,al
    bei
    tof
    teni
    nfor
    mal
    l
    y.I
    tisi
    mpor
    tant
    ,howev
    er,t
    hatgov
    ernancei
    nst
    it
    uti
    ons
    addr
    esswomen‟
    sri
    ght
    sexpl
    i
    cit
    ly.Tooof
    ten,r
    ight
    sar
    econsi
    der
    edgender
    neut
    ral–i
    .e.
    t
    hatt
    heyappl
    ytoal
    lpeopl
    eregar
    dlessoft
    hei
    rgender
    .Butwhent
    he„
    ri
    ght
    s-hol
    der
    ‟isa
    woman,t
    heabi
    l
    ityt
    ocl
    aimt
    hoser
    ight
    scanbesi
    gni
    fi
    cant
    lycompr
    omi
    sed.Whi
    l
    ether
    e
    ar
    efew of
    fi
    ci
    alchannel
    sforensur
    ing st
    ates‟compl
    i
    ance,gov
    ernment
    srat
    if
    ying
    conv
    ent
    ionssuchasCEDAW nonet
    hel
    esshav
    eanobl
    i
    gat
    iont
    opr
    omot
    ether
    eal
    i
    sat
    ion
    ofr
    ight
    swi
    thi
    nthei
    rconst
    it
    uenci
    es.Theyar
    eal
    somandat
    edt
    opr
    ovi
    det
    heenabl
    i
    ng
    condi
    ti
    onsf
    orpeopl
    etocl
    aimt
    hei
    rri
    ght
    s,i
    ncl
    udi
    ngnat
    ionall
    awsgr
    oundedi
    nri
    ght
    s,
    democr
    ati
    clegal
    syst
    emsandef
    fect
    iveaccount
    abi
    l
    itymechani
    sms)
    .

    Gender
    ingsoci
    alj
    ust
    ice

    Soci
    alj
    ust
    icer
    efer
    stosoci
    eti
    eswher
    eev
    ery
    oneenj
    oysf
    ullci
    ti
    zenshi
    pandi
    str
    eat
    ed
    wi
    thequalr
    espect
    .Thi
    smeanswomenandmenshoul
    dbeent
    it
    ledt
    oani
    ncome,
    shel
    terandot
    herbasi
    cnecessi
    ti
    es,andt
    hesameoppor
    tuni
    ti
    esandl
    i
    fechances.They
    shoul
    dal
    sonotbesubj
    ectt
    odi
    scr
    imi
    nat
    ionf
    oranyr
    eason.

    Genderequal
    it
    y

    Genderequal
    i
    ty ent
    ail
    s women and men hav
    ing equaloppor
    tuni
    ti
    es and equal
    out
    comesi
    nli
    fe,i
    ncl
    udi
    ngequalaccesst
    o,owner
    shi
    pofandcont
    rolov
    err
    esour
    ces
    anddeci
    si
    on-
    maki
    ng.I
    tal
    soent
    ail
    sthatwomenandmenar
    eequal
    l
    yval
    uedandhav
    e

    161|Page
    t
    hef
    reedom t
    odev
    elopt
    hei
    rper
    sonalabi
    l
    iti
    esandmakechoi
    ceswi
    thoutt
    hel
    i
    mit
    ati
    ons
    27setbyr
    igi
    dgenderr
    oles,pr
    ejudi
    cesanddi
    scr
    imi
    nat
    ion.Fur
    ther
    ,itr
    equi
    rest
    hatal
    l
    humanbei
    ngs–womenandmen–ar
    eabl
    etor
    eal
    i
    set
    hei
    rfundament
    alhumanr
    ight
    s

    Gender
    -sensi
    ti
    vebudget
    sar
    eneededt
    oensur
    egr
    eat
    err
    esponsi
    veness

    Gender
    -sensi
    ti
    vebudget
    sar
    evi
    ewedbymanyasanessent
    ial
    str
    ategyt
    owar
    dsensur
    ing
    r
    esour
    ceal
    l
    ocat
    iont
    akesi
    ntoaccountt
    hedi
    ff
    erentneedsofwomenandmen.Theyar
    e
    nota gender
    -sensi
    ti
    ve addi
    ti
    on t
    o exi
    sti
    ng budget
    s butan i
    ntegr
    alpar
    tofmai
    n
    budget
    ingpr
    ocesses,basedonani
    nit
    ialgender
    -sensi
    ti
    veanal
    ysi
    sthati
    sconduct
    edby
    genderadv
    ocat
    es.Lessonsl
    ear
    nedf
    rom t
    heSout
    hAf
    ri
    canGenderBudgetI
    nit
    iat
    ive
    showedt
    hatal
    l
    iancesbet
    weenpar
    li
    ament
    ari
    ansandCSOs– whoar
    eint
    ernaland
    ext
    ernalt
    ogov
    ernment–wer
    emor
    epr
    oduct
    ivei
    nbr
    ingi
    ngaboutsuccessf
    ulgender
    budget
    ing.

    Women’
    sPol
    it
    ical
    Par
    ti
    cipat
    ion

    162|Page
    I
    ntr
    oduct
    ion

    Accor
    dingt
    oDr
    .Far
    zanaBar
    i,Womenconst
    it
    utesl
    i
    ght
    lymor
    ethanhal
    foft
    hewor
    ld
    popul
    ati
    on.Thei
    rcont
    ri
    but
    iont
    othesoci
    alandeconomi
    cdev
    elopmentofsoci
    eti
    esi
    s
    al
    somor
    ethanhal
    fascompar
    edt
    othatofmenbyv
    irt
    ueoft
    hei
    rdualr
    olesi
    nthe
    pr
    oduct
    iveandr
    epr
    oduct
    ivespher
    es.Yett
    hei
    rpar
    ti
    cipat
    ioni
    nfor
    mal
    pol
    i
    tical
    str
    uct
    ures
    andpr
    ocesses,wher
    edeci
    sionsr
    egar
    dingt
    heuseofsoci
    etalr
    esour
    cesgener
    atedby
    bot
    h men and women ar
    e made, r
    emai
    ns i
    nsi
    gni
    fi
    cant
    . Pr
    esent
    ly, women’
    s
    r
    epr
    esent
    ati
    oni
    nlegi
    sl
    atur
    esar
    oundt
    hewor
    ldi
    s15per
    cent
    .Despi
    tet
    hepr
    onounced
    commi
    tmentoft
    hei
    nter
    nat
    ionalcommuni
    tyt
    ogenderequal
    i
    tyandbr
    idgi
    ngt
    hegender
    gapi
    nthef
    ormalpol
    i
    ticalar
    ena,r
    einf
    orcedbyt
    heConv
    ent
    iononEl
    i
    minat
    ionofAl
    l
    For
    msofDi
    scr
    imi
    nat
    ionAgai
    nstWomen(
    CEDAW)andt
    heBei
    j
    ingPl
    atf
    orm ofAct
    ion,
    t
    her
    ear
    eonl
    ytwel
    vecount
    ri
    eswher
    ewomenhol
    d33%ormor
    eseat
    sint
    hepar
    li
    ament
    s.
    Thi
    schapt
    erat
    tempt
    stoi
    nvest
    igat
    etheconcept
    ualandmat
    eri
    albasesofwomen’
    s
    hi
    stor
    icexcl
    usi
    onf
    rom t
    hef
    ormalar
    enaofpol
    i
    tics;anal
    yzest
    rat
    egi
    esadopt
    edar
    ound
    t
    hewor
    ldt
    opr
    omot
    ewomen’
    spol
    i
    ticalpar
    ti
    ci
    pat
    ion/
    repr
    esent
    ati
    on;i
    dent
    if
    yint
    ernal
    andext
    ernalcondi
    ti
    onsandf
    act
    orst
    hatf
    aci
    l
    itat
    eorhi
    ndert
    hecr
    eat
    ionofanenabl
    i
    ng
    env
    ironment f
    or women’
    s pol
    i
    tical empower
    ment
    ; and f
    inal
    l
    y dr
    aw pol
    i
    cy
    r
    ecommendat
    ionsf
    ort
    henat
    ionalandi
    nter
    nat
    ionalact
    ors.Thedev
    elopmentcont
    extof
    women’
    spol
    i
    ticalpar
    ti
    ci
    pat
    ionatt
    hecommuni
    tyandnat
    ionall
    evel
    swi
    l
    lber
    evi
    ewedf
    or
    nuanced under
    standi
    ng oft
    henat
    ureofwomen’
    spar
    ti
    cipat
    ion and t
    hei
    rshar
    ein
    dev
    elopmentpr
    ocessesandout
    comes.
    NeedandI
    mpor
    tanceofWomeni
    nPol
    it
    ics
    Wi
    thani
    ncr
    easi
    ngr
    ecogni
    ti
    onamongi
    nter
    nat
    ionalcommuni
    tyofwomen’
    shi
    stor
    ic
    excl
    usi
    onf
    rom st
    ruct
    uresofpower
    ,agl
    obalcommi
    tmenthasbeenmadet
    oredr
    ess
    genderi
    mbal
    ancei
    npol
    i
    tics.Women’
    senhancedpar
    ti
    cipat
    ioni
    ngov
    ernancest
    ruct
    ures
    i
    svi
    ewedast
    hekeyt
    oredr
    essgenderi
    nequal
    i
    tiesi
    nsoci
    eti
    es.Thegl
    obal
    debat
    eont
    he
    pr
    omot
    ionofwomen’
    spol
    i
    ticalpar
    ti
    cipat
    ion/
    repr
    esent
    ati
    onhasbeensur
    roundedby
    i
    ntr
    insi
    candi
    nst
    rument
    ali
    star
    gument
    .Thef
    ormerar
    guesf
    orequalpar
    ti
    cipat
    ionof

    163|Page
    womeni
    npol
    i
    ticsf
    rom t
    hehumanr
    ight
    sper
    spect
    ive.Womenconst
    it
    utehal
    foft
    he
    wor
    ldpopul
    ati
    onandt
    her
    efor
    e,i
    tisonl
    yfai
    rthatt
    heyshoul
    dhav
    eequalpar
    ti
    cipat
    ion
    andr
    epr
    esent
    ati
    oni
    nwor
    lddemocr
    aci
    es.
    I
    nst
    rument
    ali
    star
    gumentpushedf
    orwomen’
    sgr
    eat
    erpar
    ti
    cipat
    ionont
    heessent
    ial
    i
    st
    gr
    oundt
    hatmenandwomenar
    edi
    ff
    erent
    .Womenhav
    edi
    ff
    erentv
    isi
    onandconcept
    s
    ofpol
    i
    ticsowni
    ngt
    othei
    rsexandt
    hei
    rgenderr
    olesasmot
    her
    s.Ther
    efor
    e,i
    tis
    assumedt
    hatwomeni
    npol
    i
    ticswi
    l
    lbr
    ingaspeci
    alcar
    ingf
    ocusandf
    emal
    eval
    uest
    o
    pol
    i
    tics.Ther
    eisanext
    ensi
    ver
    esear
    chl
    i
    ter
    atur
    epr
    oducedi
    nsuppor
    toft
    hev
    ari
    ed
    r
    ati
    onal
    eort
    heor
    eti
    calappr
    oachest
    owomen’
    sincl
    usi
    oni
    npol
    i
    tics.Howev
    er,wi
    thout
    debat
    ingt
    hemer
    itanddemer
    itofv
    ari
    ousappr
    oaches,hi
    spaperi
    sgr
    oundedi
    nthe
    br
    oadagr
    eementt
    hatpr
    oponent
    sofv
    ari
    edappr
    oacheshav
    ear
    ri
    vedat-
    womenmustbe
    i
    ncl
    udedi
    npol
    i
    tics.Thechal
    l
    engef
    aci
    ngal
    ladv
    ocat
    esofgenderequal
    i
    tyi
    npol
    i
    tics
    t
    odayi
    sthewi
    degapbet
    weenshar
    edv
    aluesr
    efl
    ect
    edi
    nthenat
    ionalandi
    nter
    nat
    ional
    pol
    i
    ciesandpr
    act
    ices.
    Bef
    orei
    dent
    if
    yingt
    hekeyst
    rat
    egi
    esf
    ort
    hepr
    omot
    ionofwomen’
    spol
    i
    tical
    par
    ti
    cipat
    ion
    andt
    hev
    italel
    ement
    sint
    heenabl
    i
    ngenv
    ironmentf
    orwomen’
    spol
    i
    ticalempower
    ment
    weneedt
    ost
    ri
    vef
    oradeeperunder
    standi
    ngoft
    hest
    ruct
    ural
    imper
    ati
    vesofasoci
    etyi
    n
    whi
    chwomen’
    spol
    i
    tical
    par
    ti
    cipat
    ioni
    sinst
    it
    uted.
    Women’
    shi
    stor
    icexcl
    usi
    onf
    rom pol
    i
    ticalst
    ruct
    uresandpr
    ocessesi
    sther
    esul
    tof
    mul
    ti
    plest
    ruct
    ural
    ,funct
    ionalandper
    sonalf
    act
    orst
    hatv
    aryi
    ndi
    ff
    erentsoci
    alcont
    ext
    s
    acr
    osscount
    ri
    es.Howev
    er,bey
    ondt
    hesespeci
    fi
    cit
    iesofnat
    ionalandl
    ocalcont
    ext
    s,
    t
    her
    eisagener
    ici
    ssuei
    nwomen’
    spol
    i
    ticalpar
    ti
    cipat
    iont
    hatr
    elat
    est
    othewi
    der
    cont
    extofnat
    ionalandi
    nter
    nat
    ionalpol
    i
    tics,l
    i
    ber
    aldemocr
    acyanddev
    elopment
    .Iti
    s,
    t
    her
    efor
    e,i
    mper
    ati
    vet
    ocr
    it
    ical
    l
    yrev
    iew t
    heseconst
    ruct
    sanddecodet
    hegender
    ed
    nat
    ureofDemocr
    acyaswel
    lasDev
    elopment
    ,whi
    chposesl
    i
    mit
    ati
    onsonwomen’
    s
    ef
    fect
    ivepol
    i
    ticalpar
    ti
    cipat
    ion.Theel
    ement
    sofenabl
    i
    ngenv
    ironmentf
    orwomen’
    s
    par
    ti
    cipat
    ioni
    npol
    i
    ticsanddev
    elopmentcannotbedi
    scussedandi
    dent
    if
    iedwi
    thout
    put
    ti
    ngt
    hecur
    rentdev
    elopmentandpol
    i
    tical
    par
    adi
    gmsunderscr
    uti
    ny.

    Anot
    hercont
    ext
    uali
    ssuei
    nwomen’
    spol
    i
    ticalpar
    ti
    cipat
    ionr
    elat
    est
    othenat
    ureof

    164|Page
    pol
    i
    ticsi
    ngener
    alandt
    hel
    i
    ber
    aldemocr
    acyi
    npar
    ti
    cul
    ar.Democr
    acyhashi
    stor
    ical
    l
    y
    ser
    vedmenbet
    tert
    hanwomen.Asapol
    i
    ticalsy
    stem f
    rom t
    heanci
    entGr
    eecet
    othe
    moder
    nti
    mesoft
    he21stcent
    ury
    ,ithasbui
    l
    tont
    hepubl
    i
    c-pr
    ivat
    edi
    chot
    omyand
    excl
    udedwomenf
    rom ci
    ti
    zenshi
    p.Womenhav
    ebeenkeptout
    sidet
    hepubl
    i
    cdomai
    nof
    pol
    i
    ticsasmostoft
    hepol
    i
    ticalt
    hinker
    sandphi
    l
    osopher
    ssuchasPl
    ato,Ar
    ist
    otl
    e,
    Rousseau,John Lock,ThomasHobbesand Hegelconsi
    der
    ed women f
    itonl
    yfor
    domest
    icr
    olesi
    nthepr
    ivat
    espher
    eandmai
    ntai
    nedt
    hatt
    her
    ewasnopl
    acef
    orwomen
    i
    npol
    i
    ticsbecauseoft
    hei
    rsui
    tabi
    l
    ityi
    ncar
    ingr
    olesasmot
    her
    sandwi
    ves.

    Women’
    spol
    i
    ticalpar
    ti
    cipat
    ioni
    scompul
    sor
    yfort
    hedev
    elopmentandpr
    ogr
    essof
    Paki
    stanbecausewomenconst
    it
    uteal
    mosthal
    foft
    hepopul
    ati
    on.Despi
    tet
    hei
    rhuge
    shar
    eint
    he popul
    ati
    on,t
    he women ofPaki
    stan hav
    e been di
    scr
    imi
    nat
    ed bot
    h
    economi
    cal
    l
    yandpol
    i
    tical
    l
    yandev
    eni
    nsomepar
    tsoft
    hecount
    ry,t
    heyar
    enotev
    en
    r
    egi
    ster
    ed as v
    oter
    s.The pat
    ri
    archaland mal
    e domi
    nat
    ing soci
    etyofPaki
    stan i
    s
    pr
    ovi
    dingmor
    eeconomi
    candpol
    i
    ticalpowert
    omeni
    nal
    lthespher
    esofpubl
    i
    cand
    pr
    ivat
    eli
    fe.Thepowerandeconomi
    cresour
    cesar
    emai
    nlycont
    rol
    l
    edandownedby
    menmember
    soft
    hesoci
    ety
    .Theposi
    ti
    onofwomeni
    nthi
    sregar
    dissecondar
    yand
    t
    heycoul
    dnothav
    eanysayi
    ntheeconomi
    candpol
    i
    ticalaf
    fai
    rsbecauset
    heyar
    enot
    i
    ncl
    udedi
    nthedeci
    sionmaki
    ngpr
    ocesses.
    Owi
    ngt
    othi
    scompl
    exst
    ruct
    ureofsoci
    ety
    ,
    womeni
    nPaki
    stancoul
    dnothav
    eeasyaccesst
    otakepar
    tint
    hepol
    i
    ticalact
    ivi
    ti
    esand
    t
    opol
    lev
    ent
    hei
    rvot
    es.Theyar
    ebar
    redf
    rom t
    aki
    nganact
    ivepar
    tinpol
    i
    ticsi
    npar
    all
    el
    t
    omen,andi
    ftheydoonadhocbasi
    s,t
    heyar
    enev
    ermadepar
    toft
    hel
    egi
    slat
    iveand
    deci
    si
    onmaki
    ngbodi
    es.

    Fact
    orsHi
    nder
    ingWomen’
    sPol
    it
    icalPar
    ti
    cipat
    ion

    Women’
    spar
    ti
    ci
    pat
    ionandaccesst
    ofor
    malpol
    i
    ticalpowerst
    ruct
    uresv
    aryacr
    oss
    count
    ri
    es.Ther
    eis a st
    eadyupwar
    dtr
    end i
    n women’
    s pol
    i
    ticalpar
    ti
    cipat
    ion and
    r
    epr
    esent
    ati
    oni
    ndev
    elopedcount
    ri
    espar
    ti
    cul
    arl
    yinNor
    diccount
    ri
    es.Outoft
    wel
    ve
    count
    ri
    eswher
    ewomenr
    epr
    esent
    ati
    oni
    npar
    li
    amenti
    smor
    ethan33%,
    nineoft
    hem ar
    e

    165|Page
    r
    anked i
    nthe hi
    gh human dev
    elopmentcat
    egor
    y.Howev
    er,t
    he i
    mpr
    ovement
    sin
    medi
    um andl
    owhumandev
    elopmentcount
    ri
    esar
    enotsi
    gni
    fi
    cant
    .Thest
    ruct
    uraland
    f
    unct
    ionalconst
    rai
    ntsf
    acedbywomenar
    eshapedbysoci
    alandpol
    i
    ticalr
    elat
    ionsi
    na
    soci
    ety
    .Thecommonpat
    ter
    nofwomen’
    spol
    i
    tical
    excl
    usi
    onst
    em f
    rom
    (
    A)Soci
    alandPol
    i
    tical
    Discour
    ses
    (
    B)Pol
    i
    tical
    Str
    uct
    uresandI
    nst
    it
    uti
    ons
    (
    C)The Soci
    o-Cul
    tur
    aland Funct
    ionalConst
    rai
    nts ThatPutLi
    mit
    s on Women’
    s
    I
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    andCol
    l
    ect
    iveAgency
    .
    I
    deol
    ogi
    calFact
    ors
    Pat
    ri
    archyasasy
    stem ofmal
    edomi
    nat
    ionshapeswomen’
    srel
    ati
    onshi
    pinpol
    i
    tics.I
    t
    t
    ransf
    ormsmal
    eandf
    emal
    esi
    ntomenandwomenandconst
    ruct
    sthehi
    erar
    chyof
    genderr
    elat
    ionswher
    emenar
    epr
    ivi
    l
    eged.Adr
    ienneRi
    chdef
    inespat
    ri
    archyas:
    “
    Afami
    l
    ial
    -soci
    al,
    ideol
    ogi
    cal
    ,pol
    i
    ticalsy
    stem i
    nwhi
    chmenbyf
    orce,
    dir
    ectpr
    essur
    eor
    t
    hrough r
    it
    ual
    ,tr
    adi
    ti
    on,l
    aw,and l
    anguage,cust
    oms et
    iquet
    te,educat
    ion,and t
    he
    di
    vi
    sionofl
    abor
    ,det
    ermi
    newhatpar
    twomenshal
    lorshal
    lnotpl
    ayi
    nwhi
    cht
    hef
    emal
    e
    i
    sev
    ery
    wher
    esubsumedundert
    hemal
    e.”
    TheGenderRol
    eIdeol
    ogy
    I
    tisusedasani
    deol
    ogi
    calt
    oolbypat
    ri
    archyt
    opl
    acewomenwi
    thi
    nthepr
    ivat
    ear
    enaof
    homeasmot
    her
    sandwi
    vesandmeni
    nthepubl
    i
    cspher
    e.Thi
    sisoneoft
    hev
    ital
    f
    act
    orst
    hatshapet
    hel
    evelofwomen’
    spol
    i
    ticalpar
    ti
    cipat
    iongl
    obal
    l
    y.Howev
    er,t
    his
    i
    deol
    ogi
    caldi
    vi
    dei
    snotr
    efl
    ect
    iveoft
    her
    eal
    i
    ty.Theboundar
    iesbet
    weenpubl
    i
    cand
    pr
    ivat
    ear
    eof
    tenbl
    urr
    edi
    nthedai
    l
    yli
    vesofwomen.Nonet
    hel
    ess,domest
    icdomai
    n
    cont
    inuest
    obeper
    cei
    vedi
    ntheNor
    thaswel
    lasi
    ntheSout
    hast
    hel
    egi
    ti
    mat
    espace
    f
    orwomenwhi
    l
    epubl
    i
    cspacei
    sassoci
    atedwi
    thmen.
    Womenhav
    etonegot
    iat
    ethei
    rent
    ryi
    ntoandcl
    aim onpubl
    i
    cspaceaccor
    dingt
    othe
    di
    scur
    siv
    eandmat
    eri
    aloppor
    tuni
    ti
    esav
    ail
    abl
    einagi
    vencul
    tur
    eandsoci
    ety
    .Al
    though
    t
    hegenderr
    olei
    deol
    ogyi
    snotst
    ati
    crat
    herr
    emai
    nedi
    naf
    luxwhi
    l
    eint
    ersect
    ingwi
    th
    economi
    c,soci
    alandpol
    i
    ticalsy
    stemsofapar
    ti
    cul
    arsoci
    ety
    ,womencont
    inuet
    obe
    def
    inedaspr
    ivat
    eacr
    osscount
    ri
    eswhi
    chr
    esul
    tedi
    nthei
    rexcl
    usi
    onf
    rom pol
    i
    tics.
    Hi
    stor
    icalPol
    it
    ical
    Thi
    nker
    s

    166|Page
    Dr
    .Far
    zanaBar
    iisoft
    heopi
    niont
    hatgenderdef
    ici
    tinpol
    i
    ticsi
    sagl
    obali
    ssueandi
    ts
    r
    oot
    smaybet
    racedi
    nthewor
    kofhi
    stor
    icalpol
    i
    ticalt
    hinker
    s.Women’
    spar
    ti
    cipat
    ioni
    n
    pol
    i
    ticshashi
    stor
    ical
    l
    ybeenconsi
    der
    edi
    rr
    ati
    onalandpat
    ri
    archali
    ndoct
    ri
    nat
    ionhas
    beenf
    urt
    her
    edbyt
    hesoci
    al,cul
    tur
    alandpol
    i
    ticalenv
    ironment
    .Dr
    .Bar
    i,whi
    l
    eshar
    ing
    t
    hef
    indi
    ngofherst
    udy
    ,obser
    vedt
    hatt
    hispubl
    i
    c-pr
    ivat
    edi
    vi
    sionhadbeenchal
    l
    enged
    bywomen’
    sri
    ght
    smoment
    sthr
    oughoutt
    hehi
    stor
    yandsucceededi
    nachi
    evi
    ngt
    hei
    r
    r
    ightt
    ovot
    eandr
    epr
    esent
    ati
    on.

    Pol
    it
    icalFact
    ors
    Thenat
    ureofpol
    i
    ticsi
    sani
    mpor
    tantf
    act
    orf
    ort
    hei
    ncl
    usi
    onorexcl
    usi
    onofwomeni
    n
    pol
    i
    tics.Vi
    ckyRandal
    ldef
    inespol
    i
    ticsasan“
    art
    icul
    ati
    on,
    orwor
    kingoutofr
    elat
    ionshi
    ps
    wi
    thi
    nanal
    readygi
    venpowerst
    ruct
    ure”
    ,whi
    chi
    sincont
    rastwi
    tht
    het
    radi
    ti
    onalv
    iewof
    pol
    i
    ticst
    hatdef
    inesi
    tasanact
    ivi
    ty,
    aconsci
    ous,
    del
    i
    ber
    atepar
    ti
    cipat
    ioni
    nthepr
    ocess
    bywhi
    chr
    esour
    cesar
    eal
    l
    ocat
    edamongci
    ti
    zens.Thi
    sconcept
    ionofpol
    i
    ticsr
    est
    ri
    cts
    pol
    i
    ticalact
    ivi
    tyonl
    yinpubl
    i
    car
    enaandt
    hepr
    ivat
    espher
    eoff
    ami
    l
    yli
    fei
    srender
    edas
    apol
    i
    tical
    .Thi
    spubl
    i
    c-pr
    ivat
    edi
    chot
    omyi
    ntr
    adi
    ti
    onaldef
    ini
    ti
    onofpol
    i
    ticsi
    susedt
    o
    excl
    udewomenf
    rom publ
    i
    cpol
    i
    ticalspher
    eandev
    enwhenwomenar
    ebr
    oughti
    nto
    pol
    i
    ticst
    heyar
    eent
    eredasmot
    her
    sandwi
    ves.
    Nepot
    ism AndTheCapt
    ureOfSeat
    sForWomenByTheEl
    it
    e
    Thewayr
    eser
    vedseat
    sforwomeni
    nthel
    egi
    slat
    urear
    efi
    l
    ledi
    samat
    terofgr
    avepubl
    i
    c
    concer
    n.Thei
    ndi
    rectmodal
    i
    tyofel
    ect
    iononr
    eser
    vedseat
    swi
    thnopr
    escr
    ibedcr
    it
    eri
    a
    f
    ort
    heel
    i
    gibi
    l
    ityhasl
    edt
    onepot
    ism andt
    hecapt
    ureofseat
    sforwomenbyt
    heel
    i
    te.I
    n
    t
    hepr
    evi
    oust
    woNat
    ional
    Assembl
    i
    es,
    aswel
    lasi
    nthepr
    esentone,
    thet
    rendi
    ntr
    eat
    ing
    seat
    sforwomen undemocr
    ati
    cal
    l
    ybypol
    i
    ticall
    eader
    shi
    p hasnotchanged.Bl
    ood
    r
    elat
    ions,wi
    vesandr
    elat
    ivesofpol
    i
    tici
    ansar
    enomi
    nat
    edont
    heseseat
    stor
    ewar
    d
    par
    tyi
    nfl
    uent
    ial
    .Manyoft
    hesewomenhav
    enobackgr
    oundei
    theri
    npol
    i
    ticsorof
    wor
    kingi
    nwomen’
    sri
    ght
    smov
    ement
    s.Thi
    str
    endr
    efl
    ect
    snotonl
    ythedy
    nast
    icand
    el
    i
    tistnat
    ureofourpol
    i
    tics,butal
    sonegat
    est
    hev
    eryspi
    ri
    tofhav
    ingagenderquot
    ain
    pol
    i
    tics.
    Pol
    it
    icalPar
    ti
    es

    167|Page
    Sof
    ar,t
    hei
    ncr
    easedpar
    ti
    cipat
    ionofwomenwi
    thi
    nthepol
    it
    icalpar
    ti
    eshasnotl
    edt
    o
    asi
    gni
    fi
    cantnumberofwomenappoi
    nteesi
    nimpor
    tantposi
    ti
    onswi
    thi
    nthepar
    ti
    es.
    I
    ntheabsenceofr
    egul
    arel
    ect
    ionswi
    thi
    nmostoft
    hepol
    it
    icalpar
    ti
    es,
    leader
    susual
    ly
    nomi
    nat
    epar
    tyact
    ivi
    stst
    opar
    typosi
    ti
    onswi
    thi
    nthepar
    tyor
    gani
    zat
    ions.
    Paki
    stanPeopl
    e’sPar
    tyPar
    li
    ament
    ari
    ans(
    PPPP)
    ,whi
    chcl
    aimst
    obeal
    iber
    alpar
    ty,
    hasonl
    yonef
    emal
    eand36mal
    ememberi
    nit
    sCent
    ralExecut
    iveCommi
    tt
    ee(
    PPPP,
    2004)
    .Ther
    ear
    efi
    vewomeni
    nthehi
    stor
    yofPaki
    stan,namel
    yFat
    imaJi
    nnah(
    PML)
    ,
    Benazi
    rBhut
    to(
    PPPP)
    ,Nusr
    atBhut
    to(
    PPP)
    ,Gi
    nwaBhut
    to(
    ShaheedBhut
    toGr
    oup)
    andNasi
    m Wal
    iKhan(
    ANP)
    ,whohav
    ebeent
    hel
    eader
    soft
    hei
    rrespect
    ivepol
    it
    ical
    par
    ti
    es.Howev
    er,al
    loft
    hem i
    nher
    it
    ed t
    hei
    rpol
    it
    icalcar
    eer
    sfr
    om t
    hei
    rbr
    other
    ,
    husbandorf
    atherandsubsequent
    lyemer
    gedaspol
    it
    ici
    ansi
    nthei
    rownr
    ight
    .

    Mal
    edomi
    nat
    ionofpol
    i
    tics,
    pol
    it
    ical
    par
    ti
    esandcul
    tur
    e
    Mal
    edomi
    nat
    ionoff
    ormalpol
    i
    ticalst
    ruct
    uresi
    sanot
    herf
    act
    ort
    hathi
    nder
    swomen’
    s
    pol
    i
    ticalpar
    ti
    ci
    pat
    ion.Of
    tenmal
    edomi
    nat
    edpol
    i
    ticalpar
    ti
    eshav
    eamal
    eper
    spect
    ive
    oni
    ssuesofnat
    ionali
    mpor
    tancet
    hatdi
    sil
    l
    usi
    onswomenast
    hei
    rper
    spect
    ivei
    sof
    ten
    i
    gnor
    edandnotr
    efl
    ect
    edi
    nthepol
    i
    ticsoft
    hei
    rpar
    ti
    es.Al
    sowomenar
    eusual
    l
    ynot
    el
    ect
    edatt
    heposi
    ti
    onofpowerwi
    thi
    npar
    tyst
    ruct
    uresbecauseofgenderbi
    asesof
    mal
    eleader
    shi
    p.Meet
    ingsofcounci
    l
    sorpar
    li
    ament
    arysessi
    onsar
    ehel
    dinoddt
    imi
    ngs
    conf
    li
    cti
    ngwi
    thwomen’
    sdomest
    icr
    esponsi
    bil
    i
    ties.
    Thel
    argerdemocr
    ati
    cfr
    amewor
    kandl
    evelofdemocr
    ati
    zat
    ional
    soi
    mpactwomen’
    s
    pol
    i
    ticalpar
    ti
    ci
    pat
    ion.Secul
    ardemocr
    aci
    es i
    n Eur
    ope and al
    so i
    n some oft
    he
    dev
    elopi
    ngcount
    ri
    eshav
    ecr
    eat
    edr
    elat
    ivel
    ymor
    espacef
    orwomen’
    spar
    ti
    cipat
    ioni
    n
    pol
    i
    ticsascompar
    edt
    ocount
    ri
    eswher
    erel
    i
    giousor
    thodoxyhasbeenshapi
    ngpol
    i
    tics
    anddemocr
    acy
    .

    Soci
    o-Cul
    tur
    alFact
    ors
    Thesubor
    dinat
    est
    atusofwomenv
    is-
    à-v
    ismeni
    sauni
    ver
    salphenomenon,
    thoughwi
    th
    adi
    ff
    erencei
    nthenat
    ureandext
    entofsubor
    dinat
    ionacr
    osscount
    ri
    es.Genderr
    ole
    i
    deol
    ogydoesnotonl
    ycr
    eat
    edual
    i
    tyoff
    emi
    nini
    tyandmascul
    i
    nit
    y,i
    tal
    sopl
    acest
    hem

    168|Page
    i
    nhi
    erar
    chal
    fashi
    oni
    nwhi
    chf
    emal
    esexi
    sgener
    all
    yval
    uedl
    esst
    hanmal
    esexbecause
    oft
    hei
    rsoci
    all
    yascr
    ibed r
    oles i
    nrepr
    oduct
    ive spher
    e.The genderst
    atus quo i
    s
    mai
    ntai
    nedt
    hroughl
    ow r
    esour
    ceal
    l
    ocat
    iont
    owomen’
    shumandev
    elopmentbyt
    he
    st
    ate,soci
    etyandt
    hef
    ami
    l
    y.Thi
    sisr
    efl
    ect
    edi
    nthesoci
    ali
    ndi
    cat
    orswhi
    chr
    efl
    ect
    v
    ary
    ingdegr
    eesofgenderdi
    spar
    it
    iesi
    neducat
    ion,heal
    th,empl
    oyment
    ,owner
    shi
    pof
    pr
    oduct
    iver
    esour
    cesandpol
    i
    ticsi
    nal
    lcount
    ri
    es.
    Pat
    ri
    archalSt
    ruct
    uresThatPl
    aceWomenI
    nSubor
    dinat
    ion
    Addi
    ti
    onal
    l
    ygenderi
    smedi
    atedt
    hroughcl
    ass,
    cast
    eandet
    hni
    cit
    ythatst
    ruct
    ureaccess
    t
    oresour
    ces and oppor
    tuni
    ti
    es.The st
    ate and soci
    ali
    nst
    it
    uti
    ons ar
    e ent
    wined i
    n
    r
    epr
    oduci
    ngpat
    ri
    archalst
    ruct
    urest
    hatpl
    acewomeni
    nsubor
    dinat
    eposi
    ti
    ons.Soci
    al
    i
    nst
    it
    uti
    onst
    hatcompr
    iser
    eli
    giousi
    nst
    it
    uti
    ons,educat
    ionalest
    abl
    i
    shment
    s,andt
    he
    medi
    aaccor
    dingt
    oWal
    byandKaml
    aBhasi
    nar
    epi
    l
    lar
    sofpat
    ri
    archalr
    epr
    oduct
    ioni
    n
    whi
    chmenar
    egr
    oomedt
    obet
    hepat
    ri
    archsandwoment
    hesubor
    dinat
    es.
    Soci
    ali
    nst
    it
    uti
    onsar
    ethepl
    atf
    ormsf
    ort
    hesoci
    ali
    zat
    ionofmascul
    i
    neandf
    emi
    nine
    genderr
    epr
    esent
    ati
    onasper
    sonali
    dent
    it
    iesofmal
    eand f
    emal
    e.Fr
    om chi
    l
    dhood,
    gender soci
    ali
    zat
    ion i
    sinst
    il
    led and l
    ater i
    t cul
    ti
    vat
    es gender
    -based behav
    ior
    .
    Mascul
    i
    nit
    yandf
    emi
    nini
    tyar
    esegr
    egat
    edasgendernor
    ms,di
    ssemi
    nat
    edt
    hrough
    r
    eli
    giousandeducat
    ionalt
    eachi
    ngsaswel
    last
    hemedi
    aint
    hepubl
    i
    cspher
    e.By
    r
    egul
    arl
    ygener
    ati
    ngt
    hesemessagespeopl
    e’
    spat
    ri
    archalv
    iewsar
    efor
    medandpol
    i
    tical
    i
    nst
    it
    uti
    onsar
    edev
    elopedwhi
    chi
    ncooper
    atet
    heseper
    cept
    ions.
    TheSoci
    o-Cul
    tur
    alDependenceOfWomen
    I
    tisoneoft
    hekeydet
    ri
    ment
    alf
    act
    orst
    othei
    rpol
    i
    ticalpar
    ti
    cipat
    ioni
    npubl
    i
    cpol
    i
    tical
    domai
    n.Womenal
    sof
    indi
    thar
    dtopar
    ti
    cipat
    einpol
    i
    ticsduet
    oli
    mit
    edt
    imeav
    ail
    abl
    eto
    t
    hem becauseoft
    hei
    rdualr
    olesi
    nthepr
    oduct
    iveandr
    epr
    oduct
    ivespher
    es.Wi
    tht
    hei
    r
    pr
    imar
    yrol
    esasmot
    her
    sandwi
    vesandcompet
    ingdomest
    icr
    esponsi
    bil
    i
    tiesandcar
    e
    wor
    k,t
    heyar
    elef
    twi
    thl
    i
    ttl
    eti
    met
    opar
    ti
    cipat
    einpol
    i
    tics.
    I
    n some oft
    he count
    ri
    es,par
    ti
    cul
    arl
    yin Sout
    h Asi
    a,women al
    so f
    ace cul
    tur
    al
    const
    rai
    ntsont
    hei
    rmobi
    l
    ity
    .Themechani
    smsofsexsegr
    egat
    ionandpur
    dahar
    eused
    t
    orest
    ri
    ctt
    hei
    rmobi
    l
    ity
    .Pol
    i
    ticsr
    equi
    reswomen’
    sexposur
    etoi
    nter
    actwi
    thmal
    eand
    f
    emal
    econst
    it
    uent
    sandaddr
    esspubl
    i
    cmeet
    ing.

    169|Page
    Economi
    cFact
    ors
    Pol
    i
    ticsi
    sincr
    easi
    ngl
    ybecomi
    ngcommer
    cial
    i
    zed.Mor
    eandmor
    emoneyi
    sneededt
    o
    par
    ti
    cipat
    einpol
    i
    tics.Womenl
    ackaccesst
    oandowner
    shi
    pofpr
    oduct
    iver
    esour
    ce,
    l
    i
    mit
    ingt
    hescopeoft
    hei
    rpol
    i
    tical
    wor
    k.
    LackofSoci
    alCapi
    talandPol
    it
    ical
    Capaci
    ti
    es
    Womenof
    tenl
    acksoci
    alcapi
    talbecauset
    heyar
    eof
    tennotheadofcommuni
    ti
    es,
    tri
    bes
    orki
    nshi
    pgr
    oups,
    resul
    ti
    ngi
    ntheabsenceofconst
    it
    uencybasef
    ort
    hem andmeansof
    pol
    i
    ticalpar
    ti
    cipat
    ionsuchaspol
    i
    ticalski
    l
    ls,economi
    cresour
    ces,educat
    ion,t
    rai
    ning
    andaccesst
    oinf
    ormat
    ion.

    Addr
    essi
    ngPr
    obl
    ems/
    Enhanci
    ngWomen’
    sPol
    it
    icalPar
    ti
    cipat
    ion

    Quot
    asf
    orWomeni
    nPol
    it
    ics
    Thequot
    asy
    stem ai
    mst
    oincr
    easewomen’
    srepr
    esent
    ati
    ont
    oaddr
    esst
    hepr
    obl
    em of
    underr
    epr
    esent
    ati
    onofwomen.Quot
    ashav
    ebeenv
    iewedasoneoft
    hemostef
    fect
    ive
    af
    fi
    rmat
    ive act
    ion’
    sini
    ncr
    easi
    ng women’
    s pol
    i
    ticalpar
    ti
    cipat
    ion.I
    thas a posi
    ti
    ve
    i
    mpactont
    henumberofwomenr
    epr
    esent
    ed.
    Thequot
    asy
    stem hasi
    ncr
    easedt
    heseat
    sofwomeni
    nassembl
    i
    esbuti
    tisat
    empor
    ary
    measur
    eto achi
    eve gender bal
    ance. I
    t does not f
    aci
    l
    itat
    ethe r
    ealpol
    i
    tical
    empower
    mentandt
    hedemocr
    ati
    cpar
    ti
    cipat
    ionofwomen.Womenar
    etr
    eat
    edasmer
    e
    f
    il
    ler
    sforst
    ati
    sti
    cswi
    thoutr
    ealpol
    i
    ticalandeconomi
    cpower
    .Thi
    ssy
    stem pr
    ovi
    des
    onl
    ysy
    mbol
    i
    crepr
    esent
    ati
    ont
    owomen.

    Acer
    tai
    nquot
    aofseat
    swasespeci
    all
    yreser
    vedf
    orwomeni
    nPar
    li
    amentsi
    ncet
    he
    1946 el
    ect
    ions.Thi
    str
    adi
    ti
    on ofr
    eser
    vat
    ion ofseat
    sforwomen cont
    inued t
    o be

    170|Page
    r
    equi
    redi
    nthe1956,
    1962and1973Const
    it
    uti
    ons.Al
    thought
    he1973Const
    it
    uti
    onf
    ixed
    r
    eser
    vat
    ionf
    orwomenf
    ort
    womor
    egener
    alel
    ect
    ionsort
    eny
    ear
    s,whi
    chev
    ercame
    l
    ater
    ,thepr
    ovi
    si
    onwast
    oexpi
    re.
    Thi
    spr
    ovi
    sionexpi
    redi
    nthe1990el
    ect
    ionsandhas
    notbeenr
    evi
    sedsi
    nce.Despi
    tecommi
    tment
    sbybot
    hthemaj
    orpol
    i
    ticalpar
    ti
    es,t
    he
    women’
    sreser
    vedseat
    shav
    enotbeenr
    est
    ored(
    Sai
    yi
    d,2001)
    .Now Gener
    alPer
    vez
    Mushar
    afGov
    ernmenthast
    hecr
    edi
    tofi
    ncr
    easi
    ngwomen’
    sreser
    vedseat
    stosi
    xty
    .
    Genderquot
    asemer
    gedasagl
    obalf
    astt
    ractst
    rat
    egyt
    oredr
    esst
    hehi
    stor
    icexcl
    usi
    on
    ofwomenf
    rom t
    hef
    ormalar
    enaofpol
    i
    tics.Ov
    ert
    hel
    asthal
    foft
    he20t
    hCent
    ury
    ,many
    count
    ri
    eshav
    einst
    it
    utedgenderquot
    asei
    therv
    olunt
    ari
    l
    yort
    hroughl
    egi
    slat
    ion.The
    genderquot
    aismar
    redwi
    thdi
    scur
    siv
    econt
    rov
    ersy
    .Wi
    thoutdebat
    ingt
    het
    wodi
    sti
    nct
    opposi
    ngv
    iews,
    thi
    ssect
    ionsummar
    izessomeoft
    hei
    ssueshi
    ghl
    i
    ght
    edi
    ncompar
    ati
    ve
    st
    udi
    esongenderquot
    as.

    Ther
    eisacl
    earconsensusi
    nli
    ter
    atur
    ethatgenderquot
    aisan ef
    fect
    ivet
    ooli
    n
    addr
    essi
    ng women’
    sexcl
    usi
    on and ensur
    ing t
    hei
    rpr
    esencei
    nfor
    malst
    ruct
    ureof
    pol
    i
    tics.Howev
    er,t
    hecont
    rov
    ersyst
    art
    sar
    oundt
    hev
    italquest
    ionast
    owhatext
    ent
    women’
    spr
    esencei
    npol
    i
    ticalst
    ruct
    ureshasl
    edt
    oanef
    fect
    ivemai
    nst
    reami
    ngof
    genderconcer
    nsi
    npol
    i
    tics.Thi
    shasr
    aisedi
    ssuesont
    henat
    ureandmodal
    i
    tiesof
    genderquot
    asandi
    tsl
    i
    mit
    ati
    ont
    oempowerwomeni
    npol
    i
    tics.

    Genderquot
    as ar
    einst
    it
    uted wi
    thi
    nthe cont
    extofgenderdi
    spar
    it
    ies,whi
    ch ar
    e
    st
    ruct
    uraland sy
    stemi
    c.Wi
    thoutaddr
    essi
    ngt
    hest
    ruct
    uralconst
    rai
    ntst
    o women’
    s
    pol
    i
    ticalexcl
    usi
    on,t
    hei
    rincl
    usi
    ont
    hroughgenderquot
    acannotl
    eadt
    oanef
    fect
    ive
    r
    epr
    esent
    ati
    on.Rai(
    2005)hasemphasi
    zed t
    hesamepoi
    ntbyar
    gui
    ng t
    hat“
    whi
    l
    e
    quot
    asar
    eimpor
    tanti
    naddr
    essi
    ngt
    heexcl
    usi
    onofwomenf
    rom t
    hepubl
    i
    cpol
    i
    tical
    spher
    e,t
    heycanonl
    yfor
    m onepar
    tofamul
    ti
    -f
    acet
    tedst
    rat
    egyf
    orempower
    ingwomen,
    whi
    chmustt
    oget
    herwi
    thi
    ncr
    easedpol
    i
    tical
    par
    ti
    cipat
    ional
    soi
    nvol
    vear
    edi
    str
    ibut
    ionof
    soci
    o-economi
    cresour
    ceswi
    thi
    nsoci
    eti
    es.
    ”
    Womenwhol
    ackci
    vi
    landeconomi
    cri
    ght
    sar
    eunabl
    etoexer
    ciset
    hei
    rpol
    i
    ticalr
    ight
    s
    f
    ull
    y.Thegenderquot
    as,t
    her
    efor
    e,needt
    obel
    i
    nkedwi
    tht
    hesoci
    alandeconomi
    c

    171|Page
    r
    edi
    str
    ibut
    ivej
    ust
    icei
    nthesoci
    ety
    .Genderquot
    asar
    eal
    sor
    iddl
    edwi
    thessent
    ial
    i
    st
    assumpt
    ions ofwomen as a di
    sti
    nctgr
    oup wi
    th a di
    sti
    nctper
    spect
    ive and t
    he
    uni
    ver
    sal
    i
    zat
    ionofwomenasacat
    egor
    y.Womenar
    enothomogeneousgr
    oups.They
    ar
    edi
    vi
    dedal
    ongt
    hel
    i
    neofcl
    ass,et
    hni
    cit
    y,r
    eli
    gionandr
    ural
    /ur
    banbackgr
    ound.The
    domi
    nat
    ionofel
    i
    tewomeni
    npol
    i
    ticalst
    ruct
    uresduet
    ost
    atequot
    ascal
    l
    sforl
    ocat
    ing
    t
    hegenderquot
    awi
    thi
    nthef
    ramewor
    kofdi
    ver
    sit
    yanddi
    ff
    erencet
    oensur
    ewomen’
    s
    pol
    i
    ticalempower
    ment
    .The gendergap i
    n pol
    i
    tics cannotbe r
    edr
    essed si
    mpl
    yby
    br
    ingi
    ngmor
    ewomeni
    nthesy
    stem.I
    tisal
    soapol
    i
    cyandout
    comei
    ssue,
    whi
    chcannot
    beaddr
    essedunl
    esssuppor
    ti
    vemechani
    smsar
    eputi
    npl
    aceandpr
    ovi
    dedwi
    than
    enabl
    i
    ngenv
    ironmentt
    owor
    kef
    fect
    ivel
    y.Thi
    smakest
    henat
    ureandpr
    ocessofquot
    as
    sy
    stems cent
    ralt
    o an af
    fi
    rmat
    ive act
    ion measur
    es.Exper
    ience shows t
    hatquot
    a
    modal
    i
    tiesmustbedi
    rect
    ,empower
    ingandenabl
    ewoment
    odev
    elopt
    hei
    rconst
    it
    uency
    .

    Last
    lyt
    hewi
    dercont
    extofpol
    i
    ticsanddemocr
    acyi
    sequal
    l
    yimpor
    tantt
    odet
    ermi
    net
    he
    successofgenderquot
    a.Quot
    adebat
    esar
    egl
    obal
    l
    ylocat
    edwi
    thi
    nthef
    ramewor
    kof
    l
    i
    ber
    aldemocr
    acyandci
    ti
    zenshi
    p.Theext
    ensi
    onofci
    ti
    zenshi
    ptoal
    l
    ,ir
    respect
    iveof
    t
    hei
    rcol
    or,cr
    eedandgender
    ,hasbecomet
    hebasi
    sofmoder
    nli
    ber
    aldemocr
    aci
    es.I
    n
    t
    heel
    i
    tef
    orm ofr
    epr
    esent
    ati
    vedemocr
    acybei
    ngpr
    act
    icedi
    nmanycount
    ri
    es,t
    he
    el
    ect
    orat
    esar
    enotf
    reet
    oexer
    ciset
    hei
    rri
    ghtt
    ovot
    e.Vot
    ingbehav
    ioroft
    hel
    arge
    maj
    ori
    tyofel
    ect
    orat
    econt
    inuest
    obedet
    ermi
    nedbypr
    imor
    diall
    oyal
    ti
    esandpat
    ri
    archal
    r
    elat
    ions.

    Wi
    thi
    nthi
    spol
    i
    ticalcont
    extwhengenderquot
    asar
    einst
    it
    uted,t
    heydonotnecessar
    il
    y
    br
    inggenderequal
    i
    tybecauset
    hisi
    sawaysomet
    hesest
    atesnegot
    iat
    ewi
    thmoder
    nit
    y
    and pl
    ural
    i
    sm bybr
    ingi
    ng mar
    ginal
    i
    zed t
    othe mai
    nst
    ream on t
    he t
    erms ofmal
    e
    pat
    ri
    archalel
    i
    te.Whenwomenent
    ert
    hroughquot
    asi
    npol
    i
    ticsont
    heset
    erms,
    theyar
    e
    unabl
    etot
    ranscendt
    hepubl
    i
    c-pr
    ivat
    edi
    vi
    deandar
    ecompel
    l
    edt
    odopol
    i
    ticsonl
    yint
    he
    publ
    i
    car
    ena.Womeni
    npol
    i
    ticshav
    efai
    l
    edt
    omakef
    ami
    l
    yapar
    tofpubl
    i
    car
    ena,
    despi
    tet
    hef
    actt
    hatwhent
    heyent
    erpubl
    i
    cspaceofpol
    i
    ticst
    heydonotceaset
    obe
    pr
    ivat
    eindi
    vi
    dual
    s.Mycont
    ent
    ioni
    sthatwi
    thi
    nthi
    spat
    ri
    archalcont
    extofmoder
    n

    172|Page
    democr
    aci
    eswhenwomenent
    erpol
    i
    ticst
    hroughgenderquot
    as,t
    heyar
    eunabl
    eto
    t
    ransf
    ormt
    hesexualpol
    i
    ticsi
    nthest
    atei
    nst
    it
    uti
    ons.Rat
    hert
    heyar
    efor
    cedt
    opl
    ayon
    mal
    e’
    ster
    ms.Ther
    efor
    e,i
    tisconcl
    udedt
    hatwi
    thoutt
    het
    ransf
    ormat
    ionoft
    hewi
    der
    pol
    i
    tics,
    genderquot
    ascannotl
    eadt
    owomen’
    spol
    i
    tical
    empower
    ment
    .

    Howev
    er,t
    hequot
    adebat
    eishot
    lycont
    est
    edal
    lov
    ert
    hewor
    ld.Just
    iceandut
    il
    it
    ari
    an
    ar
    gument
    sar
    eof
    fer
    edt
    ojust
    if
    yquot
    apr
    ovi
    sions.Thej
    ust
    icear
    gumenti
    sbasedont
    he
    pr
    inci
    ple ofdemocr
    acy
    .Women const
    it
    ute near
    ly hal
    foft
    he wor
    ld popul
    ati
    on,
    cont
    ri
    but
    etot
    hesoci
    alandeconomi
    cli
    feoft
    hei
    rcount
    ri
    est
    hrought
    hei
    rpr
    oduct
    iveand
    unpai
    drepr
    oduct
    ivel
    abor
    ,ther
    efor
    e,i
    tist
    hei
    rfundament
    alr
    ightt
    ohav
    eav
    oicei
    nthei
    r
    count
    ri
    es’gov
    ernance.Theut
    il
    it
    ari
    anar
    gumentt
    akest
    heposi
    ti
    ont
    hatwomenhav
    e
    di
    ff
    erentexper
    iences,i
    nter
    est
    sandneedsf
    rom men.Theyhav
    edi
    sti
    nctl
    egaland
    nat
    ionalpr
    ior
    it
    iesduet
    othei
    rcar
    ingr
    olest
    hatt
    heyhav
    ebeenper
    for
    mingf
    orcent
    uri
    es.
    I
    tcont
    endst
    hatwomenwi
    l
    lbr
    ingadi
    sti
    nctper
    spect
    iveandposi
    ti
    vev
    aluesofpeace
    andl
    ovet
    opol
    i
    tics.
    Net
    wor
    kingofWomenPol
    it
    ici
    ans
    Ther
    eis an ext
    ensi
    ve document
    ati
    on on exper
    iences ofcol
    l
    ect
    ive powert
    hrough
    net
    wor
    king.Fr
    om t
    hef
    iel
    dofpol
    i
    tics,Iwoul
    dli
    ket
    oshar
    easuccessst
    oryf
    rom
    Paki
    stanwher
    ewomencounci
    l
    orsf
    ormedanet
    wor
    kandl
    ateranel
    ect
    ional
    l
    iance.
    Women’
    srepr
    esent
    ati
    oni
    ngov
    ernancest
    ruct
    ureshasbeenext
    remel
    ylow dur
    ingt
    he
    f
    if
    ty-
    fi
    vey
    ear
    s of Paki
    stan’
    s hi
    stor
    y.I
    nthe l
    ast Nat
    ionalAssembl
    y,women’
    s
    r
    epr
    esent
    ati
    on was mer
    ely 3.
    2 per
    cent
    .Wi
    thi
    nthi
    s cont
    ext of excl
    usi
    on and
    mar
    ginal
    i
    zat
    ion,
    aff
    ir
    mat
    iveact
    ionmeasur
    eisseenandpr
    omot
    edast
    hekeyst
    rat
    egyt
    o
    r
    edr
    essgenderi
    mbal
    ancei
    npol
    i
    tics.

    Amaj
    ori
    tyofwomenwhoent
    eredl
    ocalgov
    ernmentwer
    ethef
    ir
    stt
    imeent
    rant
    sinl
    ocal
    pol
    i
    tics.Theyhadnopr
    ioraf
    fi
    li
    ati
    onwi
    thpol
    i
    ticalpar
    ti
    es,women’
    sgr
    oupsorci
    vi
    l
    soci
    etyor
    gani
    zat
    ions.Theyal
    sol
    ackedpol
    i
    ticalunder
    standi
    ngofLocalGov
    ernment
    Or
    dinance/
    Syst
    em.Womencounci
    l
    orsacr
    osst
    het
    hreet
    ier
    sofl
    ocalgov
    ernmentf
    aced
    si
    mil
    ari
    nst
    it
    uti
    onalandsoci
    alconst
    rai
    ntst
    oper
    for
    mthei
    rrol
    esef
    fect
    ivel
    ydespi
    te

    173|Page
    di
    ff
    erences among t
    hem al
    ong t
    he l
    i
    nes ofcl
    ass,r
    ural
    /ur
    ban di
    vi
    de and pol
    i
    tical
    af
    fi
    li
    ati
    ons.Theyshar
    edt
    hecommonal
    i
    tyofexper
    ienceofpat
    ri
    archalr
    esi
    stancet
    hey
    metf
    rom mal
    emember
    sofdi
    str
    ict
    ,tehsi
    landuni
    oncounci
    l
    s.
    Thewaymal
    emember
    signor
    edwomencounci
    l
    ors,
    treat
    edt
    hem wi
    thcont
    empt
    ,deni
    ed
    t
    hem dev
    elopmentf
    undsandexpect
    edt
    hem t
    oconf
    inet
    hemsel
    vesonl
    ytowomen’
    s
    i
    ssuescr
    eat
    edast
    rongopposi
    ti
    onalconsci
    ousnessamongwomencounci
    l
    ors.Thi
    s
    r
    esul
    ted i
    ntoi
    ncr
    eased awar
    enessamong t
    hem oft
    hei
    rown genderi
    dent
    it
    iesas
    women.Theywer
    eabl
    etocl
    ear
    lyseet
    hei
    nter
    connect
    ionbet
    weenpubl
    i
    candpr
    ivat
    e
    pat
    ri
    archy
    .

    Thei
    rgenderconsci
    ousness,whi
    chhasev
    olv
    ednotnecessar
    il
    ywi
    thi
    nanyf
    emi
    nist
    f
    ramewor
    k,hasbr
    oughtt
    hem t
    oget
    heraswomen.Theyr
    eal
    i
    zedt
    hatal
    otoft
    he
    pr
    obl
    ems/
    const
    rai
    ntst
    heyf
    acedascounci
    l
    orsi
    nor
    dert
    oper
    for
    mthei
    rpol
    i
    ticalr
    ole
    mor
    eef
    fect
    ivel
    yispr
    imar
    il
    yduet
    othei
    rgenderi
    dent
    it
    yaswomen.Ther
    efor
    e,women
    bel
    ongi
    ngt
    odi
    ff
    erentpol
    i
    tical
    par
    ti
    esdeci
    dedt
    ocr
    eat
    eacommonf
    orum wher
    ewomen
    counci
    l
    orscoul
    dcomet
    oget
    hert
    ocombatt
    hesepr
    obl
    ems,shar
    ethei
    rexper
    iences,
    l
    ear
    nfr
    om eachot
    her
    ,fi
    ndway
    stobecomemor
    eef
    fect
    ivei
    nthei
    rnewl
    yassi
    gned
    pol
    i
    ticalr
    oles,r
    esi
    stpat
    ri
    archalbackl
    ashandasser
    tthemsel
    vest
    ohav
    ethei
    rri
    ghtt
    o
    accesspol
    i
    tical
    power
    .
    Wi
    tht
    hehel
    pofaNGOPat
    tanDev
    elopmentOr
    gani
    zat
    ion,womencounci
    l
    orsf
    ormeda
    commonpl
    atf
    orm wi
    tht
    henameofWomenCounci
    l
    orsNet
    wor
    k(WCN)att
    hepr
    ovi
    nci
    al
    l
    evelt
    oinst
    it
    uti
    onal
    i
    zet
    hesuppor
    tfunct
    ionsandusei
    ttonegot
    iat
    eforbet
    terwor
    king
    env
    ironmentf
    orwomencounci
    l
    ors.
    TheWCNhadchapt
    ersi
    n16di
    str
    ict
    sint
    hepr
    ovi
    nceofPunj
    abwi
    thamember
    shi
    pof
    mor
    ethan 2,
    000 counci
    l
    orsf
    rom UC,t
    ehsi
    land di
    str
    ictl
    evel
    s.The WCN wor
    ked
    ef
    fect
    ivel
    ywi
    thi
    tsdemocr
    ati
    cal
    l
    yel
    ect
    edwor
    kingcommi
    tt
    eesatdi
    str
    ictandpr
    ovi
    nci
    al
    l
    evel
    stoar
    ti
    cul
    atet
    hepr
    obl
    emsf
    acedbywomencounci
    l
    orsonv
    ari
    ouspubl
    i
    cfora.
    Theyr
    esi
    stedt
    her
    educt
    ionofseat
    satt
    heUCl
    evelandr
    aisedv
    oiceagai
    nstt
    hegender
    bi
    asesoft
    hei
    rmal
    ecol
    l
    eagues.I
    ntheabsenceofconst
    it
    uencyf
    ort
    ehsi
    landdi
    str
    ict
    counci
    l
    or,WCNasacol
    l
    ect
    ivebodypr
    ovi
    dedt
    hem wi
    thapowerbase.I
    nthepr
    ocess,

    174|Page
    WCNhel
    pedr
    aisedt
    hepol
    i
    tical
    prof
    il
    eofi
    tsmember
    s.
    Enabl
    ingenv
    ironmentf
    orWomenPar
    ti
    cipat
    ioni
    nPol
    it
    icsandDev
    elopment

    I
    nthe i
    nter
    connect
    ed wor
    ld of t
    oday
    ,ext
    ernalf
    act
    ors such as gl
    obal
    i
    zat
    ion,
    i
    nter
    nat
    ionalt
    radeandeconomi
    cpol
    i
    ciesi
    mpactt
    hedev
    elopmentpol
    i
    ciesoft
    henat
    ion
    -
    stat
    es.Ther
    efor
    e,t
    hecr
    eat
    ionofenabl
    i
    ngenv
    ironmentf
    orwomen’
    spar
    ti
    cipat
    ioni
    n
    pol
    i
    ticsandi
    ndev
    elopmentcannotbev
    iewedonl
    ywi
    thi
    ntheboundar
    iesofacount
    ry.I
    t
    mustbe l
    i
    nked wi
    th gl
    obalf
    act
    ors.Thus,t
    he r
    esponsi
    bil
    i
    tyt
    o cr
    eat
    e suppor
    ti
    ve
    env
    ironmentf
    orgenderequal
    i
    tyandadv
    ancementofwomenasshar
    edr
    esponsi
    bil
    i
    ty
    f
    all
    sequal
    l
    yont
    henat
    ionalandi
    nter
    nat
    ionalcommuni
    ti
    es.I
    nter
    locki
    ngl
    ayerofgender
    i
    nequal
    i
    tiesar
    eroot
    edi
    nthepowerst
    ruct
    uresatt
    henat
    ionalandi
    nter
    nat
    ionall
    evel
    s.
    Dev
    elopmentandt
    hegl
    obal
    i
    zat
    ionpol
    i
    cieshav
    eledt
    oincr
    easedpov
    ert
    y,excl
    usi
    onand
    mar
    ginal
    i
    zat
    ion.St
    ruct
    uralf
    orcesmustbechal
    l
    engedandt
    ransf
    orm byl
    i
    nki
    ngt
    hem
    wi
    tht
    he r
    ight
    sofpeopl
    e.Wi
    thoutchangi
    ng soci
    o-cul
    tur
    al,pol
    i
    ticaland economi
    c
    st
    ruct
    uralbar
    ri
    ersatt
    henat
    ionalandi
    nter
    nat
    ionall
    evel
    s,t
    hegoalofgenderequal
    i
    tyor
    women’
    sequal
    par
    ti
    ci
    pat
    ioni
    npol
    i
    ticsanddev
    elopmentwi
    l
    lremai
    nimpossi
    blet
    oat
    tai
    n.

    Anot
    heri
    mpor
    tantel
    ementi
    nthe enabl
    i
    ng env
    ironmentr
    elat
    es t
    othe nat
    ure of
    democr
    acy and t
    he l
    evelof democr
    ati
    zat
    ion i
    n soci
    ety
    .The par
    ti
    cipat
    ive and
    decent
    ral
    i
    zedf
    orm ofgov
    ernancecr
    eat
    esgr
    eat
    erspacef
    orci
    ti
    zenst
    opar
    ti
    cipat
    ein
    gov
    ernancepr
    ocessesandst
    ruct
    ures.I
    tal
    socr
    eat
    esspacef
    orgr
    eat
    eri
    nter
    act
    ion
    bet
    weent
    hest
    ateandt
    hesoci
    ety
    .Humancapaci
    ti
    esar
    edependentont
    heav
    ail
    abi
    l
    ity
    ofr
    esour
    cessuchaseducat
    ion,heal
    thandempl
    oymentt
    hatbui
    l
    dcapabi
    l
    iti
    esand
    enl
    argehumanchoi
    ces.Accesst
    oeducat
    ion,heal
    thandempl
    oymenti
    sdi
    rect
    lyl
    i
    nked
    wi
    thwomen’
    sabi
    l
    ityt
    ocr
    eat
    espacef
    ort
    hemsel
    vesi
    npol
    i
    ticsanddev
    elopment
    .
    Women’
    sConsci
    ousnessOfThei
    rPol
    it
    ical
    Right
    s
    I
    tisanot
    hercr
    it
    icalel
    ementf
    orwomen’
    sindi
    vi
    dualandcol
    l
    ect
    iveagency
    .Pol
    i
    tical
    consci
    ousnesst
    hroughbui
    l
    dingt
    ransf
    ormat
    ivecommuni
    ti
    esi
    sthesust
    ainabl
    ewayt
    o
    t
    ransf
    orm pol
    i
    ticsanddev
    elopment
    .Ast
    rongwomen’
    smov
    ementandci
    vi
    lsoci
    etyi
    s
    anot
    hercondi
    ti
    onofenabl
    i
    ngenv
    ironmentt
    hatcani
    nfl
    uencet
    hedi
    rect
    ionofpol
    i
    tics

    175|Page
    anddev
    elopmenti
    nfav
    orofwomen.
    Tr
    ipl
    erol
    esofwomeni
    npr
    oduct
    ive,
    repr
    oduct
    iveandcommuni
    tymanagementspher
    es
    musti
    nfor
    m t
    heef
    for
    tsf
    orcr
    eat
    ing suppor
    ti
    veenv
    ironmentf
    orwomen’
    spol
    i
    tical
    par
    ti
    cipat
    ion.Pr
    ovi
    si
    on ofchi
    l
    dcar
    e and car
    e wor
    kisv
    italt
    o enabl
    i
    ng women t
    o
    par
    ti
    cipat
    eint
    hedev
    elopmentpr
    ocesses.
    Reser
    vedSeat
    sMustBeFi
    ll
    edThr
    oughDi
    rectEl
    ect
    ions
    Reser
    vedseat
    smustbef
    il
    ledt
    hroughdi
    rectel
    ect
    ionssot
    hatwomenonr
    eser
    vedseat
    s
    canhav
    ethei
    rownconst
    it
    uencyandpowerbase.Al
    so,anamendmentt
    othePol
    i
    tical
    Par
    tyActshoul
    dbei
    ntr
    oducedonapr
    ior
    it
    ybasi
    sthatshoul
    dmakei
    tmandat
    oryf
    or
    pol
    i
    tical
    par
    ti
    est
    ogr
    antgenderquot
    awi
    thi
    nthepar
    tyst
    ruct
    uresandi
    ngi
    vi
    ngt
    icket
    son
    gener
    alseat
    sdur
    ingel
    ect
    ions.Ref
    ormi
    ngenderquot
    aist
    heonl
    ywayt
    opr
    otectt
    he
    l
    egi
    ti
    macyandcr
    edi
    bil
    i
    tyofquot
    apr
    ovi
    sionandsav
    eitf
    rom t
    hechal
    l
    engeposedby
    mi
    sogy
    nist
    s.
    LackOfUni
    tyAmongWomenPar
    li
    ament
    ari
    ans
    I
    nPaki
    stan,womenhav
    eamar
    ginal
    i
    zedr
    olei
    nthepar
    li
    ament
    .Dur
    ingt
    hesessi
    onsof
    t
    heSenat
    ein2003-
    04,womensenat
    orsr
    aisedonl
    y201(
    7%)outofat
    otalof2,
    769
    quest
    ions.Si
    mil
    arl
    y,outof335r
    esol
    uti
    ons,onl
    y43(
    12%)wer
    emov
    edbywomen
    senat
    ors,
    andoutoft
    otal
    of400mot
    ions,
    onl
    y26(
    7%)mot
    ionswer
    epassedbyt
    hem.

    Femal
    epar
    li
    ament
    ari
    ansar
    enotkeent
    otakeupwomen’
    sissuesbecauseofpar
    ty
    pol
    i
    tics.Wemustconsi
    dert
    her
    oleofwomenpar
    li
    ament
    ari
    answhocameont
    he
    r
    eser
    vedseat
    sforwomen.Genderquot
    asar
    ear
    guedonsev
    eralgr
    oundsbutt
    hekey
    ar
    gumentf
    ort
    hisaf
    fi
    rmat
    iveact
    ionmeasur
    eof
    teni
    ncl
    udes:

    A)Thef
    actt
    hatwomenconst
    it
    utehal
    foft
    hewor
    ldpopul
    ati
    on;
    ther
    efor
    e,i
    tissi
    mpl
    yan
    i
    ssueofj
    ust
    icet
    oref
    lectt
    hei
    rnumer
    ical
    str
    engt
    hinpol
    i
    tical
    inst
    it
    uti
    ons.
    (
    b)Womenhav
    easpeci
    fi
    cper
    spect
    iveonpol
    i
    ticsandpol
    i
    ticali
    ssues;t
    her
    efor
    e,t
    hei
    r
    pr
    esencewi
    l
    lmakeadi
    ff
    erencet
    opol
    i
    tics.
    (
    c)Theyhav
    especi
    ali
    nter
    est
    sduet
    othei
    rrepr
    oduct
    iver
    olesandsubor
    dinat
    eposi
    ti
    on
    i
    n soci
    ety
    ,ther
    efor
    e,t
    heymustbepr
    esenti
    n pol
    i
    ticaldeci
    sion maki
    ng bodi
    est
    o

    176|Page
    r
    epr
    esentandpr
    otectwomen’
    sint
    erest
    s.

    OpenEl
    ect
    oralSy
    stem
    I
    nconcl
    usi
    on,
    wehav
    eseent
    hatanopenel
    ect
    oralsy
    stem hascr
    eat
    edoppor
    tuni
    ti
    esf
    or
    woment
    opar
    ti
    ci
    pat
    e.Howev
    er,t
    her
    ear
    emanybar
    ri
    erst
    hathi
    ndert
    heachi
    evementof
    genderf
    air
    nessagendasi
    ntheel
    ect
    ions,par
    ti
    cul
    arl
    yint
    ermsofaf
    fi
    rmat
    iveact
    ioni
    n
    women’
    squot
    asy
    stems.
    Despi
    test
    hel
    egalsuppor
    tofanat
    ionall
    aw,t
    hequot
    asy
    stem doesnotnecessar
    il
    y
    el
    i
    minat
    epat
    ri
    archalbar
    ri
    ersand i
    ncr
    easet
    henumberofwomen’
    srepr
    esent
    ati
    on.
    Howev
    er,t
    her
    e ar
    e some al
    ter
    nat
    ive act
    ionst
    hathav
    e successf
    ull
    yshat
    ter
    ed t
    he
    f
    ort
    ressoft
    hepat
    ri
    archal
    stat
    eandi
    ncr
    easedf
    emal
    erepr
    esent
    ati
    on.
    WomenCandi
    dat
    esPar
    ti
    cipat
    eInEl
    ect
    ionsOnARegul
    arBasi
    s
    Aswomencandi
    dat
    espar
    ti
    cipat
    einel
    ect
    ionsonar
    egul
    arbasi
    s,i
    tisi
    mpor
    tantt
    o
    under
    standt
    hei
    rmot
    ivat
    ionsandexami
    net
    hel
    egi
    slat
    ivemeasur
    est
    heymayseekt
    o
    empowerwomen.Thi
    sisi
    mpor
    tantasagui
    del
    i
    neoft
    hei
    rcommi
    tmentt
    opol
    i
    tics,as
    wel
    last
    hei
    rcont
    ri
    but
    iont
    otheempower
    mentofwomen.Subst
    ant
    ivecont
    ri
    but
    ionsby
    womencandi
    dat
    esf
    rom pol
    i
    ticalf
    ami
    l
    ybackgr
    oundsi
    spar
    ti
    cul
    arl
    yneededt
    obr
    eak
    t
    hegener
    alpr
    act
    iceofwomencandi
    dat
    eswhosi
    mpl
    yrepl
    acet
    hei
    rhusbands,f
    ather
    s
    andsonswhoar
    eunabl
    etomai
    ntai
    nthei
    rposi
    ti
    onast
    hel
    awpr
    event
    sit
    .
    Ther
    ear
    e,howev
    er,somef
    emal
    epol
    i
    tici
    ans,andev
    enpol
    i
    ticaldy
    nast
    iest
    hatar
    e
    commi
    tt
    edt
    otheempower
    mentofwomen.Butashi
    stor
    yandpol
    i
    ticall
    essonshav
    e
    shown,
    womenmember
    sofpol
    i
    ticaldy
    nast
    iesmaysomet
    imesbr
    eakt
    hei
    rcommi
    tment
    i
    nor
    dert
    osust
    aint
    hei
    rpol
    i
    tical
    power
    .
    Rol
    eofWomen’
    sMov
    ement
    sAndCi
    vi
    lSoci
    etyMov
    ement
    s
    Women’
    smov
    ement
    sandci
    vi
    lsoci
    etymov
    ement
    singener
    al,needt
    ocont
    inuet
    hei
    r
    ef
    for
    tst
    ocr
    eat
    emor
    eroom f
    orwomen’
    spar
    ti
    cipat
    ion.A new pol
    i
    ticalmeasur
    eis
    r
    equi
    redt
    hatcombi
    nest
    hecol
    l
    ect
    ivepowerofl
    obby
    ist
    s,andencour
    agi
    ngment
    o
    under
    standandacceptt
    hef
    emal
    eper
    spect
    ive.
    Unt
    ilnow,
    womenpol
    i
    tici
    anshav
    ehadt
    owor
    kwi
    thi
    namal
    eper
    spect
    ivewhi
    chi
    smade
    har
    derby hav
    ing t
    o car
    ry on t
    he bur
    den ofhousehol
    dtasks whi
    ch t
    hei
    rmal
    e

    177|Page
    count
    erpar
    tsdonothav
    etodo,
    andt
    her
    efor
    eput
    ti
    ngwomenatadi
    sadv
    ant
    age.I
    nor
    der
    t
    opr
    omot
    ewomen’
    sri
    ght
    s,ci
    vi
    lsoci
    etymov
    ement
    s,especi
    all
    ywomen’
    smov
    ement
    s,
    shoul
    dor
    gani
    zeconst
    it
    uenci
    est
    ogener
    atepubl
    i
    cdemandsf
    orwomen’
    swel
    far
    e.I
    n
    par
    ti
    cul
    ar,when r
    aisi
    ng a cont
    rov
    ersi
    ali
    ssue,t
    he onl
    ypower
    fulmov
    ementi
    sthe
    consol
    i
    dat
    ionof‘
    popul
    arsent
    iment
    ’(casest
    hatt
    oucht
    hehear
    toft
    hepubl
    i
    c)andt
    his
    shoul
    dbeusedt
    opushl
    egi
    slat
    ors.
    Pol
    icyRecommendat
    ions
     TheUni
    tedNat
    ionshoul
    dpl
    ayi
    tsr
    olet
    o humani
    zegl
    obal
    i
    zat
    ionpr
    ocessesby
    adv
    ocat
    ingl
    egi
    sl
    ati
    ont
    hataddr
    essesi
    mper
    fect
    ionoft
    hemar
    ket
    .
     TheUN shoul
    ddev
    elopasy
    stem ofi
    ncent
    ivesf
    orcount
    ri
    est
    hatwor
    ktowar
    ds
    nar
    rowi
    ngt
    hegendergapi
    neducat
    ion,
    heal
    thandempl
    oyment
    .
     Cl
    eargui
    del
    i
    nesf
    ormodal
    i
    tiesandi
    mpl
    ement
    ati
    onofaf
    fi
    rmat
    ivemeasur
    est
    hat
    l
    eadt
    oempower
    ingwomenandcr
    eat
    ingt
    hei
    rabi
    l
    ityt
    ocr
    it
    ical
    l
    yengagewi
    tht
    he
    st
    ateandt
    hesoci
    etyf
    orasoci
    alchangeandgenderequal
    i
    tyshoul
    dbedev
    eloped.
     Resear
    ch,document
    ati
    onanddi
    ssemi
    nat
    ionofsuccessf
    ulexper
    iencesi
    nthewor
    ld
    ar
    eneededt
    opr
    omot
    ewomen’
    spar
    ti
    cipat
    ioni
    npol
    i
    ticsanddev
    elopment
    .

    178|Page
    ThePr
    obl
    emsFacedByWomenAsVot
    ers,
    Candi
    dat
    esAndPol
    it
    ical
    Repr
    esent
    ati
    ves

    Paki
    stancamei
    ntobei
    ngasar
    esul
    tofmut
    ualef
    for
    tsofMusl
    i
    m menandwomenof
    t
    heSub-
    cont
    inent
    .Ideal
    l
    y,t
    heyshoul
    dhav
    ebeenapar
    toft
    hecount
    ry’
    spol
    i
    ticsaf
    ter
    i
    ndependence.Buti
    tappear
    sthati
    twasandi
    smor
    eaquest
    ionofwhet
    hert
    hey‘
    coul
    d’
    t
    han ofwhet
    hert
    hey‘
    shoul
    d’
    .Owi
    ng t
    olong st
    ret
    ched mi
    l
    itar
    yrul
    esf
    oll
    owed by
    f
    eudal
    i
    sti
    c pol
    i
    tics ofourcount
    ry,women f
    ace a numberofpr
    obl
    ems r
    egar
    ding
    par
    ti
    cipat
    ioni
    npol
    i
    tics;
    bei
    tasav
    oter
    ,asacandi
    dat
    eorasapol
    i
    tical
    repr
    esent
    ati
    ve.
    I
    ssuesFacedByWomeni
    nCur
    rentPol
    it
    ical
    Set
    up
    Cur
    rentpol
    i
    ticalset
    upofPaki
    stanmost
    lyf
    avor
    smenandi
    slestf
    ri
    endl
    ytowar
    ds
    women.Fol
    l
    owi
    ngar
    eaf
    ewi
    ssuest
    hatwomenf
    acer
    egar
    dingpar
    ti
    cipat
    ioni
    npol
    i
    tics
    andgov
    ernance.
    I
    ssuesFacedByWomenasVot
    ers

    1.Absenceofv
    oterr
    egi
    str
    ati
    on.
    2.Pr
    obl
    emsr
    elat
    edt
    oCNI
    C.
    3.Genderr
    oleper
    cept
    ion.
    4.Lackofawar
    enessf
    ort
    hei
    rrol
    esandr
    ight
    s.
    5.Absenceofdeci
    sionmaki
    ngi
    nvot
    ing.
    6.Pat
    ri
    archi
    cmi
    ndsetanddomi
    nat
    ingpr
    obl
    ems.
    7.Et
    hni
    cIssuesandt
    ri
    bal
    Cul
    tur
    e
    8.Ter
    ror
    ism andSecur
    it
    yThr
    eat
    s

    179|Page
    1.Et
    hni
    cIssuesandt
    ri
    balCul
    tur
    eDeni
    alofr
    ightt
    ovot
    e
    Manyt
    imeswomenar
    ebar
    redbyt
    hei
    rmal
    efami
    l
    ymember
    sfr
    om cast
    ingv
    ote.Same
    casewasseeni
    ntheLGel
    ect
    ionsi
    nLowerDi
    r.
    2.Mal
    edomi
    nancei
    ndeci
    dingwhom t
    ovot
    e
    Ev
    eni
    fwomeni
    nmedi
    ocr
    efami
    l
    iesar
    egr
    ant
    edr
    ightt
    ovot
    e,t
    heyar
    enotal
    l
    owedt
    o
    v
    oteaccor
    dingt
    othei
    rwi
    l
    l.Theyar
    emor
    ethanof
    tendi
    ctat
    edbyt
    hei
    rmal
    efami
    l
    y
    member
    saboutwhom t
    ovot
    e.I
    nthi
    sregar
    dtheyar
    eonl
    yusedt
    ofi
    l
    lthev
    otebanksof
    pol
    i
    tici
    ansandnotasapar
    ti
    cipanti
    nsoci
    alupl
    i
    ft.
    3.Secur
    it
    ysi
    tuat
    ionatpol
    li
    ngst
    ati
    ons
    I
    tisacommonobser
    vat
    iont
    hatf
    ight
    ser
    uptatpol
    l
    ingst
    ati
    onsbet
    weenanyt
    wogr
    oups.
    Manyt
    imesmal
    emember
    soff
    ami
    l
    ydonott
    aket
    hei
    rwoment
    opol
    l
    ingst
    ati
    ons
    becauseoft
    hisr
    eason.Theydonotappr
    oveoft
    hemedi
    acov
    erageofsuchev
    ent
    s,pl
    us
    t
    hesi
    tuat
    ionget
    sver
    yupset
    ti
    ngf
    orwoment
    oo.
    4.I
    ssuesr
    elat
    edt
    oCNI
    Candr
    egi
    str
    ati
    onasav
    oter
    Especi
    all
    yinr
    ural
    areaswomendonothol
    dCNI
    Candar
    ethusnotr
    egi
    ster
    edasv
    oter
    s.
    5.Compl
    expr
    ocedur
    eofcast
    ingv
    ote
    Femal
    eli
    ter
    acyr
    atei
    slowascompar
    edt
    othatofmal
    einPaki
    stan.Ther
    efor
    e,compl
    ex
    v
    oti
    ngpr
    ocedur
    esi
    rkst
    hem t
    hemost
    .Asi
    mil
    arcasewasseeni
    nthepol
    l
    ingst
    ati
    onsof
    Peshawari
    nther
    ecentLGel
    ect
    ions.
    6.Lowl
    it
    eracyr
    atef
    =ofwomenandunawar
    eness
    Rur
    all
    i
    ter
    acyr
    atei
    nPaki
    stanst
    andsat49%ofwhi
    chl
    esst
    han50%ar
    efemal
    es.Thi
    s
    l
    ow l
    i
    ter
    acyr
    atekeepswomenunawar
    eoft
    hei
    rpol
    i
    ticalr
    ight
    sandhencet
    heydonot
    par
    ti
    cipat
    easv
    oter
    s.
    I
    ssuesFacedByWomenasCandi
    dat
    es
    1.Nonpar
    ti
    ci
    pat
    ionofwomen.
    2.Tr
    ibal
    cul
    tur
    e.
    3.Cul
    tur
    aldi
    scour
    agementwi
    thr
    egar
    dst
    opol
    i
    tics.
    4.Quot
    asy
    stem ser
    vesonl
    ytot
    hef
    ami
    l
    yofpol
    i
    tici
    ans,
    nott
    othecommonwomen.
    5.Smal
    landunequal
    quot
    aforwomen.

    180|Page
    6.Compl
    i
    cat
    edpr
    ocedur
    esr
    egar
    dingpar
    ti
    cipat
    ion.
    7.Nospeci
    fi
    cquot
    aforwomenr
    egar
    dingel
    i
    gibi
    l
    ity
    .
    8.Nof
    aci
    l
    itat
    iont
    owomeni
    nel
    i
    gibi
    l
    itycr
    it
    eri
    a.

    1.Pat
    ri
    archalmi
    ndsetr
    egar
    dingpol
    it
    ics
    Oursoci
    etyl
    ongagodescr
    ibedr
    olesofmenandwomenv
    eryst
    ri
    ngent
    ly.Samegoesf
    or
    pol
    i
    tics,
    whi
    cht
    odayi
    sconsi
    der
    edasmal
    edomai
    nandabl
    ott
    owomenwhowi
    shest
    o
    cont
    estel
    ect
    ions.
    2.Dy
    nast
    icpol
    it
    ics
    Adel
    i
    cacyofPaki
    stan,t
    hedy
    nast
    icpol
    i
    ticshaskeptwomen,especi
    all
    yfor
    m mi
    ddl
    e
    cl
    ass,f
    rom par
    ti
    ci
    pat
    ioni
    npol
    i
    tics.Ev
    enwomenwhobel
    ongt
    opol
    i
    ticalf
    ami
    l
    iesand
    occupyseat
    sinpar
    li
    amenthav
    eleastsayi
    ndeci
    sionmaki
    ng.

    ”
    Lesst
    han5%off
    emal
    epol
    it
    icalr
    epr
    esent
    ati
    veshavef
    ather
    sorhusbandsbel
    ongi
    ng
    t
    owor
    kingcl
    ass.
    ”
    (
    Far
    zanaBar
    i)
    3.Compl
    exappl
    icat
    ionpr
    ocedur
    e
    Appl
    i
    cat
    ionpr
    ocedur
    eissuedbyel
    ect
    ioncommi
    ssi
    onofPaki
    stani
    squi
    tcompl
    i
    cat
    ed.
    Secondl
    y,i
    tgr
    ant
    sav
    erynar
    rowt
    imef
    ramef
    orsubmi
    ssi
    onoff
    orms.Asar
    esul
    t,of
    fi
    ces
    ofel
    ect
    ioncommi
    ssi
    onar
    eseenf
    il
    ledwi
    thmenandwomenhav
    etor
    etr
    eat
    .
    4.Di
    scour
    agi
    ngcul
    tur
    almi
    ndset
    Women ar
    e sel
    dom encour
    aged byf
    ami
    l
    ymember
    stoj
    oin pol
    i
    ticsorcont
    esti
    n
    el
    ect
    ions as a candi
    dat
    e.I
    nfact
    ,theyar
    e mostoft
    he t
    imes notev
    en gr
    ant
    ed
    “
    per
    missi
    on”t
    odoso.
    5.Apat
    het
    icat
    ti
    tudeoff
    emal
    eMPAsandMNAs
    I
    ncl
    udi
    ng Benazi
    rBhut
    to,mostoft
    hef
    emal
    eMPAsand MNAsseem t
    o bel
    east
    bot
    her
    edabouti
    ssuesf
    acedbywomeni
    npol
    i
    tics.
    6.Absenceofwomeni
    nst
    udentwi
    ngsofpol
    it
    icalpar
    ti
    es
    I
    tismor
    ethanev
    identt
    hatwomenar
    enotseenasapar
    ti
    cipanti
    nthest
    udentwi
    ngof

    181|Page
    pol
    i
    ticalpar
    ti
    es.I
    tnotonl
    ykeepswor
    kingcl
    asswomenoutofpol
    i
    ticsbutal
    somar
    s
    t
    hei
    rpar
    ti
    cipat
    ionascandi
    dat
    es.

    7.Noquot
    aforwomeni
    npol
    i
    tical
    par
    ti
    esf
    ori
    ssui
    ngt
    icket
    s
    “
    Evenal
    iber
    alest
    imat
    ecannotputwomen’
    spar
    ti
    cipat
    ioni
    npol
    it
    icalpar
    ti
    esabove5%”
    (
    Far
    zanaBar
    i)
    El
    ect
    ioncampai
    gnsuppor
    ter
    smost
    lyandwi
    l
    li
    ngsuppor
    tmal
    ecandi
    dat
    es.Keepi
    ngt
    his
    i
    nvi
    ewami
    nimalamountoft
    icket
    sisi
    ssuedt
    owomenact
    ivi
    stsofpar
    ty.Absenceof
    quot
    aint
    hisr
    egar
    dfur
    theraggr
    avat
    est
    hesi
    tuat
    ion.

    Economi
    cdependenceofwomenonmen
    Womenar
    enoteconomi
    cal
    l
    yindependentandt
    husr
    equi
    ref
    inancef
    orcont
    est
    ingan
    el
    ect
    ion.Asf
    inancer
    sar
    erel
    uct
    antt
    ospendmoneyonf
    emal
    ecandi
    dat
    es,t
    heyar
    e
    usual
    l
    yabsentf
    rom t
    hepol
    i
    tical
    scene.
    Pr
    obl
    emsFacedByWomenasPol
    it
    ical
    Repr
    esent
    ati
    ves

    1.Deci
    sionmaki
    ngandpowershar
    ingi
    smal
    edomai
    n.
    2.Pol
    i
    ticsi
    smal
    edomai
    n
    3.Absenceofnet
    wor
    kingamongf
    emal
    epol
    i
    tici
    ans.
    4.Femal
    epol
    i
    tici
    ansar
    eleasti
    nter
    est
    edt
    owar
    dswomendev
    elopment
    .
    5.Absenceofwomeni
    npol
    i
    tical
    deci
    sionmaki
    ng.
    6.Economi
    cdependenceonmal
    e.
    7.Nopol
    i
    tical
    suppor
    ttowomen.
    8.Womendon’
    thav
    epol
    i
    tical
    ski
    l
    ls.
    9.Absenceoft
    rai
    ningi
    nst
    it
    uti
    onsr
    egar
    dingwomeni
    npol
    i
    tics.
    10.
    Absenceofwomeni
    ngr
    assr
    ootpol
    i
    ticsandst
    udentpol
    i
    tics
    1.Cul
    tur
    e0fmal
    eleader
    shi
    p
    St
    rongnet
    wor
    kingi
    snotv
    eryev
    identi
    nfemal
    epol
    i
    ticalr
    epr
    esent
    ati
    vesbecauseour
    st
    ruggl
    eforpowerandl
    egpul
    l
    ingcul
    tur
    e.

    182|Page
    2.I
    nequi
    tabl
    equot
    eforwomeni
    nassembl
    ies
    Thequot
    agi
    vent
    owomenonseat
    sofnat
    ionalassembl
    yisnotequi
    tabl
    etot
    hei
    r
    popul
    ati
    on.I
    tappear
    stobeast
    ancet
    akenmor
    efort
    hesakeofv
    isi
    bil
    i
    tyt
    hanf
    or
    par
    ti
    cipat
    ion.
    3.Li
    mit
    edr
    olei
    ndeci
    sionmaki
    ng
    Ev
    anapol
    i
    tical
    repr
    esent
    ati
    vewomanhasal
    i
    mit
    edr
    olei
    ndeci
    sionmaki
    ng.

    4.Medi
    aconsi
    der
    ati
    ont
    osomespeci
    fi
    cst
    yledMPAsandMNAs
    Oft
    hef
    ewf
    emal
    epol
    i
    tical
    repr
    esent
    ati
    vesseat
    edi
    nassembl
    i
    es,
    medi
    ahi
    ghl
    i
    ght
    sthose
    who ar
    est
    yled i
    n West
    ern at
    ti
    re.I
    thar
    dlyf
    ocuseson women who r
    epr
    esentt
    he
    commoncul
    tur
    eofoursoci
    ety
    .
    Thest
    atusofwomeni
    npol
    i
    ticsseemsdepl
    orabl
    einPaki
    stanbutwi
    thl
    i
    ttl
    eef
    for
    tand
    mor
    esi
    ncer
    eappr
    oachf
    rom deci
    sionmaker
    s,t
    hesi
    tuat
    ioncanbeal
    ter
    ed.Women
    compr
    iseabouthal
    foft
    hepopul
    ati
    onofPaki
    stan.I
    tcannotpr
    ogr
    essunt
    ilwhol
    eofi
    ts
    popul
    ati
    onpar
    ti
    ci
    pat
    esi
    ngov
    ernanceandsoci
    alupl
    i
    ft.

    183|Page
    TheWoman’
    sSuf
    frageMov
    ement
    ,WomenWi
    nni
    ngt
    heVot
    e

    AMeanst
    oAchi
    eveEqualRi
    ght
    s

    Theyear1995markst
    he75thanni
    ver
    sar
    yofwomenhav i
    ngther
    ightt
    ovot
    e.Af
    ter72
    year
    sofstr
    uggl
    e,t
    heNinet
    eent
    hAmendmentwaspassedi
    n1920.

    Ther
    ear
    efi
    vesect
    ions

     Backgr
    oundandBegi
    nni
    ngofMov
    ement
    ,

     Af
    tert
    heCi
    vi
    lWar

     Act
    ivi
    sts,

     Opposi
    ti
    on-Ant
    i-
    Suf
    fragi
    sts

     Vi
    ctor
    y-TheNi
    net
    eent
    hAmendment

    TheNi
    net
    eent
    hAmendmentt
    otheConst
    it
    uti
    onOfTheUni
    tedSt
    ates

    1.Ther
    ightofci
    ti
    zensoft
    heUni
    tedSt
    atest
    ovot
    eshal
    lnotbedeni
    edorabr
    idged

    2.byt
    heUni
    tedSt
    atesorbyanySt
    ateonaccountofsex.

    3.Congr
    essshal
    lhav
    epowert
    oenf
    orcet
    hisar
    ti
    clebyappr
    opr
    iat
    elegi
    slat
    ion.

    4.Neit
    hertheUnit
    ednoranyst
    atehast
    her
    ightt
    okeepaci
    ti
    zenf
    rom v
    oti
    ng
    becauseshei
    sawoman.

    184|Page
    5.Congr
    esshast
    hepowert
    omakel
    awst
    hatwi
    l
    lmaket
    hisamendmentef
    fect
    ive.

    I
    ntr
    oduct
    ion

    Thei deaofequalri
    ght
    sf orwomeni snotanew one.Thef emini
    stmovementoft he
    1970sand‘ 80si sact
    uall
    yar e-emergenceofamassi vesocialref
    orm movement,
    beguni n1848,attheSenecaFallsWomen’sRi ght
    sConv enti
    on.Thewomen’srights
    mov ementeventual
    l
    yfocuseditseff
    ort
    sonwi nningtheri
    ghtt ovot
    e,acampai
    gnt hat
    reachedasuccessfulconclusi
    onwiththepassageoft heNi net
    eenthAmendmenti n
    1920.

    The callformor elegalri


    ght
    s and socialfreedoms f
    orwomen gr ew outoft he
    abol
    i
    tionistmov ementpri
    ortotheCiv
    ilWar .Womenabolit
    ioni
    stsf
    oundthatthei
    rwork
    onbehalfoffreeingt
    heslaveswashamper edbyt hel
    ackofwomen’sownfreedom.For
    manyy ears,
    thet wocauseswerecl
    oselyl
    inked.

    I
    n1869,t wonat ionalorgani zationswer eformedt oworktowardthegoalofexpanded
    l
    egalr i
    ghtsforwomen.Ev ent ually
    ,theleadersoft hemov ementbecameconv i
    ncedthat
    winningthev ot
    ewasofpr imar yimportance,andthatbecamet hei
    rfocus.Inever
    ystate,
    thousands ofwomen j oined suf f
    rage organizati
    ons.Publiclectures,newspapers,
    parades,bil
    l
    boards,sil
    entv igils,andev er
    yotherimagi nabl
    etacti
    cwer eemployedbythe
    vari
    oussuf f
    rageorganizationst ogettheirmessageacr osstothepublic.

    Duri
    ngt he72y earsoft hecampaign,hundredsofi ndi
    vidualrefer
    endaandpet i
    ti
    on
    campaignswer eundertakentogetwoman’ ssuffr
    agepassedi nv ari
    ousstates.Annual
    pil
    gri
    mageswer emadebyhundr edsofwoment olobbyCongr essf orpassageofa
    consti
    tut
    ional amendment , campaigns wer e mount ed t o unseat l egi
    slat
    or s
    unsympatheti
    ctot hecause,andmil
    li
    onsofdol l
    arswereraisedtosupporttheseefforts.

    TheNi
    net
    eent
    hAmendmentwasf
    inal
    lypassedi
    n1920.

    I
    .Backgr
    oundandBegi
    nni
    ngofMov
    ement

    Whatwasl
    i
    fel
    i
    kef
    orwomeni
    nthe1800s?

    WhenLucySt one,founderoftheAmer icanWomanSuf fr


    ageAssoci ati
    on,wasbor ni n
    1818,hermot herisquotedassay i
    ng,“Ohdear !Iam sor r
    yitisagi rl
    .Awoman’ slif
    ei s
    sohar d!”Hermot her,asaf armer’swi f
    e,bakedandcookedov erawoodst ov
    ef orher
    familyandt hehiredhands,washed,scr ubbed,drew wat erfrom anout sidewel land
    heatedi tont hest ove,canned,chur ned,madecheeseandsoap,pl uckedchi ckens,
    dippedcandl es,woveanddy edcl oth,
    madet heclothes,mi l
    kedt hecows,andcar edf or
    herchildren.Lucybecameat eacherwhenshewas16, earni
    ngherboar dandonedol lar
    185|Page
    aweek.Itt
    ookhernineyear
    stosavethe$75neededt
    oent
    erOber
    li
    nCol
    l
    egei
    nOhi
    o,
    t
    heonlycol
    legei
    nthecountr
    ythatof
    fer
    edadegr
    eeforf
    emal
    es.

     Poorwomenworki
    ngi
    nthecot
    tonandwool
    enmi
    l
    lsin1846,
    worked12to16hours
    dai
    ly.Manyl
    i
    vedsi
    xtoaroom andtwot
    oabedincompanyboardi
    nghousesand
    werepai
    d$2aweek.

     Womenwer enotpermi
    tt
    edtogiveev
    idencei
    ncour
    t,nor
    ,di
    dtheyhav
    ether
    ightt
    o
    speaki
    npubli
    cbefor
    eanaudi
    ence.

     Whenawomanmar ri
    ed,herhusbandlegal
    l
    yownedal lshehad(incl
    udi
    ngher
    ear
    nings,hercl
    othesandjewel
    ry,andherchi
    ldr
    en)
    .Ifhedi
    ed,shewasenti
    tl
    edto
    onl
    yat hi
    rdofherhusband’
    sest
    ate.

     “Outofindi
    gnati
    onatthecondi
    ti
    onofwomen, t
    hesuff
    ragemovementwasborn.For
    70y ear
    sitpl
    ayedaleadi
    ngparti
    nagreatst
    rugglet
    oraisewomanki
    ndtoanequali
    ty
    withmen.”

    Begi
    nni
    ngoft
    heMov
    ementf
    orWomen’
    sRi
    ght
    s

    Publ
    icSpeaki
    ng

    Womenbegant ospeakoutagainstsl
    averyint he1830’s.Sar
    ahandAngel i
    naGrimke
    weresist
    erswhower eactiv
    ei ntheaboli
    ti
    onistmov ement.Theyopenedt hewayfor
    woment ospeakpubli
    clyastheytr
    avel
    edaroundaddr essingpubl
    i
    cmeet i
    ngsaboutthe
    evi
    l
    sofslavery.TheybecameQuakersandwor kedwithLucret
    iaMot
    t,ami nist
    eri
    nthe
    QuakerChurch.

    Pet
    it
    ions

    Duringapet i
    ti
    oncampai gnagainstsl
    avery,souther
    ncongressment
    riedt
    of orbidthe
    presentati
    onofpeti
    ti
    onscomi ngfr
    om anti
    -slaver
    ysociet
    ies(
    someoft
    hem fr
    om f emale
    anti
    -slaver
    ysociet
    ies).Abi
    gailAdams’son,JohnQui ncyAdams(whowasaf ormer
    presidentoftheUni t
    edStates)spokefort heri
    ghtofwoment osignpeti
    tionsand
    coll
    ectsignat
    ures.

    SenecaFal
    lsConv
    ent
    ion

    Lucr
    eti
    aMottandElizabet
    hCadySt antonorgani
    zedaWomen’sRi
    ghtsConv ent
    iontobe
    hel
    datSenecaFal ls,NY in1848.A Decl arat
    ionofSent
    iment
    s,model edaf t
    erthe
    Decl
    arat
    ionofIndependence,wasadopt ed,al
    ongwithasetofr
    esoluti
    onscal l
    i
    ngfor
    women’seducati
    onalopport
    unit
    y,equali
    tyunderthel
    aw,
    andther
    ighttovote.Thiswas

    186|Page
    adeclarati
    onofwoman’ sindependencepr oclaimi
    ngt hat“allmenandwomenar e
    creat
    edequal.”Thesewomenr eal
    i
    zedt hatift heyhadt her i
    ghttov otetheycould
    changelawsandcust oms.Ofthe300peopl ewhoat tendedthisconventi
    on,onlyone
    woman,Char l
    otteWoodward,l
    ivedtocastav ot ein1920.Ther ewerecr i
    ti
    csoft hi
    s
    conventi
    on,asweseef r
    om aquotefrom aNewYor knewspaper :“
    Thisbolti
    st hemost
    shocki
    ngandunnat ur
    ali
    nci
    denteverrecor
    dedi nthehistoryofhumanity.I
    twil
    l.
    ..pr
    ovea
    monstrousinj
    urytoal
    lmanki
    nd.”

    Ot
    herconv
    ent
    ions

    Manyconvent
    ionsconcerni
    ngwomen’ sri
    ghtswer
    eheldt
    hroughoutt hecountryuntil
    thebegi
    nni
    ngoft heCivi
    lWar.Becauseoftheconcer
    novertheev i
    l
    sofsl avery,thi
    s
    earl
    ymovementforwomen’ sri
    ght
    swascl osel
    yal
    li
    edwit
    habolit
    ionistconcerns,and
    someconvent
    ionsdeal
    twithbot
    hissues.

    Onet housandpeoplefrom 11st at


    esatt
    endedt he1850Nat i
    onalWoman’ sRight
    s
    Conventi
    on,which was supported by l
    i
    beralmen and women.One newspaper
    denouncedthi
    sconvent
    ionas“amot l
    eygat
    heri
    ngoff anati
    cal
    mongrel
    s,orol
    dgranni
    es,
    maleandf emal
    e,off
    ugi
    tivesl
    avesandfugi
    ti
    velunati
    cs.”

    I
    I.Af
    tert
    heCi
    vi
    lWar

    Amendment
    s

    Wi despr
    eadagitati
    onforwomansuf f
    ragebeganimmediat
    elyaft
    ertheCivi
    lWar.Aft
    er
    slaverywasabolishedbypassageoft
    he13thAmendment ,
    SusanB.Anthonyorgani
    zed
    theAmer icanEqualRi ght
    sAssociat
    ionwit
    ht hegoalofattai
    ningci
    vilr
    ight
    sf oral
    l
    womenandf orblackmen.

    The14thAmendmenti n1868establ
    ishedciti
    zenshi pforallt
    hosebornintheU.S.,but
    thelanguageincludedtheword“ male”indefiningci t
    izen.Manyhopedt hat“ci
    ti
    zen”
    wouldbei nt
    erpretedtogivewoment her i
    ghtt ov ote,butthewordingi mpl
    iedthat
    womencoul dbedeni edtheri
    ghttov ote.Bl
    ackmenwer eassur
    edtherighttovotein
    the15thAmendment ,
    butal
    lwomenwer est i
    l
    lex cluded.

    Or
    gani
    zat
    ionsf
    orWomen’
    sRi
    ght
    s

     SusanB.Ant honyandEl izabethCadyStantonorgani


    zedtheNati
    onalWoman
    Suff
    rageAssociati
    on( NWSA)i n1869,wi
    ththegoalofaddi
    nganamendmentto
    theConstit
    uti
    on,whichwoul dgiveallwoment heri
    ghttovot
    e.Theywereal
    so
    concernedaboutotherri
    ghtsforwomen.

     TheAmer
    icanWomanSuf
    frageAssoci
    ati
    on(
    AWSA),or
    gani
    zedbyLucySt
    one

    187|Page
    andHenryBlackwell
    ,wasal
    sof ormedin1869.Thisgr
    oupworkedonsepar
    ate
    ref
    erendacampaignsineachst atet
    ogett herightt
    ov ot
    eanddidnotget
    i
    nvolvedwi
    thotherwomen’
    sissues.

     After30 y ears,these two organi


    zati
    ons mer
    ged to become the Nati
    onal
    Amer i
    canWomanSuf f
    rageAssociat
    ion(NAWSA)withi
    nEli
    zabet
    hCadySt anton
    aspresidentandwoman’ ssuff
    rageasthemainfocus.Fort
    henext22years,t
    his
    organi
    zationwor kedont hepassageofaconstit
    uti
    onalamendmentandst ate
    campaignsf oradvocat
    ingtheri
    ghttovotef
    orwomen.

    Act
    ioni
    nWest
    ernSt
    ates

     I
    n1867,Kansasputawomansuf f
    rageamendmentproposalont
    hebal
    l
    ot.Thi
    s
    i
    sthef
    ir
    stti
    met hequest
    ionwentt
    oadirectv
    ote;
    itl
    ost
    .

     I
    n1869,t
    heWyomingTerr
    itor
    yenact
    edt
    hefi
    rstwomansuf
    fragel
    egi
    slat
    ion,and
    i
    n1890,i
    twasthefi
    rststatewi
    thwomansuffr
    aget
    hatwasadmi t
    tedintothe
    Uni
    on.

     ALookatt
    heGr
    owt
    hoft
    heWomanSuf
    frageMov
    ement

     I
    nthe17y ear
    ssinceEli
    zabet
    hSt
    ant
    on’
    sSenecaFal
    l
    smeet
    ing(
    1848-
    1865)
    ,
    womenhadconduct
    ed:

    1.56r
    efer
    endacampai
    gns

    2.480campai
    gnst
    ogetst
    atel
    egi
    slat
    urest
    osubmi
    tsuf
    frageamendment
    sto
    vot
    ers

    3.47campaignstogetst
    ateconst
    it
    uti
    onalconv
    ent
    ionst
    owr
    it
    ewomansuf
    frage
    i
    ntost
    ateconst
    it
    uti
    ons

    4.277campaignstoinducest
    atepar
    tyconv
    ent
    ionst
    oincl
    udewomansuf
    fragei
    nto
    stat
    econst
    itut
    ions

    5.270conv
    ent
    ionst
    odot
    hesame

    6.Campai
    gnsi
    n19successi
    veCongr
    esses

    188|Page
    I
    I.Act
    ivi
    sts

    SomeoftheMen
    Behi
    ndtheWomen:
    TheFounder
    s:
    WomenWhoCar
    ri
    edOn:

     SusanB.Ant
    hony  Henr
    yBl
    ackwel
    l
    ,  Har
    ri
    etSt
    ant
    onBl
    otch

     husbandofLucy
     Lucr
    eti
    aMot
    t Stone  Car
    ri
    eChapmanCat
    t

     El
    i
    zabet
    hCadySt
    ant
    on  Geor
    geCat
    t  Al
    i
    cePaul

     LucySt
    one  Fr
    eder
    ickDougl
    ass  AnnaHowar
    dShaw

     Wil
    l
    iam Lloy
    d
     Vi
    ctor
    iaWoodhul
    l Gar
    rison  Har
    ri
    etSt
    ant
    onBl
    otch

     SusanB.Ant
    hony  JamesMot
    t  Car
    ri
    eChapmanCat
    t

     Lucr
    eti
    aMot
    t  Henr
    yBl
    ackwel
    l
    ,  Al
    i
    cePaul

    Or
    gani
    zat
    ions

    TheAmer i
    canEqualRightsAssoci ati
    onformedi n1866and,undert heleader
    shipof
    SusanB.Anthony,workedforci v
    ilri
    ghtsforblackmenandal lwomen.TheNat ional
    Woman Suffr
    ageAssoci ati
    on held conventi
    onsev eryyear,int
    roducing t
    hewoman
    suff
    rageamendmentinev erysessionofCongr essfrom 1868t o1890.TheAmer ican
    Woman Suf f
    rage Associat
    ion wor ked ti
    rel
    essly on passage of a const i
    tut
    ional
    amendmentandstatecampai gns.

    Act
    ivi
    ti
    es

     Conv
    ent
    ionsAndCampai
    gns

     Lobby
    ing

     Let
    terwr
    it
    ing

    189|Page
     Pi
    cket
    ing

     Pet
    iti
    oning:Examples:In1866,Petit
    ions Wit
    h10,000NamesWereSentTo
    Congress;I
    n1894,Petit
    ionsWi t
    h600,000Signat
    uresWer
    eSentToTheNew
    YorkStateConst
    it
    u-Ti
    onalConventi
    on.

     Publ
    ishedMater
    ial
    :Examples:“
    TheWoman’sJour
    nal
    ”ByLucySt
    oneAndHenry
    Bl
    ackwell
    ;“TheRevolut
    ion”BySusanB.Ant
    honyAndEl
    i
    zabet
    hCadyStant
    on.

     Ral
    l
    ies

     Par
    ades:Examples:1910,Fi
    rstWomanSuf
    frageParade;1912,20,
    00Mar
    ched
    I
    nANew Yor kParade;1913,5,
    000Mar
    chedI nWashingt
    onD. C.I
    nWoodrow
    Wil
    son’
    sInaugur
    al Par
    ade;

     1913,
    10,
    000Mar
    chedI
    nNewYor
    k

     Attempt
    sToVot e:In1868,InNew Jer
    sey,172WomenCastBal l
    otsInThe
    Presi
    dent
    ialEl
    ect
    ion;
    Thei
    rVotesWer
    eNotCount ed.I
    n1872,
    SusanB.Anthony
    And15Ot her
    sTri
    edToVote.SheWasArrest
    edAndFined.

    I
    nfl
    uencef
    rom Gr
    eatBr
    it
    ain

    Harri
    etSt antonBlotch,daught erofEli
    zabethCadySt anton,AlicePaulandLucyBur ns
    hadv i
    sitedGr eatBr
    itainandseensuf f
    ragi
    ststherewor ki
    ngt owar dwomansuffragein
    mor emi li
    tantway st hant hoseint heU.S.Br i
    ngingbackt hosei deasin1910,they
    i
    ntroducedout doorralli
    esandpar ades.LucyBurnsandAl icePaulhadbeenputi njai
    lin
    England.Ret urni
    ngtot hiscountrywithmor eaggressi
    vepl ans,theyformedaseparate
    organizati
    on,theCongr essi
    onalUnion,whichthenf or
    medt heNat i
    onalWoman’
    sPar ty
    .
    NAWSAdi dnotappr ov eofAlicePaul’
    smi l
    i
    tanttacti
    cs.

    WomenWhoWor
    kedf
    orWomanSuf
    frageandEqualRi
    ght
    s

     JaneAddams:1860-
    1935,
    SocialRef
    ormer
    ,Aut
    hor
    ,PeaceAndSuf
    frageLeader
    ;
    NAWSAFi r
    stVi
    cePr
    esi
    dent
    ,1911-1914.

     Susan Br
    ownellAnthony : 1820-
    1906,Quaker
    ,Teacher
    ,Temper
    ance And
    Aboli
    ti
    onOrgani
    zer
    ,

     Edi
    tor
    ,HungerSt
    ri
    ker
    .Car
    ri
    eLaneChapmanCat
    t:1859-
    1947,Fi
    eldOr
    gani
    zer
    Wit
    hSusanB.Ant
    hony,

     Reor
    gani
    zedNAWSAToBeMor ePoli
    ti
    cal
    ,Fundr
    aiser
    ,Admi
    nist
    rat
    or,Opposed
    Mil
    it
    ant
    s,FoundedLeagueOfWomenVoter
    s.

    190|Page
     Anna El
    izabet
    h Di
    cki
    nson:1842-
    L932,Quaker
    ,Lect
    urer
    ,Champi
    oned Bl
    ack
    Ri
    ghtsAnd

     Emanci
    pati
    onOfWomen.Abi
    gai
    lScot
    tDuni
    way:1834-1915,Publ
    i
    shedAWeekl
    y
    NewspaperDedi
    cat
    edToTheCauseOfWoman’sRights,Or
    egon’
    sFir
    stWoman
    Vot
    er.

     Angeli
    naEmil
    yGr
    imke:
    1805-
    1879,
    Woman’
    sRi
    ght
    sPi
    oneer
    ,Joi
    nedQuaker
    s,Led
    Anti
    -Sl
    aver
    y

     Meet
    ings.

     Sarah Moore Gr
    imke:1792 -1873,Lect
    urer
    ,Wr i
    ter,Out
    spoken Advocate Of
    Aboli
    ti
    on,Earl
    yChampionOfWomen’ sRight
    s,DefenderOfWomen’ sRightTo
    SpeakWhenI tWasChal
    lenged.

     Jul
    iaWar dHowe:1819-
    1910,Aut
    horOf“
    TheBat
    tl
    eHy
    mnOfTheRepubl
    i
    c,”
    FounderAnd

     LeaderOfAWSA,
    Edi
    torOfTheWoman’
    sJour
    nal
    ,Lect
    urer
    .

     Fi
    rstWomen’s Ri
    ghts Conv
    enti
    on In Seneca Fal
    l
    s,NY 1848,Pr
    esi
    dentOf
    Ameri
    canEqual
    Right
    sAssoc.1866.

     MaudWoodPar
    k:1871-
    1955,
    Organi
    zer
    ,Ci
    vi
    cLeader
    ,Speaker
    ,Lobby
    istFor19t
    h
    Amendment
    .

     Al
    iceStokesPaul
    :1885-
    1977,Quaker,Chi
    efStr
    ategi
    stForTheMil
    it
    antSuffr
    age
    Wing,FounderOfThe Congr essi
    onalUnion ForWoman Suff
    rage And The
    Nati
    onalWoman’sParty
    ,AuthorOfTheEqualRi ght
    sAmendment,Int
    ernat
    ional
    Organi
    zer.

     Jeannet
    tePi
    cker
    ingRanki
    n:1880-
    1973,
    Suf
    frageOr
    gani
    zer
    ,El
    ect
    edFi
    rstU.
    S.

     Congr
    esswoman1917,
    RanForSenat
    e.

     AnnaHowardShaw:1847-
    1919,Fr
    om Engl
    andToAmer
    ica1851,Fi
    rstOr
    dai
    ned
    Methodi
    st

     El
    izabet
    hCadySt
    ant
    on:
    1815-
    1902,
    Bri
    l
    li
    antWoman’
    sRi
    ght
    sLeader
    ,Abol
    i
    tioni
    st,
    I
    ssuedCall

     LucySt
    one:1818-
    1893,SpokeForAbol
    i
    tionAndWomen’
    sRi
    ght
    s,Or
    gani
    zed
    OwnLectur
    es,
    Marr
    ied

    191|Page
     Sojour
    nerTrut
    h:1797-
    1883,Bor
    nASl
    ave,Pr
    eachedAgai
    nstPr
    ost
    it
    uti
    on1830,
    Encouraged

     Br
    other
    lyLov
    e,SpokeAtWomen’
    sRi
    ght
    sMeet
    ingsI
    n1850s.

     Vict
    ori
    aClaf
    inWoodhul
    l
    :1838-
    1927,
    Decl
    aredHer
    sel
    fCandi
    dat
    eForPr
    esi
    dentOf
    TheU.S.

     1870;Fi r
    stWoman To Addr ess Congr
    essi
    onalCommitt
    ee Urgi
    ng Woman
    Suff
    rage I n 1871;Peti
    ti
    oned The Judici
    ary Commi
    tt
    ee OfThe House Of
    Representati
    ves,Cl
    aimi
    ngThatTheAmendment sToSecureTheNegroVot
    eHad
    Confir
    medI tToWomenAl so.

    TheMenBehi
    ndt
    heWomen

     Henr
    yBl
    ackwel
    l:AConst
    antAgi
    tat
    orForWomen’
    sRi
    ght
    s,Hel
    pedPubl
    i
    sht
    he
    Woman’
    sJour
    nal

     Wi
    thHi
    sWi
    feLucySt
    oneAndDaught
    erAl
    i
    ceSt
    oneBl
    ackwel
    l
    .

     GeorgeCat
    t:AnEngi
    neerWhoseSuppor
    tAndUnder
    standi
    ngOfHi
    sWi
    feCar
    ri
    e
    ChapmanCatt

     Fr
    eedHerToDev
    oteHerTi
    meToLeadi
    ngTheNat
    ional
    Suf
    frageDr
    ive.

     JohnDewey
    :Educat
    or

     MaxEast
    man:
    Edi
    tor

     Dav
    idSt
    arrJor
    dan,
    Stanf
    ordUni
    ver
    sit
    yPr
    esi
    dent

     Senat
    orRober
    tLaf
    oll
    ett
    e

     JamesMott:QuakerBusi
    nessman,
    Accompani
    edHi
    sWi
    feLucr
    eti
    aMot
    tToThe
    SenecaFal
    l
    s

     Conv
    ent
    ion,
    Chai
    redTheFi
    rstWoman’
    sRi
    ght
    sMeet
    ing.

     Par
    kerPi
    ll
    sbur
    y:Ant
    i-
    Slav
    eryEdi
    torWhoWor
    kedOnt
    heRev
    olut
    ionwi
    thSusanB.
    Ant
    hony

     AndEl
    i
    zabet
    hCadySt
    ant
    on.

     Rabbi
    StephenWi
    se

    192|Page
     StephenFost
    er,Wi
    l
    li
    am Ll
    oydGar
    ri
    son,Wendel
    lPhi
    l
    li
    ps:Abol
    i
    tioni
    stsWhoWer
    e
    Earl
    ySupport
    ers

     OfWomen’
    sRi
    ght
    s.

     Rober
    tPurvi
    s,Fr
    eder
    ickDougl
    ass:Pr
    omi
    nentBl
    ackAnt
    i-
    Slav
    eryLeader
    sWho
    WereLif
    eLong

     Suf
    frageAl
    l
    ies.

    I
    V.Opposi
    ti
    on-Ant
    i-Suf
    fragi
    sts

     Reli
    gionwasaf act
    orofopposi
    ti
    oninthebegi
    nning.Somechurchpeopl
    esai
    d
    theBibl
    eplacedwomenunderthepowerandauthori
    tyofmen.

     Morali
    stsfel
    tthatwomenshoulddevot
    et hemsel
    vestothespi
    ri
    tualandfamil
    y
    si
    deoflife;t
    hatchi
    ldr
    enwoul
    dgouncar edforandthatt
    hemoralsofthenati
    on
    wouldcrumbleifwomengotthevot
    e.

     The li
    quori
    ndustr
    yf ear
    ed thatwomen would out
    law the sal
    e ofalcohol
    .
    (Fr
    ancisWil
    l
    ard,headoft heWomen’sChri
    sti
    anTemper anceUnion,adopted
    suff
    rageasamajorgoal.
    )

     Headsofindust
    ryf
    eltt
    hati
    fwomenhadt heri
    ghtt
    ovot
    e,t
    heywouldworkf
    or
    chi
    ldl
    aborlawsandtoi
    mprovewor
    kingcondi
    ti
    onsi
    nmil
    l
    sandfact
    ori
    es.

     Some,
    menandwomen,
    wer
    eopposedt
    ochange.Theyl
    i
    kedl
    i
    fet
    hewayi
    twas.
    I
    n1911,
    the

    V.Vi
    ctor
    y-TheNi
    net
    eent
    hAmendment

    TheHouseofRepr esentati
    vesv ot
    edfortheAnt honyAmendmenti nJanuar yof1918,
    aft
    erPr esidentWilsonfinall
    ymadeapubl i
    cst atementofhi ssupport.Thev otewas
    cl
    ose.Fourr epresentat
    ives,i
    ncl
    udingonewhohadt obecarri
    edinonast retcher,came
    fr
    om t heirsickbedst ov otefortheamendment .Oneotherrepresent
    ativel eftt
    he
    deathbed ofhi s wife,a dedicated suff
    ragist,to be presentfora y es v ote.The
    amendmentt hen wentt ot he Senate,wher e,t en months l
    ater
    ,t he votef orthe
    amendmentl ostbytwov otes.

    Thesuf f
    ragist
    scont i
    nuedtolobby, speak,andwr it
    efortheircauseandinJuneof1919,
    theamendmentf inal
    lypassedtheSenat e.Now, theamendmenthadt oberati
    fi
    edby36
    states.Thi sprocesstook14mont hsofmor eact i
    vewor k.Finalr
    ati
    fi
    cati
    oncamewi th
    thev oteoft heTennesseelegislat
    ur e,whichbarelypassedi tonAugust24,1920.St
    ate
    Repr esentati
    ve,HarryBurn,
    gav eadeci dingvote.Hismot herwasasuf f
    ragi
    standwrote

    193|Page
    t
    ohi
    m,“
    Hur
    rah!Andv
    otef
    orsuf
    frageanddon’
    tkeept
    hem i
    ndoubt
    .”

    OnAugust24,
    theSecr
    etar
    yofSt
    atesi
    gnedt
    he19t
    hAmendmenti
    ntol
    aw.

    Twenty-
    sixmill
    i
    onAmer icanwomenhadwont heri
    ghttov oteinallpubl
    icelect
    ions!
    “Act
    uall
    y,t
    helastthreattowomansuf fragewasnotdefeatedunti
    lFebruar
    y,1922,when
    theU.S.Supr
    emeCour thandeddownt hesecondoftwodeci si
    onsupholdingthe19th
    Amendmentagai nstfurt
    herchall
    enge.”Centur
    yofStr
    uggle,p.337,
    TheWoman’ sRights
    MovementintheUni tedStat
    es,byEleanorFl
    exner.

    “
    Womenwont hev ot
    e.Theywerenotgi
    veni
    t,gr
    ant
    edi
    t,orany
    thi
    ngel
    se.Theywoni
    tas
    t
    rul
    yasanypol
    it
    icalcampaigni
    sult
    imat
    elywonorl
    ost
    .”

    I
    nter
    nat
    ional
    Women’
    sSuf
    frageTi
    mel
    ine

    1893NewZeal
    and 1919Net
    her
    lands Mexi
    co,
    Paki
    stan

    1950I
    ndi
    a 1971Swi
    tzer
    land 1994Sout
    hAf
    ri
    ca

    1902Aust
    ral
    i
    aa 1920Uni
    tedSt
    ates 1949Chi
    na2005Kuwai
    t

    1954Col
    ombi
    a 1972Bangl
    adesh

    1906Fi
    nland 1921Sweden

    1957Malaysi
    a, 1974Jor
    dan
    Zimbabwe
    1928Br
    it
    ain,
    Irel
    and
    1913Nor
    way
    1976Por
    tugal
    1962Al
    ger
    ia
    1931Spai
    n
    1915Denmar
    k
    1989Nami
    bia
    1963I
    ran,
    Mor
    occo
    1944Fr
    ance
    1917Canadab
    1990West
    ernSamoa
    1964Li
    bya
    1945I
    tal
    y
    1918Austr
    ia,
    Ger
    many
    ,
    1993Kazakhst
    an,
    Poland,
    Russi
    a
    Moldov
    a
    1967Ecuador
    1947Ar
    gent
    ina,
    Japan,

    194|Page
    195|Page
    Vi
    olenceagai
    nstWomen
    Under
    standi
    ngandDef
    ini
    ng
    Vi
    olenceagai
    nstwomenandgi
    rl
    sisoneoft
    hemostsy
    stemat
    icandwi
    despr
    eadhuman
    r
    ight
    svi
    olat
    ions.I
    tisr
    oot
    edi
    ngender
    edsoci
    alst
    ruct
    uresr
    athert
    hani
    ndi
    vi
    dualand
    r
    andom act
    s;i
    t cut
    s acr
    oss age,soci
    o-economi
    c,educat
    ionaland geogr
    aphi
    c
    boundar
    ies;
    aff
    ect
    sal
    lsoci
    eti
    es;
    andi
    samaj
    orobst
    acl
    etoendi
    nggenderi
    nequal
    i
    tyand
    di
    scr
    imi
    nat
    iongl
    obal
    l
    y.(
    UNGener
    alAssembl
    y,2006)
    Uni
    tedNat
    ionsdef
    ini
    ti
    on
    TheDecl
    arat
    ionont
    heEl
    i
    minat
    ionofVi
    olenceAgai
    nstWomen,adopt
    edbyt
    heUni
    ted
    Nat
    ionsGener
    alAssembl
    yin1993,def
    inesv
    iol
    enceagai
    nstwomenas“
    anyactof
    genderbased v
    iol
    encet
    hatr
    esul
    tsi
    n,ori
    sli
    kel
    ytor
    esul
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    sical
    ,sexual
    ,or
    psy
    chol
    ogi
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    m orsuf
    fer
    ingt
    owomen,i
    ncl
    udi
    ngt
    hreat
    sofsuchact
    s,coer
    cionor
    ar
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    i
    ber
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    her occur
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    n publ
    i
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    .It
    encompasses,buti
    s notl
    i
    mit
    ed t
    o,“
    phy
    sical
    ,sexualand psy
    chol
    ogi
    calv
    iol
    ence
    occur
    ri
    ngi
    nthef
    ami
    l
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    ncl
    udi
    ngbat
    ter
    ing,sexualabuseoff
    emal
    echi
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    dreni
    nthe
    househol
    d,dowr
    yrel
    atedv
    iol
    ence,mar
    it
    alr
    ape,f
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    owomen,non-
    spousalv
    iol
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    elat
    edt
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    sical
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    chol
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    iol
    enceoccur
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    thi
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    communi
    ty,i
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    ape,sexualabuse,sexualhar
    assmentandi
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    it
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    sewher
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    fi
    cki
    ngi
    nwomenandf
    orcedpr
    ost
    it
    uti
    on;
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    sical
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    chol
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    pet
    rat
    edorcondonedbyt
    hest
    ate,
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    everi
    toccur
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    Thet
    erms‘
    gender
    -basedv
    iol
    ence’and‘
    vi
    olenceagai
    nstwomen’ar
    efr
    equent
    lyused
    i
    nter
    changeabl
    yinl
    i
    ter
    atur
    eandbyadv
    ocat
    es,
    howev
    er,
    thet
    erm gender
    -basedv
    iol
    ence
    r
    efer
    stov
    iol
    ence di
    rect
    ed agai
    nsta per
    son because ofhi
    s orhergenderand
    expect
    ati
    onsofhi
    sorherr
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    nasoci
    etyorcul
    tur
    e.Gender
    -basedv
    iol
    encehi
    ghl
    i
    ght
    s
    t
    hegenderdi
    mensi
    onoft
    heset
    ypesofact
    s;i
    not
    herwor
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    her
    elat
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    pbet
    ween
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    dinat
    est
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    nsoci
    etyandt
    hei
    rincr
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    olence.I
    tis
    i
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    tantt
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    e,howev
    er,t
    hatmenandboy
    smayal
    sobev
    ict
    imsofgender
    -based

    196|Page
    v
    iol
    ence,
    especi
    all
    ysexual
    viol
    ence.

    Vi
    olenceagai
    nstWomenandTheor
    eti
    calFoundat
    ions

    1.Mi
    cro-
    Ori
    ent
    ed/
    Indi
    vi
    dual
    /Di
    rectVi
    olenceTheor
    ies

     Soci
    alLear
    ningTheor
    y
     Per
    sonal
    i
    tyChar
    act
    eri
    sti
    csandPsy
    chopat
    hol
    ogy
     Bi
    ologi
    cal
    Theor
    y
     ExchangeTheor
    y
     Resour
    ceTheor
    y
    Soci
    alLear
    ningTheor
    y
    I
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    slear
    nhow t
    obehav
    ethr
    oughbot
    hexper
    ienceofandexposur
    etov
    iol
    ence.
    I
    nter
    gener
    ati
    onalt
    ransmi
    ssi
    onofv
    iol
    ence–Soci
    all
    ear
    ningt
    heor
    ycanal
    sobeusedt
    o
    exami
    nehowt
    her
    elat
    ionshi
    pbet
    weent
    hev
    ict
    im andof
    fendercont
    ri
    but
    est
    othecy
    cle
    ofv
    iol
    ence:
     Lear
    nedhel
    plessness
     Sur
    viv
    orshi
    p

    Per
    sonal
    it
    yChar
    act
    eri
    sti
    csandPsy
    chopat
    hol
    ogy
    I
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    swhousev
    iol
    enceagai
    nstwomenhav
    esomesor
    tofper
    sonal
    i
    tydi
    sor
    der
    orment
    ali
    l
    lnesst
    hatmi
    ghtgeti
    nthewayofot
    her
    wisenor
    mal
    inhi
    bit
    ionsabout
    usi
    ngv
    iol
    ence.
     Thosewhoengagei
    nvi
    olentbehav
    iorar
    eseenassi
    cki
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    swhoar
    edi
    ff
    erent
    f
    rom ot
    herpeopl
    e.
     Focusi
    ngonl
    yonpsy
    chol
    ogi
    cal
    fact
    orst
    endst
    odecr
    easet
    heabuser
    ’s
    r
    esponsi
    bil
    i
    tyf
    orhi
    sact
    ions.
    Bi
    ologi
    calTheor
    y
    197|Page
    I
    tsuggest
    sthatv
    iol
    enceagai
    nstwomeni
    srel
    atedt
    othepr
    ocessofnat
    ural
    sel
    ect
    ion.
    Rapecanbev
    iewedasanext
    remer
    esponset
    othenat
    ural
    sel
    ect
    ionpr
    essur
    eonment
    o
    r
    epr
    oducecombi
    nedwi
    that
    tempt
    sbyf
    emal
    est
    ocont
    rol
    thei
    dent
    it
    yoft
    hei
    rpar
    tner
    .
     Bi
    ologi
    calandNeur
    ologi
    calf
    act
    ors-
    Chi
    l
    dhoodat
    tent
    iondef
    ici
    tdi
    sor
    der
    sandhead
    i
    njur
    iesasr
    iskf
    act
    ors
     El
    i
    minat
    esr
    esponsi
    bil
    i
    tyf
    ort
    heof
    fender

    ExchangeTheor
    y
    I
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    sengagei
    nbehav
    iorei
    thert
    oear
    nrewar
    dsort
    oescapepuni
    shment
    .Vi
    olence
    i
    sameansbywhi
    chi
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    sorgr
    oupscanmai
    ntai
    noradv
    ancet
    hei
    rint
    erest
    s.
    Resour
    ceTheor
    y
    Vi
    olenceoccur
    sinaf
    ami
    l
    yinor
    dert
    omai
    ntai
    npower
    .Posi
    tst
    hatt
    hedeci
    sionmaki
    ng
    powerwi
    thi
    nagi
    venf
    ami
    l
    yder
    ivesf
    rom t
    hev
    alueoft
    her
    esour
    cest
    hateachper
    son
    br
    ingst
    other
    elat
    ionshi
    p.Thi
    smayi
    ndi
    cat
    eresour
    cessuchasf
    inanci
    al,soci
    aland
    or
    gani
    zat
    ional
    .

    2.Macr
    o/Cul
    tur
    al/I
    ndi
    rectVi
    olenceTheor
    ies

     Femi
    nistTheor
    y
     Fami
    l
    yVi
    olencePer
    spect
    ive
     Subcul
    tur
    eofVi
    olence
     Cul
    tur
    alAccept
    anceofVi
    olence
     St
    ress

    Femi
    nistTheor
    y
    Vi
    olenceoccur
    sasar
    esul
    tofamal
    e-domi
    nat
    edsoci
    alst
    ruct
    ureandt
    hesoci
    ali
    zat
    ion
    pr
    act
    icest
    hatt
    eachgender
    -speci
    fi
    crol
    esf
    ormenandwomen.
     Pat
    ri
    archy
     Genderr
    oles

    198|Page
     Doesnotaccountf
    orv
    iol
    encebywomeni
    nbot
    h
     Het
    erosexual
    andl
    esbi
    anr
    elat
    ionshi
    ps.

    Fami
    lyVi
    olencePer
    spect
    ive
    Vi
    olenceaf
    fect
    sal
    lfami
    l
    yrel
    ati
    onshi
    ps(
    bot
    hmenandwomencanbev
    iol
    ent
    )andt
    he
    or
    igi
    noft
    hepr
    obl
    em i
    sint
    henat
    ureoft
    hef
    ami
    l
    yst
    ruct
    ure.

    Subcul
    tur
    eofVi
    olence
    Cer
    tai
    ngr
    oupsi
    nsoci
    etymaybemor
    eli
    kel
    ythanot
    hergr
    oupst
    oacceptt
    heuseof
    v
    iol
    encei
    nspeci
    fi
    csi
    tuat
    ions.

    Cul
    tur
    alAccept
    anceofVi
    olence
    Cul
    tur
    alappr
    oval
    ofv
    iol
    encei
    ncer
    tai
    nar
    easofl
    i
    fesuchasi
    nmov
    iesandspor
    ti
    ng
    ev
    ent
    smayspi
    l
    lov
    eri
    ntoot
    herar
    easofi
    nter
    per
    sonal
    int
    eract
    ionandcont
    ri
    but
    etot
    he
    useofv
    iol
    enceagai
    nstwomen.
    St
    ress
    St
    ressi
    sasi
    gni
    fi
    cantr
    iskf
    act
    orf
    orv
    iol
    enceagai
    nstwomen;
    viol
    encei
    sof
    tenusedi
    n
    r
    esponset
    oast
    ressf
    ulsi
    tuat
    ion.

    Ty
    pesOfVi
    olenceAgai
    nstWomenAndPat
    ter
    ensPr
    act
    isedI
    nPaki
    stan

    Di
    rectVi
    olence
    Di
    rectv
    iol
    enceagai
    nstwomeni
    ncl
    udesphy
    sical
    ,sexual
    ,psy
    chol
    ogi
    cal
    ,andeconomi
    c
    v
    iol
    ence.A compr
    ehensi
    vepi
    ctur
    eoft
    hedi
    ff
    erentf
    ormsofdi
    rectv
    iol
    enceagai
    nst
    women i
    s out
    li
    ned i
    nthe EU Counci
    lConcl
    usi
    ons of5 and 6 June 2014.The
    Concl
    usi
    onsr
    efert
    othef
    oll
    owi
    ngasf
    ormsofgender
    -basedv
    iol
    enceagai
    nstwomen:
     Vi
    olencei
    ncl
    oser
    elat
    ionshi
    ps
     Sexualv
    iol
    ence(
    incl
    udi
    ngr
    ape,sexualassaul
    tandhar
    assmenti
    nal
    lpubl
    i
    cand
    pr
    ivat
    espher
    esofl
    i
    fe)

    199|Page
     Tr
    aff
    icki
    ngofhumanbei
    ngs,
    slav
    ery
    ,andsexual
    expl
    oit
    ati
    on
     Har
    mfulpr
    act
    icessuchaschi
    l
    dandf
    orcedmar
    ri
    ages,f
    emal
    egeni
    talmut
    il
    ati
    on,
    andcr
    imescommi
    tt
    edi
    nthenameofso-
    cal
    l
    ed‘
    honor
    ’
     Emer
    ging f
    ormsofv
    iol
    ati
    ons,such asonl
    i
    nehar
    assment
    ,var
    iousf
    ormsof
    sexualabuse i
    nst
    igat
    ed orf
    aci
    l
    itat
    ed t
    hrough t
    he use ofi
    nfor
    mat
    ion and
    communi
    cat
    iont
    echnol
    ogi
    es,
    stal
    ki
    ng,
    andbul
    l
    ying.

    St
    il
    l,t
    heCounci
    lConcl
    usi
    onsdonotr
    efl
    ectt
    her
    eal
    m ofv
    iol
    enceagai
    nstwomeni
    nit
    s
    ent
    ir
    ety
    .Speci
    fi
    cal
    l
    y,psy
    chol
    ogi
    calandeconomi
    cvi
    olencear
    enotv
    isi
    bleast
    heyar
    e
    notexpl
    i
    cit
    lyment
    ioned.
    Psy
    chol
    ogi
    cal
    viol
    encei
    ncl
    udes‘
    thr
    eat
    s,humi
    l
    iat
    ion,
    mocki
    ngandcont
    rol
    l
    ingbehav
    ior
    s’.
    Economi
    cvi
    olence i
    nvol
    ves deny
    ing access oft
    he v
    ict
    im t
    ofi
    nanci
    alr
    esour
    ces,
    pr
    oper
    ty,heal
    thcar
    e,educat
    ion,ort
    hel
    abormar
    ket
    ,anddeny
    ingt
    hem par
    ti
    cipat
    ioni
    n
    economi
    cdeci
    si
    on-
    maki
    ng.
    Ther
    elat
    ionshi
    pbet
    weent
    hev
    ict
    im andt
    heper
    pet
    rat
    orofact
    sofv
    iol
    enceagai
    nst
    womeni
    sal
    soofgr
    eatr
    elev
    ance.I
    nti
    mat
    epar
    tnerv
    iol
    ence(
    IPV)i
    soneoft
    hemost
    wi
    despr
    eadf
    ormsofdi
    rectv
    iol
    enceagai
    nstwomen,andi
    ncl
    udesar
    angeofsexual
    ,
    psy
    chol
    ogi
    calandphy
    sicalcoer
    civ
    eact
    susedagai
    nstadul
    tandadol
    escentwomenby
    acur
    rentorf
    ormeri
    nti
    mat
    epar
    tner
    .
    Accor
    dingt
    otheEU-
    wideSur
    veyonVi
    olenceagai
    nstWomenconduct
    edbyt
    heEU
    Agencyf
    orFundament
    alRi
    ght
    s,22% ofwomen hav
    e exper
    ienced some f
    orm of
    phy
    sical
    and/
    orsexual
    viol
    encebyacur
    rentorpr
    evi
    ouspar
    tner
    .
    (
    EUAgencyf
    orFundament
    alRi
    ght
    s,EU-
    wideSur
    veyonVi
    olenceagai
    nstWomen2014)
    Di
    rectv
    iol
    enceagai
    nstwomenmustbeunder
    stoodt
    hrought
    hel
    ensofunequalpower
    r
    elat
    ionsbet
    weenwomenandmen.Vi
    olenceagai
    nstwomeni
    sof
    tennor
    mal
    i
    zedand
    per
    pet
    uat
    edduet
    othesest
    ruct
    urali
    nequal
    i
    ties.Hence,
    thehi
    stor
    icalandcont
    empor
    ary
    subor
    dinat
    ionofwomeni
    neconomi
    c,soci
    alandpol
    i
    ticall
    i
    femustbeacknowl
    edged
    whenat
    tempt
    ingt
    oexpl
    aint
    hepr
    eval
    enceofdi
    rectv
    iol
    enceagai
    nstwomeni
    nour
    soci
    eti
    es.Thi
    smeansshi
    ft
    ingt
    hef
    ocusf
    rom anact
    or-
    ori
    ent
    edper
    spect
    ivewhi
    ch
    exami
    nesi
    ndi
    vi
    dualmot
    ivat
    ionsf
    oract
    sofv
    iol
    ence,
    toast
    ruct
    ure-
    ori
    ent
    edper
    spect
    ive

    200|Page
    whi
    chl
    ooksatt
    hest
    ruct
    uralgenderi
    nequal
    i
    tiest
    hatsuppor
    tandj
    ust
    if
    ygender
    -based
    v
    iol
    enceagai
    nstwomen.Thest
    ruct
    uraldi
    mensi
    onofv
    iol
    enceagai
    nstwomencanal
    so
    bedescr
    ibedasdi
    rectv
    iol
    ence.

    I
    ndi
    rectVi
    olence/St
    ruct
    uralVi
    olence
    Accor
    dingt
    otheUN Speci
    alRappor
    teuronv
    iol
    enceagai
    nstwomen,i
    nst
    it
    uti
    onalor
    st
    ruct
    ural
    viol
    encei
    s‘anyf
    orm ofst
    ruct
    ural
    inequal
    i
    tyori
    nst
    it
    uti
    onal
    discr
    imi
    nat
    iont
    hat
    mai
    ntai
    nsawomani
    nasubor
    dinat
    eposi
    ti
    on,whet
    herphy
    sicalori
    deol
    ogi
    cal
    ,toot
    her
    peopl
    ewi
    thi
    nherf
    ami
    l
    y,househol
    dorcommuni
    ty.
    ’
    (
    Repor
    toft
    heSpeci
    alRappor
    teuronv
    iol
    enceagai
    nstwomen2011)
    I
    ndi
    rectv
    iol
    encecanbeunder
    stoodasat
    ypeofst
    ruct
    uralv
    iol
    ence,char
    act
    eri
    zedby
    nor
    ms,
    att
    it
    udesandst
    ereot
    ypesar
    oundgenderi
    ngener
    alandv
    iol
    enceagai
    nstwomen
    i
    npar
    ti
    cul
    ar.I
    ndi
    rectv
    iol
    enceoper
    ateswi
    thi
    nal
    argersoci
    etalcont
    ext
    ;inst
    it
    uti
    ons,
    and
    t
    hei
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    swi
    thi
    nandout
    sidet
    hesei
    nst
    it
    uti
    ons,ar
    eal
    lengagedi
    nthepr
    oduct
    ion
    andr
    epr
    oduct
    ionofat
    ti
    tudeswhi
    chnor
    mal
    i
    zev
    iol
    enceagai
    nstwomen(
    Uni
    tedNat
    ions
    1992)
    .Looki
    ngatt
    heseat
    ti
    tudescanpr
    ovi
    dei
    nsi
    ghti
    ntot
    hewayi
    nwhi
    cht
    hese
    i
    ndi
    rectf
    ormsofv
    iol
    encear
    ecr
    eat
    edandsust
    ained,andev
    enmor
    eimpor
    tant
    ly,how
    t
    heycont
    ri
    but
    etoandsuppor
    tdi
    rectf
    ormsofv
    iol
    enceagai
    nstwomen.
    I
    nequal
    i
    ties-andt
    hef
    ormsofv
    iol
    enceconnect
    edt
    othem -ar
    eint
    ersect
    ional
    .Theyar
    e
    t
    her
    esul
    tofi
    nter
    playbet
    weenmul
    ti
    plepowerst
    ruct
    urest
    hatpr
    oduceandr
    epr
    oduce
    hi
    erar
    chi
    caldi
    sti
    nct
    ions,f
    orexampl
    eregar
    dingr
    ace,(
    dis)
    abi
    l
    ity
    ,age,soci
    alcl
    ass,and
    gender
    .Thi
    smeanst
    hatwhi
    l
    eal
    lwomenf
    acedi
    scr
    imi
    nat
    ionbasedongender
    ,some
    women exper
    ience mul
    ti
    plef
    orms ofdi
    scr
    imi
    nat
    ion,ofwhi
    ch genderi
    sonl
    yone
    component
    .
    Todat
    e,t
    her
    eisnoconsensusont
    het
    ermi
    nol
    ogyadopt
    ed,oront
    her
    elat
    ionshi
    p
    bet
    weendi
    rectandi
    ndi
    rectv
    iol
    ence.Whi
    l
    esomeseei
    tasani
    ntegr
    alpar
    tofv
    iol
    ence
    agai
    nstwomen,
    thi
    siscont
    est
    edbyot
    her
    s.Muchwor
    kneedst
    obedonei
    nthi
    sar
    eat
    o
    bet
    terunder
    stand,andul
    ti
    mat
    elymeasur
    e,st
    ruct
    urali
    nequal
    i
    tiesbet
    weenwomenand
    men.
    I
    nPaki
    stan,
    viol
    enceagai
    nstwomenpr
    act
    icedmor
    ethant
    het
    ypi
    cal
    for
    ms.Anumberof

    201|Page
    t
    hesef
    act
    sar
    egener
    alacr
    ossourcount
    rywhi
    l
    eot
    her
    sar
    ear
    eaandr
    egi
    onspeci
    fi
    c.
    Vi
    olenceagai
    nstWomencanbecl
    assi
    fi
    edi
    nto4di
    ff
    erentcat
    egor
    ieseachofwhi
    chhas
    numer
    oust
    ypesunderi
    t.Thef
    ourbasi
    cfor
    msofv
    iol
    enceagai
    nstwomenar
    e:Phy
    sical
    ,
    Sex
    ual
    ,Psy
    chol
    ogi
    cal
    andEconomi
    cvi
    olence.
    1.Phy
    sicalVi
    olence:
    Thi
    sincl
    udesv
    iol
    encesuchas“
    slappi
    ng,beat
    ing,ar
    mtwi
    sti
    ng,st
    abbi
    ng,st
    rangl
    i
    ng,
    bur
    ning,
    choki
    ng,
    kicki
    ng,
    thr
    eat
    swi
    thanobj
    ectorweapon,
    andmur
    der
    .Ital
    soi
    ncl
    udes
    t
    radi
    ti
    onalpr
    act
    iceshar
    mfult
    owomensuchasf
    emal
    egeni
    talmut
    il
    ati
    onandwi
    fe
    i
    nher
    it
    ance.
    ”
    2.Sexual
    Viol
    ence:
    Suchas“
    coer
    cedsext
    hrought
    hreat
    s(r
    ape)
    ,int
    imi
    dat
    ionorphy
    sicalf
    orce,f
    orci
    ng
    unwant
    edsexual
    act
    sorf
    orci
    ngsexwi
    thot
    her
    s”
    3.Psy
    chol
    ogi
    calVi
    olence:
    Thi
    ssor
    tofv
    iol
    enceenl
    i
    stsi
    ncl
    udes“
    behav
    iort
    hati
    sint
    ended t
    oint
    imi
    dat
    eand
    per
    secut
    e,andt
    akest
    hef
    orm oft
    hreat
    sofabandonmentorabuse,conf
    inementt
    othe
    home,
    sur
    vei
    l
    lance,
    thr
    eat
    stot
    akeawaycust
    odyoft
    hechi
    l
    dren,
    dest
    ruct
    ionofobj
    ect
    s,
    i
    sol
    ati
    on,
    ver
    bal
    aggr
    essi
    onandconst
    anthumi
    l
    iat
    ion”
    .
    4.Economi
    cvi
    olence:
    Act
    ssuchas“
    thedeni
    aloff
    unds,r
    efusalt
    ocont
    ri
    but
    efi
    nanci
    all
    y,deni
    aloff
    oodand
    basi
    cneeds,andcont
    rol
    l
    ingaccesst
    oheal
    thcar
    e,empl
    oyment
    ,deny
    ingi
    nher
    it
    ance
    r
    ighti
    nmat
    ter
    sofpr
    oper
    tyet
    c.al
    loft
    heseamal
    gamat
    eint
    oEconomi
    cvi
    olence”
    .

    Var
    iousPat
    ter
    nsofVi
    olenceAgai
    nstWomenI
    nPaki
    stan

    Var
    ious f
    orms of VAW ar
    e pr
    act
    iced i
    n Paki
    stan,some ar
    e commonl
    yfound
    count
    rywi
    dewhi
    l
    eot
    her
    sar
    especi
    fi
    cal
    l
    ypr
    act
    icedi
    nsomespeci
    fi
    cgeogr
    aphi
    cal
    areas.
    Thev
    ari
    etyoff
    acet
    sofVAW i
    nPaki
    stanar
    eli
    stedandi
    l
    lust
    rat
    edunder
    neat
    h:
    1. Domest
    icVi
    olence
    2. RapeandSexualAssaul
    t

    202|Page
    3. St
    ovebur
    ning/Br
    idebur
    ninganddowr
    ymur
    der
    4. Aci
    dat
    tacks
    5. Sexual
    Har
    assment
    6. Tr
    aff
    icki
    ngofwomenandgi
    rl
    s
    7. HonorKi
    ll
    ing
    8. Gi
    rl
    sascompensat
    ion
    9. For
    cedandChi
    ldmar
    ri
    ages
    10. Deni
    alofi
    nher
    it
    ancer
    ight
    s
    11. I
    njust
    icei
    nmar
    ri
    agecont
    ract
    12. For
    cedHospi
    tal
    izat
    ioni
    nPsy
    chi
    atr
    icFaci
    li
    ti
    es

    A nat
    ionwi
    de st
    udy conduct Aur
    ed by ‘ at Foundat
    ion Paki
    stan’hi
    ghl
    i
    ght
    ing t
    he
    pr
    omi
    nenceoft
    hesi
    tuat
    ionofv
    iol
    enceagai
    nstwomeni
    nPaki
    stani
    n2010.
    Thest
    udy
    hasof
    fer
    edagr
    im depi
    cti
    onoft
    hest
    ateofaf
    fai
    rsont
    hesubj
    ectofv
    iol
    enceagai
    nst
    womeni
    nPaki
    stan.Ther
    eiswi
    de-
    rangi
    nghar
    monyt
    hatt
    hemor
    evul
    ner
    abl
    epeopl
    ein
    t
    hecount
    rywer
    ereal
    l
    ysubj
    ugat
    edandmadepr
    eyofv
    iol
    ence.
    Aur
    atFoundat
    ioncar
    ri
    edoutanat
    ionall
    evelst
    udy
    ;“t
    hisnat
    ionalst
    udywasbasedon
    dat
    acol
    l
    ect
    edbyt
    heFoundat
    ion’
    sfourof
    fi
    cesi
    nthepr
    ovi
    nces,aswel
    lasdat
    afr
    om
    I
    slamabad.Thi
    sdat
    aismost
    lydr
    awnf
    rom medi
    arepor
    ts,pol
    i
    cer
    ecor
    dsandot
    her
    sour
    ces(
    incl
    udi
    ng hospi
    tal
    s,suppor
    tser
    vices)and t
    her
    efor
    eisbel
    i
    eved t
    o bean
    under
    est
    imat
    ion.The mostr
    ecentanal
    ysi
    s has r
    eveal
    ed a 13% i
    ncr
    ease i
    n VAW
    bet
    ween2008and2009.I
    nal
    l
    ,8,
    548unpl
    easanti
    nci
    dent
    sofv
    iol
    enceagai
    nstwomen
    wer
    erepor
    tedi
    nthepr
    intmedi
    acr
    osswi
    sePaki
    stan,ani
    ncr
    easef
    rom 7571cases
    r
    epor
    tedi
    n2008”
    .(Aur
    atFoundat
    ion,
    2009)
    “
    Oft
    het
    otali
    nci
    dent
    s,2236womenwer
    eabduct
    ed;1436womenwer
    emur
    der
    edand
    557wer
    eki
    l
    ledi
    nthenameof‘
    honor
    ’ki
    l
    li
    ng;928womenwer
    eraped;633women
    commi
    tt
    edsui
    cide;32womenwer
    emadev
    ict
    im ofaci
    dat
    tacksand38womenwer
    e
    t
    argetofst
    ovebur
    ning.Thi
    sisagr
    imr
    emi
    ndert
    hatev
    ilsoci
    alpr
    act
    icesper
    sist
    ,suchas
    t
    hef
    actt
    hatsev
    eral
    womenwer
    eexchangedl
    i
    kecat
    tl
    etoset
    tl
    edi
    sput
    esadj
    udi
    cat
    edby
    i
    l
    legal
    ji
    rgas,
    orhundr
    edswer
    eki
    l
    ledont
    hepr
    etextofso-
    cal
    l
    ed‘
    honor
    ’.

    203|Page
    1.Domest
    icVi
    olence
    Domest
    icandi
    nti
    mat
    epar
    tnerv
    iol
    encei
    nvol
    vesphy
    sicalandsexualat
    tacksagai
    nst
    womeni
    nthehome,wi
    thi
    nthef
    ami
    l
    yorwi
    thi
    nani
    nti
    mat
    erel
    ati
    onshi
    p.Domest
    ic
    v
    iol
    encei
    sahor
    ri
    blecr
    ime,whi
    chi
    sbei
    ngcommi
    tt
    edatal
    argerscal
    einanunj
    ust
    soci
    etyofour
    s.West
    il
    lhav
    eaf
    eudalmi
    ndsett
    hatpr
    opagat
    esi
    deasofdomi
    nanceov
    er
    ot
    her
    sandi
    nmaki
    ngot
    her
    sfeel
    hel
    plesst
    owar
    dsus.
    Womenar
    eabused,at
    tacked,bur
    nt,setonf
    ir
    eandki
    l
    ledf
    orr
    easonsofpet
    tyquar
    rel
    s
    l
    i
    kenothav
    ingdonesomesmal
    lchor
    es,mat
    ter
    sofdowr
    y,pr
    oper
    ty,secondmar
    ri
    ages
    andmar
    ri
    agechoi
    ces.
    Accor
    dingt
    othest
    udyi
    thasbeenf
    oundt
    hatdur
    ingy
    ear2010i
    nPaki
    stant
    her
    ewer
    e
    486casesofdomest
    icv
    iol
    ence;
    246i
    nPunj
    ab;
    136i
    nSi
    ndh;
    89i
    nKPK;
    4inBal
    uchi
    stan
    and11i
    nIsl
    amabad.

    2. Sexual
    Har
    assment
    Sex
    ualHar
    assmentt
    akespal
    acewhenonei
    ndi
    vi
    dualper
    sist
    stomakeunwel
    come
    adv
    ances,r
    equest
    sforunsui
    tabl
    efav
    ors and ot
    heror
    alorphy
    sicalbehav
    ior
    ,in
    opposi
    ti
    ont
    otheot
    herper
    sonswi
    sh.
    “
    Unwel
    comedsexualadv
    ancesandot
    herv
    erbalorphy
    sicalconductofasexualnat
    ure
    const
    it
    utesexualhar
    assment
    .Submi
    ssi
    onorr
    eject
    ionoft
    hisconduct
    ,canexpl
    i
    cit
    lyor
    i
    mpl
    i
    cit
    lyaf
    fectani
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    ’
    sempl
    oyment
    .Psy
    chol
    ogi
    calhar
    assmentmayt
    aket
    he
    f
    orm ofv
    erbalandot
    hermeansofpr
    essur
    izi
    ngt
    hev
    ict
    im,whol
    i
    mit
    sandaf
    fect
    s
    hi
    s/hercapabi
    l
    ityt
    obepr
    oduct
    ive”
    .
    “
    Accor
    dingt
    othest
    udyi
    thasbeenf
    oundt
    hatdur
    ingy
    ear2010i
    nPaki
    stant
    her
    ewer
    e
    928casesofr
    ape/
    gang-
    rape(
    741i
    nPunj
    ab;
    157i
    nSi
    ndh;
    5inKPK;
    6inBal
    uchi
    stanand
    19i
    nIsl
    amabad)r
    aki
    ngasdomest
    ichel
    p.74casesofsexualassaul
    t(39i
    nPunj
    ab;34
    i
    nSi
    ndh;
    0inKPK;
    0inBal
    uchi
    stanand1i
    nIsl
    amabad”
    .

    3. St
    oveBur
    ning/
    Bri
    deBur
    ningAndDowr
    yRel
    atedMur
    der
    s
    Bur
    ningofwomenbydr
    enchi
    ngt
    hem wi
    thker
    oseneoi
    lorot
    herf
    lammabl
    emat
    ter
    ,

    204|Page
    i
    nsi
    det
    hei
    rhomesi
    snor
    mal
    l
    yident
    if
    iedasst
    ovebur
    ning.Thi
    sfor
    m ofv
    iol
    encecanbe
    st
    anchedf
    oranumberofmot
    ivest
    oget
    herwi
    thdowr
    yrel
    atedmat
    ter
    s.Ther
    elat
    ives
    andi
    n-l
    awsoft
    hecasual
    tycl
    aimt
    hatshewasacci
    dent
    lybur
    ntwhi
    l
    stcooki
    ng.Ofst
    ove
    bur
    ningt
    her
    ear
    erar
    elyanyi
    nci
    denti
    nvol
    vi
    ngbachel
    orgi
    rl
    sli
    vi
    ngwi
    tht
    hei
    rpar
    ent
    s.
    “
    Bri
    de-
    bur
    ningi
    saf
    orm ofdomest
    icv
    iol
    enceundert
    hecat
    egor
    yofdowr
    ydeat
    h,br
    ide-
    bur
    ningoccur
    swhenay
    oungwomani
    smur
    der
    edbyherhusbandorhi
    sfami
    l
    yforher
    f
    ami
    l
    y'sr
    efusalt
    opayaddi
    ti
    onaldowr
    y.Thewi
    fei
    sty
    pical
    l
    ydousedwi
    thker
    osene,
    gasol
    i
    ne,
    orot
    herf
    lammabl
    eli
    qui
    d,andsetal
    i
    ght
    ,leadi
    ngt
    odeat
    hbyf
    ir
    e”.
    Accor
    dingt
    othest
    udyi
    thasbeenf
    oundt
    hat
    ,’dur
    ingy
    ear2010i
    nPaki
    stant
    her
    ewer
    e
    38casesofbur
    ning:
    (33i
    nPunj
    ab;
    0inSi
    ndh;
    3inKPK;
    1inBal
    uchi
    stan;
    1inI
    slamabad”
    .

    4. Aci
    dThr
    owi
    ng
    Aci
    dthr
    owi
    ngi
    dent
    if
    iedas‘
    vi
    tr
    iolage’
    ist
    hrowi
    ngaci
    donadi
    ff
    erentper
    son,
    chi
    efl
    ythe
    f
    acear
    ea.Thi
    siscommi
    tt
    edf
    orr
    evengeordeni
    alofsexual
    adv
    ance,
    mar
    ri
    agepr
    oposal
    ,
    dowr
    y,suspect
    eddi
    sloy
    alt
    yandev
    enacademi
    cenv
    y.
    “
    Insomecases,r
    eli
    giousf
    undament
    ali
    stst
    hrow aci
    dsatwomenwhoar
    ecompl
    ete
    st
    ranger
    stot
    hem,st
    andi
    ngorsi
    tt
    ingatpubl
    i
    cpl
    aces,becauset
    heyf
    eltt
    hewomen
    wer
    etoomoder
    nandwest
    erni
    zedandf
    urt
    her
    mor
    e,ant
    i-
    Isl
    am.Ev
    eni
    fal
    lthewomen
    haddonei
    swearj
    eansi
    nst
    eadoft
    hePaki
    stani
    dress”
    .
    Accor
    dingt
    othest
    udyi
    thasbeenf
    oundt
    hat“
    dur
    ingy
    ear2010i
    nPaki
    stant
    her
    ewer
    e
    32casesofaci
    dthr
    owi
    ng(
    20i
    nPunj
    ab;3i
    nSi
    ndh;0i
    nKPK;5i
    nBal
    uchi
    stanand3i
    n
    I
    slamabad”
    .

    5. Sexual
    Assaul
    tAndRape
    I
    fAmancommi
    tsr
    apet
    hati
    ssex
    ual
    int
    ercour
    sewi
    thawomani
    nsi
    tuat
    ionunderanyof
    f
    oll
    owi
    ngs,“
    agai
    nstherwi
    l
    l;wi
    thoutherconsent
    ,wi
    thherconsentwhent
    heconsent
    hasbeenobt
    ainedbyput
    ti
    ngheri
    nfearofdeat
    horofhur
    t,wi
    thherconsentwhent
    he
    manknowst
    hathei
    snotmar
    ri
    edt
    oherandt
    hatt
    heconsenti
    sgi
    venbecauseshe
    bel
    i
    evest
    hatt
    hemani
    sanot
    herper
    sont
    owhom shei
    sorbel
    i
    evesher
    sel
    ftobe
    mar
    ri
    ed;
    orwi
    thorwi
    thoutherconsentwhenshei
    sundersi
    xteeny
    ear
    sofage”
    .

    205|Page
    “
    Thesecr
    imesar
    eof
    tencommi
    tt
    edbyf
    ri
    ends,
    rel
    ati
    ves,
    acquai
    ntances,
    nei
    ghbor
    s,wor
    k
    col
    l
    eaguesorev
    enst
    ranger
    s.I
    tisest
    imat
    edwor
    ldwi
    det
    hatonei
    nev
    eryf
    ivewomen
    becomesav
    ict
    im ofr
    apeorat
    tempt
    edr
    apei
    nherl
    i
    fet
    ime”
    .
    6. Tr
    aff
    icki
    ngOfWomenAndGi
    rl
    s
    Tr
    aff
    icki
    ngent
    ail
    sther
    ecr
    uit
    mentandt
    ranspor
    tat
    ionofi
    ndi
    vi
    dualbydecei
    vi
    ng,f
    orci
    ng
    andt
    hreat
    stodr
    agt
    hem i
    nasi
    tuat
    ionoff
    orcedl
    abororsl
    aver
    y.Womenar
    ebei
    ng
    t
    raf
    fi
    ckedi
    nmanysect
    orsoff
    inanci
    alact
    ivi
    ti
    esl
    i
    kepr
    ost
    it
    uti
    on,
    domest
    icempl
    oyment
    ,
    f
    armi
    nget
    c.
    “
    Traf
    fi
    cki
    ngi
    sady
    nami
    cconcept
    ,thepar
    amet
    ersofwhi
    char
    econst
    ant
    lychangi
    ngt
    o
    r
    espondt
    ochangi
    ngeconomi
    c,soci
    alandpol
    i
    ticalcondi
    ti
    ons.Att
    hecor
    eofany
    def
    ini
    ti
    onoft
    raf
    fi
    cki
    ngmustbet
    her
    ecogni
    ti
    ont
    hatt
    raf
    fi
    cki
    ngi
    snev
    erconsensual
    .Iti
    s
    t
    henon-
    consensualnat
    ureoft
    raf
    fi
    cki
    ng t
    hatdi
    sti
    ngui
    shesi
    tfr
    om ot
    herf
    ormsof
    mi
    grat
    ion”
    .
    Accor
    dingt
    othest
    udyi
    thasbeenf
    oundt
    hatdur
    ingy
    ear2010i
    nPaki
    stant
    her
    ewer
    e
    2236casesofabduct
    ion/
    kidnappi
    ng(
    1890i
    nPunj
    ab;246i
    nSi
    ndh;77i
    nKPK;2i
    n
    Bal
    uchi
    stanand21i
    nIsl
    amabad.

    7. Honor
    -Ki
    ll
    ing
    Cr
    imescommi
    tt
    ed f
    orhonorar
    e so di
    sti
    nctbecause t
    heyt
    ake pl
    ace i
    n a soci
    al
    sur
    roundi
    ngswher
    ethe“
    idealofmanl
    i
    nessi
    sunder
    pinnedbyabel
    i
    efof‘
    honor
    ’ofan
    i
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    ,fami
    l
    yandcommuni
    ty
    “
    Honorki
    l
    li
    ngi
    soneoft
    hewor
    stf
    ormsofv
    iol
    enceagai
    nstwomen.I
    tisanext
    reme
    f
    orm ofdi
    rectphy
    sicalv
    iol
    ence,whi
    chi
    smar
    kedbygr
    eatsuf
    fer
    ing.I
    nrecenty
    ear
    s,
    Paki
    stanhasbeencr
    it
    ici
    zedbecauseoft
    hedr
    amat
    icr
    isei
    nthei
    nci
    denceofhonor
    ki
    l
    li
    ngsi
    nthecount
    ry”
    .
    The meani
    ng ofhonorki
    l
    li
    ng i
    sthe "
    Un-
    lawf
    ulki
    l
    li
    ng ofa woman f
    orheract
    ual
    per
    cei
    vedmor
    all
    yorment
    all
    yuncl
    eanandi
    mpur
    ebehav
    ior
    ."
    I
    nPaki
    stanv
    ari
    ousnamesar
    eassoci
    atedwi
    tht
    hishei
    nouscr
    ime,namesaspert
    he
    di
    ff
    erentr
    egi
    ons.I
    nNWFP,
    iti
    scal
    l
    ed‘
    Tor
    e’,
    inSi
    ndhi
    ti ed‘
    scal
    l Kar
    oKar
    i’andi
    npar
    ts

    206|Page
    ofPunj
    abi
    tiscal
    l Kal
    ed‘ l
    aKal
    i
    ’.Honorki
    l
    li
    ngi
    sconcent
    rat
    edi
    nSout
    her
    nPunj
    ab,
    nor
    ther
    nSi
    ndh;andSout
    hEastBal
    uchi
    stan.I
    nter
    est
    ingl
    yther
    eisl
    owr
    ati
    ooft
    hisf
    orm
    ofVAW i
    nNWFPandPasht
    unar
    easofBal
    uchi
    stan.Honorki
    l
    li
    nghasnor
    ealbasi
    sin
    r
    eli
    gionbuti
    scheer
    ed and f
    avor
    ed byt
    radi
    ti
    onsand mi
    sint
    erpr
    etat
    ionofr
    eli
    gion.
    Accor
    dingt
    othest
    udyi
    thasbeenf
    oundt
    hatdur
    ingy
    ear2010i
    nPaki
    stant
    her
    ewer
    e
    1436casesofmur
    der
    ;758i
    nPunj
    ab;
    309i
    nSi
    ndh;
    328i
    nKPK;
    15i
    nBal
    uchi
    stanand27
    i
    nIsl
    amabad)
    ;557casesof‘
    honor
    ’ki
    l
    li
    ng;233i
    nPunj
    ab;266i
    nSi
    ndh;22i
    nKPK;36i
    n
    Bal
    uchi
    stanand0i
    nIsl
    amabad.

    8. Gi
    rl
    sAsCompensat
    ion
    I
    nregi
    onsofPaki
    stanwher
    ethet
    ri
    balwayofl
    i
    feandcust
    omsst
    il
    lpr
    evai
    l
    ;ther
    eexi
    st
    t
    hecul
    tur
    alpr
    act
    iceofgi
    vi
    ngawaymi
    norgi
    rl
    sascompensat
    ion,t
    oset
    tl
    eadi
    sput
    e
    r
    elat
    edt
    obl
    ood-
    feudormat
    ter
    sofhonororf
    inance.“
    Acounci
    lofel
    der
    sor‘
    Ji
    rga’may
    deci
    det
    hatt
    heaggr
    iev
    edf
    ami
    l
    yget
    sunmar
    ri
    edormi
    norgi
    rl
    (s)ascompensat
    ion,
    t
    reat
    ingt
    hem asacommodi
    tyt
    orepl
    acebl
    oodmoney
    .Thesegi
    rl
    smayormaynotbe
    gi
    venawaywi
    thorwi
    thoutaNi
    kkahoramar
    ri
    agecont
    ract
    .Iti
    sver
    ycommonf
    orsuch
    gi
    rl
    stobemi
    str
    eat
    edi
    nthei
    rnewhomesast
    heyar
    eseenasaconst
    antr
    emi
    nderoft
    he
    actf
    orwhi
    cht
    heyhav
    ebeengi
    venascompensat
    iont
    otheaggr
    iev
    edpar
    ty”
    .

    “
    Thi
    spr
    act
    iceofgi
    vi
    nggi
    rl
    sascompensat
    ioni
    spr
    eval
    enti
    ncer
    tai
    nregi
    onsofal
    lthe
    f
    ourpr
    ovi
    ncesofPaki
    stanwi
    thhi
    gheri
    nci
    dencei
    nKhy
    ber
    -Pakht
    onKhwa.I
    tiscal
    l
    ed
    Swar
    ‘ a’i
    nKhy
    berPakht I
    r
    onKhwa,‘jaee’i
    nBal
    uchi
    stan,i
    nSi
    ndhi
    ti Sung-
    sknownas‘
    Chat
    ti
    ’andi
    nPunj Vanni
    abas‘ ’
    .Inmanycases,womenort
    hei
    rhonorar
    egi
    venas
    compensat
    ion.
    ”)

    9. For
    cedAndChi
    ldMar
    ri
    ages
    For
    cedmar
    ri
    agecanbedef
    inedas:
    “
    Thi
    sisasor
    tofmar
    ri
    ageper
    for
    medunderdur
    essandwi
    thoutt
    hef
    ullandi
    nfor
    med
    consentorf
    reewi
    l
    lofoneorbot
    hpar
    ti
    es.
    ”
    For
    cedmar
    ri
    agesar
    erat
    hercommoni
    nPaki
    stanandt
    ypi
    cal
    l
    ytheeager
    nessofagi
    rli
    s

    207|Page
    nev
    ermeasur
    ed.I
    tisobl
    i
    gat
    oryI
    nIsl
    am t
    ogetper
    missi
    onandmut
    ual
    wil
    l
    ingnessoft
    he
    br
    ideandgr
    oom.Gi
    rl
    sconsenti
    shar
    dlyev
    ert
    akenI
    nBal
    uchi
    stan,andr
    efusalwi
    l
    l
    sur
    elyl
    ead hert
    o deat
    h.I
    n Paki
    stan mat
    chl
    ess coupl
    e can be f
    ound commonl
    y
    mar
    ri
    agesasagi
    rlof13y
    earol
    dgi
    rl
    sto30y
    earol
    d.

    10. Deni
    alOfRi
    ght
    sOfI
    nher
    it
    ance
    Womeni
    naf
    ami
    l
    ywi
    ves,daught
    ersandsi
    ster
    sar
    edepr
    ivedoft
    hei
    rdueshar
    ein
    i
    nher
    it
    ancei
    nthi
    sfor
    m ofv
    iol
    ence,i
    mmov
    abl
    easset
    sespeci
    all
    y.Of
    tenwomenar
    e
    enf
    orcedt
    oremai
    nsi
    ngl
    etopr
    eventf
    ami
    l
    ypr
    oper
    tyi
    nSi
    ndh.Fami
    l
    ydemandsr
    esul
    tsi
    n
    womenf
    requent
    lydi
    mini
    shi
    ngt
    hei
    rlegalr
    ightt
    oinher
    it
    ance.Thosewomenwhomov
    ed
    t
    owar
    dscour
    torl
    awf
    ort
    hei
    rri
    ght
    swer
    eki
    l
    ledori
    njur
    edbyt
    hemal
    eoft
    hef
    ami
    l
    y.

    11. For
    cedHospi
    tal
    izat
    ionI
    nPsy
    chi
    atr
    icFaci
    li
    ti
    es
    Ther
    ewer
    e928shamef
    uli
    nci
    dent
    sofr
    apeandgang-
    rapei
    n2010wi
    th11.
    6%.Ther
    e
    wer
    e633i
    nci
    dent
    sofsui
    cidebywomen(
    7.9%)i
    n2010.Ther
    ewer
    e74casesofsexual
    assaul
    t(0.
    925%)
    ;70bur
    ning&aci
    dthr
    owi
    ngi
    nci
    dent
    sineachcat
    egor
    y(0.
    875%)
    ;and
    of
    fencesofmi
    scel
    l
    aneousnat
    urewer
    ear
    ound(
    19.
    75%)wi
    that
    otalof1580casesof
    v
    iol
    encei
    nfourpr
    ovi
    nci
    alr
    egi
    onsandI
    slamabad.

    St
    rat
    egi
    est
    oEndVi
    olenceAgai
    nstWomenAndGi
    rl
    s

    I
    nvest
    ingi
    nGenderEqual
    it
    yandWomen’
    sEmpower
    ment
    Asgenderi
    nequal
    i
    tyi
    satt
    her
    ootofv
    iol
    enceagai
    nstwomenandgi
    rl
    s,l
    ong-
    ter
    m
    ef
    for
    tst
    oimpr
    ovewomen’
    sri
    ght
    s,humandev
    elopmentst
    andi
    ng,oppor
    tuni
    ti
    esand
    choi
    ceswhi
    l
    eaddr
    essi
    ngnegat
    ivesoci
    alnor
    msandv
    aluesr
    elat
    edt
    other
    olesofmen
    andwomenwi
    thi
    nthecommuni
    tyatl
    arge,ar
    ecr
    it
    icalt
    oreduci
    ngwomen’
    sri
    skof
    exper
    ienci
    ngandescapi
    ngabusei
    ntheshor
    t-
    ter
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    olence

    208|Page
    agai
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    m.
    Thesei
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    El
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    ight
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    I
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    Par
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    rl
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    I
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    est
    mentofear
    nings,and

    209|Page
    i
    ncr
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    henat
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    el.

    Resear
    chhasdemonst
    rat
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    eeconomi
    canddeci
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    maki
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    cor
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    Acr
    it
    icalmassofwomenshoul
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    ciset
    hei
    rpol
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    ticalr
    ight
    s
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    ti
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    esent
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    nst
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    ti
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    nionsand

    210|Page
    pr
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    Educat
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    211|Page
    r
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    Rol
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    s

    212|Page
    Ther
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    edt
    owomen'
    sri
    ght
    s.Forexampl
    e,t
    he
    dowr
    ysy
    stem i
    saconcer
    ningpr
    act
    icer
    esul
    ti
    ngi
    ndi
    rectv
    iol
    encei
    nfor
    m ofbr
    ide
    bur
    ning,aci
    dthr
    owi
    ng,beat
    ings.I
    nthi
    scase,i
    tist
    hemor
    alandr
    eli
    giousobl
    i
    gat
    ionof
    I
    slami
    cschol
    arst
    ogi
    vear
    eli
    giousdecl
    arat
    ion(
    fat
    wa)t
    hatt
    hepr
    act
    iceofdowr
    yis
    compl
    etel
    yagai
    nstt
    het
    ruespi
    ri
    tofI
    slam andt
    hatany
    onewhopr
    act
    icesi
    twi
    l
    lbe
    commi
    tt
    ingasi
    nful
    act
    .
    Thi
    sdecl
    arat
    ion(
    fat
    wa)maycont
    ri
    but
    esi
    gni
    fi
    cant
    lyt
    owar
    dsachangei
    npeopl
    e'
    s
    ov
    eral
    lper
    cept
    ionoft
    hedowr
    ysy
    stem.
    Concl
    usi
    on
    Vi
    olenceagai
    nstwomeni
    saconcer
    nofnot
    iceabl
    ysi
    gni
    fi
    canti
    mpor
    tanceatsoci
    etal
    and f
    ami
    l
    ylev
    els.Domest
    icori
    ntr
    a-f
    ami
    l
    yvi
    olenceper
    pet
    rat
    ed bybot
    hmal
    eand
    f
    emal
    efami
    l
    ymember
    sandr
    elat
    ivesdeser
    vesspeci
    alat
    tent
    ion.Domest
    icv
    iol
    encei
    sa
    ser
    ioust
    hreatt
    owomen’
    sbasi
    chumanr
    ight
    sandphy
    sicalandpsy
    chol
    ogi
    calwel
    l
    -
    bei
    ng.Vi
    olenceagai
    nstwomen i
    sacompl
    expr
    obl
    em whi
    ch r
    equi
    rescoor
    dinat
    ed
    sol
    uti
    ons,
    inv
    olv
    ingt
    hepar
    ti
    cipat
    ionofbot
    hthest
    ateandci
    vi
    lsoci
    ety
    .Ther
    eisast
    rong
    andur
    gentneedf
    ormobi
    l
    izi
    ngandadequat
    elyut
    il
    izi
    ngal
    lal
    l
    iedsect
    orsofsoci
    etyf
    or
    f
    ormul
    ati
    ngpol
    i
    cyandpr
    ogr
    ammes.Thesei
    nvol
    vet
    hedev
    elopmentofcommuni
    ty
    net
    wor
    ksi
    nor
    dert
    opr
    ovi
    decar
    eandsuppor
    ttopeopl
    ewhoar
    evi
    cti
    msofv
    iol
    ence.
    Theseal
    soi
    nvol
    vet
    hepr
    omot
    ionofnon-
    viol
    entr
    elat
    ionsi
    npubl
    i
    candpr
    ivat
    eli
    vesof
    menandwomen.Regr
    essi
    vesoci
    alpr
    act
    ices,ent
    rencheddeepl
    yint
    ri
    balandf
    eudal
    cust
    omsandt
    radi
    ti
    ons,
    coupl
    edwi
    thanobscur
    ant
    isti
    nter
    pret
    ati
    onofr
    eli
    giousl
    eader
    s,
    ar
    ethemai
    nhur
    dlesi
    nthewayofwomen,
    demandi
    ngt
    hei
    rri
    ght
    s.

    Changi
    ngsoci
    alat
    ti
    tudest
    owar
    dswomeni
    nPaki
    stanisoci
    etyr
    equi
    ressust
    ainedl
    egal
    andsoci
    alef
    for
    ts.Paki
    stancannotbecomeamoder
    ate,pr
    ogr
    essi
    veandapr
    osper
    ous
    Musl
    i
    m count
    rywi
    thoutst
    rengt
    heni
    ngci
    vi
    lsoci
    ety
    .Thi
    srequi
    resf
    ir
    standf
    oremost
    gi
    vi
    ngmenandwomenequalaccesst
    ooppor
    tuni
    ti
    esi
    nli
    fe,wi
    thpar
    ti
    cul
    aremphasi
    s

    213|Page
    ont
    hepr
    otect
    ionoft
    her
    ight
    s,saf
    etyandwel
    l
    -bei
    ngofwomen.I
    fhal
    foft
    hepopul
    ati
    on
    ofPaki
    stani
    sspendi
    ngl
    i
    femar
    kedbyst
    rongf
    eel
    i
    ngsoff
    earandi
    nsecur
    it
    y,di
    rect
    lyor
    i
    ndi
    rect
    ly,howcanPaki
    stanst
    andamongt
    hepr
    osper
    ouscount
    ri
    esoft
    hewor
    ld?How
    Paki
    stan,whi
    chwascr
    eat
    edont
    henameofI
    slam,canbear
    olemodelf
    orI
    slami
    c
    count
    ri
    esaswel
    l
    .

    Addr
    essi
    ngVawI
    nPaki
    stan,
    Legi
    slat
    iveMeasur
    es
    Unf
    ort
    unat
    elyl
    i
    kemanyot
    herunderdev
    elopedcount
    ri
    es,cr
    imi
    nalj
    ust
    icesy
    stem does
    notconsi
    derdomest
    icv
    iol
    encemat
    terf
    ort
    hecr
    imi
    nalcour
    ts.Domest
    icv
    iol
    encei
    s
    r
    out
    inel
    ydi
    smi
    ssedbyl
    aw enf
    orcementaut
    hor
    it
    iesasa‘
    pri
    vat
    edi
    sput
    e’andf
    emal
    e
    v
    ict
    imswhoat
    temptt
    oregi
    sterapol
    i
    cecompl
    aintofspousalorf
    ami
    l
    ialphy
    sicalabuse
    ar
    einv
    ari
    abl
    ytur
    ned away
    .Wor
    se,t
    hey ar
    eregul
    arl
    y adv
    ised and somet
    imes
    pr
    essur
    izedbypol
    i
    cet
    oreconci
    l
    ewi
    tht
    hei
    rabusi
    vespousesorr
    elat
    ives.
    Somehow,i
    fav
    ict
    im ofv
    iol
    encesucceedst
    oregi
    sterhercompl
    i
    antev
    ent
    hent
    he
    i
    nst
    it
    uti
    onal
    i
    zedgenderbi
    asbl
    ocksherwayt
    ogetj
    ust
    ice.Mostof
    ten,t
    hecul
    pri
    tis
    honor
    abl
    yacqui
    tt
    edoft
    hechar
    gef
    ornumer
    ousl
    acunasi
    nthej
    ust
    iceandpr
    ocedur
    al
    sy
    stem,t
    houghabsol
    utev
    ict
    im!St
    il
    lshei
    sdi
    sbel
    i
    evedandt
    reat
    edwi
    thdi
    srespectby
    herowns.Thest
    ate’
    saccommodat
    ionofor
    thodoxy
    ,whoseagendai
    nvol
    vest
    hecont
    rol
    ofwomen’
    saut
    onomyandi
    npar
    ti
    cul
    arwomen’
    ssubj
    ugat
    ionwi
    thi
    nthef
    ami
    l
    y,has
    r
    esul
    tedi
    nit
    scont
    inuedr
    esi
    stancet
    ochal
    l
    engi
    ngper
    sonall
    aws.Thusbl
    atantand
    per
    vasi
    vei
    nequal
    i
    tieshav
    ebeenent
    renchedi
    nthear
    enai
    nwhi
    chmostwomen’
    sli
    ves
    ar
    espent
    .

    Hi
    stor
    yOfPr
    event
    iveLegi
    slat
    ionI
    nPaki
    stan
    Fr
    om t
    het
    imewhent
    hePaki
    stancamei
    ntobei
    ngsev
    erall
    awswer
    eenact
    edt
    o
    r
    espondt
    ovi
    olenceandbi
    asagai
    nstwomen.

    Maj
    orLawsConcer
    ningWomen:AtaGl
    ance
    • TheGuar
    diansandWar
    dsAct
    ,1890
    • TheFor
    eignMar
    ri
    agesAct
    ,1903

    214|Page
    • Chi
    l
    dMar
    ri
    ageRest
    rai
    ntAct
    ,1929
    • TheDi
    ssol
    uti
    onofMusl
    i
    m Mar
    ri
    agesAct
    ,1939
    • TheMusl
    i
    m Fami
    l
    yLawsOr
    dinance,
    1961
    • WestPaki
    stanRul
    esUnderTheMusl
    i
    m Fami
    l
    yLawsOr
    dinance,
    1961
    • WestPaki
    stanFami
    l
    yCour
    tAct
    ,1964
    • WestPaki
    stanFami
    l
    yCour
    tRul
    es,
    1965
    • Dowr
    yandBr
    idalGi
    ft
    s(Rest
    ri
    cti
    on)Act
    ,1976
    • Dowr
    yandBr
    idalGi
    ft
    s(Rest
    ri
    cti
    on)Rul
    es,
    1976
    • TheHudoodOr
    dinances,
    1979
    • Qanun-
    e-ShahadatOr
    der
    ,1984(
    LawofEvi
    dence)
    • ThePaki
    stanCi
    ti
    zenshi
    pAct
    ,1951,
    par
    ti
    alyamendedi
    n2001
    • Amendment
    sinFami
    l
    yCour
    tsActf
    orkhul
    aet
    c.i
    n200.
    • TheCr
    imi
    nalLaw(
    Amendment
    )Act
    ,2004(
    on'
    honor
    'cr
    imes)
    • Pr
    otect
    ionofWomen(
    Cri
    minalLawsAmendment
    )Act
    ,2006
    • Cr
    imi
    nalLaw(
    Amendment
    )Act
    ,2010(
    onsexualhar
    assment
    )
    • ThePr
    otect
    ionagai
    nstHar
    assmentofWomenatt
    heWor
    kpl
    aceAct
    ,2010
    • Pr
    event
    ionofAnt
    i-
    WomenPr
    act
    ices(
    Cri
    minalLawAmendment
    )Act
    ,2011
    • TheAci
    dCont
    rolandAci
    dCr
    imePr
    event
    ionAct
    ,2010
    • TheWomeni
    nDi
    str
    essandDet
    ent
    ionFund(
    Amendment
    )Act
    ,2011
    Thenewcount
    ryi
    nnat
    esomegoodl
    awsf
    rom t
    heBr
    it
    ishGov
    t.asunder
    ;
    2.Chi
    l
    dMar
    ri
    ageRest
    rai
    ntAct
    ,1929
    3.Di
    ssol
    uti
    onofMusl
    i
    m Mar
    ri
    ageAct
    ,1939

    Fi
    rst
    lydur
    ing60sand70st
    hatsomel
    awswer
    eendor
    sedt
    oendv
    iol
    enceagai
    nst
    womenandsomei
    mpr
    ovement
    swer
    elaunchedi
    nthet
    radi
    ti
    onal
    sty
    le.
    Count
    ryt
    hatwasf
    oundedi
    nthenameofr
    eli
    gionl
    awsexi
    stedi
    .e.t
    heMusl
    i
    m Fami
    l
    y
    LawsOr
    dinance,
    1961,
    alongwi
    tht
    heFami
    l
    yCour
    tsAct
    ,1964.
    I
    n1973,t
    heConst
    it
    uti
    onofPaki
    stanwentast
    epadv
    ancet
    opr
    omot
    eimpar
    ti
    ali
    tyand
    endpr
    ejudi
    ceagai
    nstwomenf
    oll
    owedbyt
    heshadowyer
    aofGener
    alZi
    a,whobyal
    l

    215|Page
    meanr
    ippedof
    fal
    lref
    ormat
    iveanddef
    ensi
    veef
    for
    tsandbr
    ightchangespr
    evi
    ousl
    y
    gai
    ned.Const
    it
    uti
    onof1973wasnotonl
    ydi
    sfi
    gur
    edbyGener
    alZi
    a,f
    urt
    her
    mor
    ehe
    i
    ntr
    oducedt
    heHudoodLaws.
    A count
    rywher
    esexualof
    fensesar
    eusedasr
    evengeandf
    orr
    econci
    l
    ingdi
    sput
    es,
    wher
    ewomeni
    srepr
    esent
    ati
    veoff
    ami
    l
    yhonort
    heseI
    slami
    clawswer
    emi
    sused.The
    t
    hin-
    ski
    nnednat
    ureoft
    hesexualcr
    imesandt
    hesoci
    alst
    ateofmi
    ndsur
    roundi
    ngt
    hem
    scor
    edmai
    nlygr
    avepenal
    tyf
    ori
    tssuf
    fer
    erswhower
    enotcapabl
    eofget
    ti
    ngj
    ust
    ice
    owi
    ngt
    othef
    aul
    tyenf
    orcementofsy
    stem.
    The 2006 ‘
    Prot
    ect
    ion ofWomen (
    Cri
    minalLaws Amendment
    )Act
    ’omi
    ts sev
    eral
    pr
    ovi
    si
    onsgi
    veni
    ntheHudoodOr
    dinanceandr
    ephr
    asest
    hem i
    ntoPPC(
    Paki
    stanPenal
    Code,
    1860)
    .Thi
    sActof
    fer
    s30si
    gni
    fi
    cantAmendment
    sint
    hepr
    esent
    edZi
    naandQazf
    ‘
    Dissol
    uti
    onofMusl
    i
    m Mar
    ri
    agesAct
    ’,
    1939.
    Suchpr
    ovi
    sionscont
    aint
    hosewhi
    chdealwi
    thZi
    naBi
    lj
    abber(
    rape)ki
    dnappi
    ng,
    compel
    awomenf
    ormar
    ri
    age,ki
    dnappi
    ng/
    abduct
    ionwi
    tht
    hepur
    poset
    osubj
    ectt
    hei
    njur
    ed
    par
    tyt
    oaber
    rantdesi
    re,sel
    l
    ing/
    buy
    ingaper
    sonf
    orsexwor
    k,decei
    vi
    ngcohabi
    tat
    ion,
    t
    empt
    ing,t
    aki
    ngawayordet
    aini
    ngawomanwi
    thi
    l
    legali
    ntent
    ion.Shor
    tl
    yspeaki
    ngt
    his
    or
    dinancenowdeal
    sonl
    ywi
    thadul
    ter
    ywhi
    l
    eal
    lsuppl
    ement
    arysexualcr
    imesar
    enow
    el
    ementofPPC.Anew par
    thasbeenpl
    acedi
    ntheCRPC(
    Cri
    minalPr
    ocedur
    eCode,
    1898)accor
    dingt
    othatapr
    otestofZi
    nacanonl
    ybepr
    esent
    edi
    ntheCour
    tofSessi
    on
    Judge,al
    ongwi
    th4ey
    ewi
    tnessesi
    npar
    tner
    shi
    ptobef
    ashi
    onedwhogi
    veev
    idenceof
    seei
    ngt
    hei
    nci
    dence.
    Cer
    tai
    nchangeswer
    emadebyActi
    nthepr
    ocessbyconv
    ert
    ingt
    hecr
    imesofZi
    na,
    Qazf
    andf
    orni
    cat
    ioni
    ntoun-
    knowabl
    eorper
    cei
    vabl
    eof
    fences,r
    educedpol
    i
    cei
    nter
    fer
    ence.
    Theset
    hreecr
    imesar
    enowbai
    labl
    eandatt
    hist
    imet
    heaccused(
    women)wi
    l
    lnotnor
    st
    ayi
    nthepr
    isonwai
    ti
    ngf
    ort
    ri
    al.Shor
    tl
    yaf
    tert
    heAmendmentapr
    obabl
    eof1300
    womenwer
    eunconf
    inedf
    rom t
    hepr
    isoner
    sacr
    ossPaki
    stan.
    Pr
    otect
    ionofWomen(
    Cri
    minalLawsAmendment
    )Act
    ,2006unt
    ilt
    hei
    ntr
    oduct
    ionof
    t
    hissi
    tuat
    ioncont
    inuedasi
    twas,t
    hisActmakesav
    ail
    abl
    e30i
    mper
    ati
    veAmendment
    s
    i
    ntheexi
    sti
    ng‘
    ZinaandQazfOr
    dinancePPC’
    ,andTheCodeofCr
    imi
    nalPr
    ocedur
    eand
    t
    he‘
    Dissol
    uti
    onofMusl
    i
    m Mar
    ri
    agesAct1939.

    216|Page
    TheCr
    imi
    nal
    Law(
    Amendment
    )Act2004.
    Int
    henameofHonormanywomenhav
    ebeen
    ki
    l
    ledacr
    osst
    hecount
    ry.Thedecl
    arat
    ionofobj
    ect
    sandcausesoft
    heBi
    l
    lst
    atest
    hat
    t
    he"
    quest
    ionofhonor
    -ki
    l
    li
    ngandsuppl
    ement
    arycr
    imesdonei
    nthenameof'
    kar
    o-kar
    i,
    si
    ah-
    kar
    i,Tor
    aTor
    ’inNWFP,andsi
    mil
    arl
    yot
    hert
    abooshav
    eal
    way
    sbeenasubst
    ance
    ofconcer
    ntohumanr
    ight
    sor
    gani
    zat
    ionsandot
    heraut
    hor
    it
    ies.(
    Jav
    aid,
    2007)
    TheCr
    imi
    nalLaw AmendmentAct
    ,2004i
    stheal
    ter
    ati
    onoft
    hePaki
    stanPenalCode
    (
    PPC)
    ,1860,whi
    chpr
    onouncessent
    encef
    ort
    hecr
    imeofmur
    der
    scommi
    tt
    edi
    nthe
    nameofhonor
    .Though,t
    hewor
    d'honorki
    l
    li
    ng'
    hasbeensubst
    it
    utedwi
    th'
    honorcr
    ime'
    t
    omakei
    tmeekandadequat
    etov
    ari
    oussect
    ionsoft
    hesoci
    ety
    .Thehar
    mfult
    abooof
    exchangeandear
    lymar
    ri
    agesi
    nPaki
    stant
    hroughoutr
    emai
    nedconcer
    nfort
    hehuman
    r
    ight
    scampai
    gner
    s.Subst
    it
    utemar
    ri
    agei
    sknownasWat
    taSat
    tawher
    etwof
    ami
    l
    ies
    hav
    ethesameopi
    niont
    omar
    ryeachot
    hergi
    rl
    s.I
    nor
    dert
    odi
    scour
    aget
    hisabuse,t
    he
    par
    li
    amenthas f
    orbi
    dden exchange mar
    ri
    ages t
    hrough ‘
    Amendment2004’i
    nthe
    Paki
    stanPenal
    Code.Chi
    l
    dMar
    ri
    ages:
    Chi
    l
    dMar
    ri
    ageRest
    rai
    ntAct
    ,1929.
    Themostal
    l
    -encompassi
    ngf
    orm ofdomest
    icv
    iol
    encei
    s‘st
    ovebur
    n’i
    nar
    epor
    tof
    Pr
    ogr
    essi
    vewomenAssoci
    ati
    onofPaki
    stananav
    erageof3womenpassawayi
    n
    ‘
    stov
    edeat
    h’dai
    l
    yinPaki
    stan”
    .Ast
    ove-
    deat
    hisdesi
    gnedandi
    ntent
    ionalmur
    deratt
    he
    handsofhusbandandhi
    sfami
    l
    y.Themaj
    orcauseoft
    hest
    ovedeat
    hsar
    e:
    (
    1)Fai
    l
    uret
    ogi
    vebi
    rt
    htoson
    (
    2)Noncompl
    i
    anceofhusband
    (
    3)Suspi
    cionoral
    l
    egat
    ionsofadul
    ter
    y
    (
    4)Fai
    l
    uret
    ogi
    vedowr
    y
    (
    5)Desi
    ret
    omar
    ryagai
    n
    (
    6)Ani
    mosi
    tyordi
    sobedi
    enceofmot
    heri
    n-l
    aw;
    and
    (
    7)Owi
    ngt
    oadaught
    erorsi
    sterdoeswi
    sht
    owedamanofherownchoi
    ce.
    Thought
    heor
    gani
    zat
    ionhasbeenwor
    kingonanat
    ionalscal
    esi
    ncel
    ast15y
    ear
    son
    t
    hispr
    obl
    em butunl
    ucki
    l
    yther
    ear
    enobur
    ncent
    erswhi
    char
    edest
    inedf
    ort
    hedepr
    ived.
    Thepr
    otot
    ypeoft
    hedat
    acomposedsof
    orshowst
    hismat
    teri
    sont
    hewhol
    eofwhi
    te
    col
    l
    arandsmal
    lmoney
    -maki
    ngst
    rat
    um.
    Hi
    stor
    yOfWomenEmpower
    mentI
    nPaki
    stanAndEf
    for
    tsMadeByTheGov
    ernment
    s

    217|Page
    Musl
    i
    mref
    ormer
    ssuchasSi
    rSy
    edAhmadKhanbr
    oughtr
    efor
    msi
    neducat
    ionandt
    ri
    ed
    t
    oempowerwoment
    hrougheducat
    ion.Quai
    d-e-
    Azam MuhammadAl
    iJi
    nnahhada
    posi
    ti
    veat
    ti
    tudet
    owar
    dswomenr
    ight
    s.Af
    tert
    hei
    ndependenceofPaki
    stan,Moht
    arma
    Fat
    imaJi
    nnaht
    ri
    ed t
    o el
    i
    minat
    esoci
    o-economi
    cdi
    spar
    it
    iesagai
    nstwomeni
    nthe
    count
    ry.
    Bef
    ore1947,t
    her
    ewasat
    endencyf
    ort
    heMusl
    i
    m womeni
    nPunj
    abt
    ovot
    efort
    he
    Musl
    i
    m Leagueandwomenwer
    eor
    gani
    zedi
    ntol
    arge-
    scal
    epubl
    i
    cdemonst
    rat
    ions.
    Paki
    staniwomenwer
    egr
    ant
    edt
    hesuf
    fragei
    n1947undert
    hePaki
    stan(
    Creat
    ionof
    Paki
    stan)Or
    dinance,andt
    heywer
    ereaf
    fi
    rmedt
    her
    ightt
    ovot
    einnat
    ionalel
    ect
    ionsi
    n
    1956undert
    hei
    nter
    im Const
    it
    uti
    on.Thepr
    ovi
    sionofr
    eser
    vat
    ionofseat
    sforwomeni
    n
    t
    hePar
    li
    amentexi
    stedt
    hroughoutt
    heconst
    it
    uti
    onalhi
    stor
    yofPaki
    stanf
    rom 1956t
    o
    1973.
    Zul
    fi
    karAl
    iBhut
    toGov
    ernment
    Thedemocr
    ati
    cregi
    meofZul
    fi
    karAl
    iBhut
    to(
    1970-
    1977)hadl
    i
    ber
    alat
    ti
    tudest
    owar
    ds
    women.Al
    lgov
    ernmentser
    viceswhi
    chhadbeendeni
    edt
    owomenear
    li
    erwer
    eopened
    t
    othem.About10% oft
    heseat
    sint
    heNat
    ionalAssembl
    yand5% i
    nthepr
    ovi
    nci
    al
    assembl
    i
    eswer
    ereser
    vedf
    orwomen,
    wit
    hnor
    est
    ri
    cti
    ononcont
    est
    inggener
    alseat
    sas
    wel
    l
    .
    Genderequal
    i
    tywasspeci
    fi
    cal
    l
    yguar
    ant
    eedi
    ntheConst
    it
    uti
    onofPaki
    stanadopt
    edi
    n
    1973.Theconst
    it
    uti
    onsay
    sthat“
    ther
    eshal
    lbenodi
    scr
    imi
    nat
    ionont
    hebasi
    sofsex
    al
    one.
    ”Addi
    ti
    onal
    l
    y,i
    taf
    for
    dst
    hepr
    otect
    ionofmar
    ri
    age,f
    ami
    l
    y,t
    hemot
    herandt
    he
    chi
    l
    daswel
    lasencour
    agi
    ng“
    ful
    lpar
    ti
    cipat
    ionofwomeni
    nal
    lspher
    esofnat
    ional
    li
    fe.
    ”

    Zi
    a-Ul
    -Haq'
    sMi
    li
    tar
    yRegi
    me
    Themar
    ti
    all
    aw r
    egi
    meofGener
    alZi
    a-ul
    -Haq(
    1977-
    1986)t
    ooksomeoft
    hest
    epsf
    or
    women’
    sdev
    elopment
    • Theest
    abl
    i
    shmentoft
    heWomen'
    sDi
    vi
    sioni
    ntheCabi
    netSecr
    etar
    iat
    .
    • Theappoi
    ntmentofCommi
    ssi
    onont
    heSt
    atusofWomen.
    • Achapt
    eronwomeni
    ndev
    elopmentwasi
    ncl
    udedf
    ort
    hef
    ir
    stt
    imei
    ntheSi
    xth

    218|Page
    Pl
    an.
    • I
    n1981,Gener
    alZi
    a-ul
    -Haqi
    nduct
    ed20womenasmember
    sint
    heMaj
    l
    is-
    e-
    Shoor
    a.
    • I
    n1985,t
    heNat
    ionalAssembl
    yel
    ect
    edt
    hroughnon-
    par
    tyel
    ect
    ionsdoubl
    ed
    women'
    sreser
    vedquot
    a(20per
    cent
    ).
    • Howev
    er,Zi
    al-
    ul-
    Haqi
    nit
    iat
    edapr
    ocessofI
    slami
    zat
    iont
    hroughdi
    scr
    imi
    nat
    ory
    l
    egi
    slat
    ionagai
    nstwomen.Hebannedwomenf
    rom par
    ti
    cipat
    ingandf
    rom bei
    ng
    spect
    ator
    sofspor
    tsandpr
    omot
    edpur
    dah.Hesuspendedal
    lfundament
    alr
    ight
    s
    guar
    ant
    eed i
    nthe Const
    it
    uti
    on of1973 i
    ncl
    udi
    ng t
    he r
    ightt
    o be f
    ree of
    di
    scr
    imi
    nat
    ionont
    hebasi
    sofsex.

    Benazi
    rBhut
    toGov
    ernment
    Dur
    ingherel
    ect
    ioncampai
    gnsi
    n1988,Benaz
    irBhut
    tov
    oicedconcer
    nsov
    ersoci
    al
    i
    ssuesofwomen,heal
    thanddi
    scr
    imi
    nat
    ionagai
    nstwomen.Sheannounceddi
    ff
    erent
    pl
    anst
    osetupwomen'
    spol
    i
    cest
    ati
    ons,cour
    tsandwomen'
    sdev
    elopmentbanks.She
    al
    sopr
    omi
    sedt
    orepealcont
    rov
    ersi
    alHudoodl
    awst
    hatcur
    tai
    l
    edt
    her
    ight
    sofwomen.
    Howev
    er,dur
    inghert
    woi
    ncompl
    etet
    ermsi
    nof
    fi
    ce(
    1988-
    90and1993-
    96)
    ,Benazi
    r
    Bhut
    todi
    dnotpr
    oposeanyl
    egi
    slat
    iont
    oimpr
    ovesoci
    alst
    atusofPaki
    stani
    women.She
    wasnotabl
    etor
    epealasi
    ngl
    eoneofZi
    a-ul
    -Haq’
    sIsl
    ami
    sat
    ionl
    awswhi
    chwer
    e
    pr
    otect
    edbot
    hfr
    om or
    dinar
    ylegi
    slat
    ivemodi
    fi
    cat
    ionandf
    rom j
    udi
    cialr
    evi
    ewbyv
    irt
    ue
    oft
    heei
    ght
    hconst
    it
    uti
    onal
    amendment
    .

    NawazShar
    ifGov
    ernment
    I
    n 1997,t
    he Nawaz Shar
    ifgov
    ernmentpr
    oposed a f
    if
    teent
    h amendmentt
    othe
    Const
    it
    uti
    ont
    hatwoul
    dent
    ir
    elyr
    epl
    acet
    heexi
    sti
    ngl
    egalsy
    stem wi
    thacompr
    ehensi
    ve
    I
    slami
    coneandwoul
    dov
    err
    idet
    he“
    const
    it
    uti
    onandanyl
    aworj
    udgmentofanycour
    t.
    ”
    Thepr
    oposalwasappr
    ovedi
    ntheNat
    ionalAssembl
    y(l
    owerhouse)
    ,but
    ,itwasst
    rongl
    y
    opposedbywomen’
    sgr
    oups,humanr
    ight
    sact
    ivi
    sts,andopposi
    ti
    onpol
    i
    ticalpar
    ti
    es.
    Theydemandedt
    hatHudoodl
    egi
    slat
    ionmustber
    epeal
    edasi
    tdi
    scr
    imi
    nat
    esagai
    nst
    womenandconf
    li
    ctswi
    tht
    hei
    rfundament
    alr
    ight
    s.

    219|Page
    Thei
    mpr
    ovementofwomen'
    sst
    atuswasst
    atedasoneoft
    he16goal
    sli
    stedi
    nthe
    Paki
    stan2010Pr
    ogr
    am (
    1997)
    ,andi
    sacr
    it
    ical
    pol
    i
    cydocument
    .Lat
    eront
    hedocument
    omi
    tt
    edwomenwhi
    l
    eli
    sti
    ng21maj
    orar
    easofi
    nter
    est
    s.Li
    kewi
    se,
    anot
    hermaj
    orpol
    i
    cy
    document
    ,the“
    HumanDev
    elopmentandPov
    ert
    yReduct
    ionSt
    rat
    egy
    ”(1999)
    ,st
    ates
    womenasat
    argetgr
    oupf
    orpov
    ert
    yreduct
    ionbutl
    acksgenderf
    ramewor
    k.

    Per
    vezMushar
    raf
    'sRegi
    me(
    1999-
    2008)
    OnSept
    ember2004,t
    heMi
    nist
    ryofWomenDev
    elopmentest
    abl
    i
    shedani
    ndependent
    mi
    nist
    ry.
    • OnJul
    y2006Gener
    alMushar
    rafsi
    gnedanor
    dinancef
    ort
    hei
    mmedi
    ater
    elease
    onbai
    lofar
    ound1300womenwhower
    ecur
    rent
    lyl
    angui
    shi
    ngi
    njai
    l
    sonchar
    ges
    ot
    hert
    hant
    err
    ori
    sm andmur
    der
    .
    • I
    nlat
    e 2006,t
    he Paki
    stanipar
    li
    amentpassed t
    he Women'
    s Pr
    otect
    ion Bi
    l
    l,
    r
    epeal
    i
    ngsomeoft
    heHudoodOr
    dinances.
    • The Cabi
    nethad appr
    oved r
    eser
    vat
    ion of10% quot
    aforwomen i
    n Cent
    ral
    Super
    iorSer
    vices.Bef
    oret
    his,t
    her
    e was a 5% quot
    aforwomen i
    n al
    l
    Gov
    ernmentdepar
    tment
    s.

    Pr
    esi
    dentAsi
    fZar
    dar
    iGov
    ernment(
    2008-
    2013)
    Thegov
    ernment
    ’shi
    ghestpr
    ior
    it
    yist
    oaddr
    essdi
    scr
    imi
    nat
    oryl
    awsagai
    nstwomen,
    whi
    chi
    ncl
    udes
    • Adopt
    ionofPr
    otect
    ionagai
    nstHar
    assmentofWomenatWor
    kpl
    aceAct2010.
    • Cr
    imi
    nal
    Law(
    Amendment
    )Act
    .
    • Aci
    dCont
    rol
    andAci
    dCr
    imeActandPr
    event
    ionofAnt
    iWomenPr
    act
    icesAct
    .
    • TheNat
    ionalCommi
    ssi
    onf
    orHumanRi
    ght
    sAct2012hasbeenenact
    edt
    o
    moni
    tort
    heov
    eral
    lhumanr
    ight
    ssi
    tuat
    ion.
    • TheWomeni
    nDi
    str
    essandDet
    ent
    ionFundAct2011hasbeenpr
    omul
    gat
    edt
    o
    pr
    ovi
    def
    inanci
    alandl
    egal
    assi
    stancet
    odeser
    vingwomen.

    220|Page
    Mor
    eov
    er‚26ShaheedBenazi
    rBhut
    toCent
    ersf
    orwomenhav
    ebeenest
    abl
    i
    shedi
    n
    v
    ari
    ousdi
    str
    ict
    stopr
    ovi
    dei
    mmedi
    ater
    eli
    eft
    ofemal
    evi
    cti
    msofv
    iol
    ence.Ar
    oundone
    mi
    l
    li
    onwomenar
    erecei
    vi
    ngdi
    rectassi
    stanceunderBenazi
    rIncomeSuppor
    tPr
    ogr
    am,
    whi
    l
    etheNat
    ionalCommi
    ssi
    onont
    heSt
    atusofWomenhasbeenst
    rengt
    henedt
    o
    moni
    tort
    hev
    iol
    ati
    onofwomen’
    sri
    ght
    s.Apr
    oposali
    sunderconsi
    der
    ati
    ont
    ogi
    vemor
    e
    r
    epr
    esent
    ati
    ont
    owomeni
    nthej
    udi
    ciar
    y.
    NawazShar
    ifGov
    ernment
    Thegov
    ernmentofPaki
    stanundert
    hel
    eader
    shi
    pofNawazShar
    if
    ,Hav
    ingt
    hest
    rong
    bel
    i
    eft
    hatt
    hecount
    rycoul
    dnotmakepr
    ogr
    esswi
    thoutpr
    ovi
    dingequaloppor
    tuni
    ti
    est
    o
    womenwhi
    chwer
    ehal
    fpar
    tofsoci
    ety
    ,wast
    aki
    ngappr
    opr
    iat
    eact
    ionst
    oincr
    ease
    womenr
    ight
    stohel
    pthem comeonparwi
    thmen.NawazShar
    if
    ,al
    sobei
    ngast
    ate
    par
    tyt
    otheConv
    ent
    iononEl
    i
    minat
    ionofAl
    lFor
    msofDi
    scr
    imi
    nat
    ionAgai
    nstWomen
    (
    CEDAW)
    ,lead t
    he gov
    ernmentt
    otake measur
    es t
    o ensur
    e women’
    sri
    ght
    s as
    env
    isagedi
    ntheCEDAW wher
    easi
    tisst
    il
    ltaki
    ngmul
    ti
    pler
    efor
    mst
    oenabl
    ewoment
    o
    par
    ti
    cipat
    einal
    lwal
    ksofl
    i
    fe.
    NawazShar
    ifhasst
    art
    edPr
    imeMi
    nist
    er’
    sYout
    hLoant
    ohel
    pthey
    out
    hofPaki
    stan
    bui
    l
    dabr
    ight
    erf
    utur
    efort
    hemsel
    ves,i
    nwhi
    ch50per
    centoft
    heschemehasbeen
    al
    l
    ocat
    edt
    owoment
    ohel
    pencour
    agewoment
    oset
    upt
    hei
    rownbusi
    nessesandt
    hus
    al
    l
    owi
    ngwoment
    ohav
    eequal
    right
    s.
    TheCr
    uxofCont
    inuousFai
    lur
    etoCount
    erVAW
    As st
    ated t
    ime and agai
    n by v
    ari
    ous nat
    ionaland i
    nter
    nat
    ionalobser
    ver
    s,t
    he
    per
    for
    manceoft
    hePaki
    stanigov
    ernmenthasbeennol
    esst
    hanaby
    smalwheni
    t
    comest
    opr
    otect
    ionofwomen.I
    nani
    mit
    ati
    onoft
    het
    heat
    ri
    calper
    for
    manceputonby
    t
    her
    uler
    sofPaki
    stani
    nthei
    rcl
    aimsofpr
    otect
    ingt
    her
    ight
    sofwomen,t
    hedi
    ctat
    orof
    Paki
    stanGener
    alMushar
    rafv
    owedhi
    scommi
    tmentt
    otheabol
    i
    tionofcr
    imesagai
    nst
    women,par
    ti
    cul
    arl
    yki
    l
    li
    ngsi
    nthenameofhonor
    .Butt
    hev
    owr
    emai
    nsunf
    ulf
    il
    ledev
    en
    oney
    earaf
    tert
    hei
    nduct
    ionoft
    hecur
    rentpar
    li
    ament
    .Ther
    ehasbeennopar
    li
    ament
    ary
    di
    scussi
    onofmaki
    nghonorki
    l
    li
    ngacapi
    talof
    fence,l
    etal
    onet
    hemuch-
    discussedl
    aw
    ofmaki
    nghonorki
    l
    li
    nganof
    fenceagai
    nstt
    hest
    ate.

    221|Page
    Lackofi
    mpl
    ement
    ati
    on
    I
    nev
    erysoci
    etyandl
    egalsy
    stem t
    hesol
    eobj
    ect
    iveoft
    hel
    aw mustbet
    oachi
    eve
    j
    ust
    ice,unf
    ort
    unat
    ely Paki
    stan’
    slaws f
    aili
    nthei
    rtr
    ue spi
    ri
    twhen i
    tcomes t
    o
    i
    mpl
    ement
    ati
    on and pr
    ovi
    ding j
    ust
    ice t
    othe v
    ict
    ims.I
    nthe l
    ong r
    un i
    thas been
    wi
    tnessedt
    hatpr
    ocedur
    alt
    echni
    cal
    i
    ties,weaknessesandi
    nef
    fi
    ciencyoft
    hepl
    ayer
    sof
    t
    hecr
    imi
    nal
    just
    icear
    esomeoft
    hemai
    nreasonswhyv
    ict
    imsdonotgetj
    ust
    ice.
    Themedi
    col
    egalev
    idencei
    smaj
    orpi
    eceofev
    idencei
    nest
    abl
    i
    shi
    ngt
    hegui
    l
    toft
    he
    accusedandi
    tist
    hef
    oundat
    iont
    oest
    abl
    i
    sht
    hegui
    l
    toft
    heper
    pet
    rat
    or.Ther
    ear
    eno
    l
    aiddownr
    ulesf
    ort
    hemedi
    calexami
    nat
    ionofr
    apev
    ict
    imsandnost
    andar
    dpr
    ocedur
    e
    t
    obef
    oll
    owedi
    nauni
    for
    m mannerTr
    ial
    process.

    Del
    ayedt
    rai
    lsandpr
    olongedl
    it
    igat
    ions
    I
    tisanot
    herf
    act
    orser
    iousl
    yhar
    mingt
    hej
    ust
    icesy
    stem.A f
    emal
    evi
    cti
    m seeki
    ng
    speedyj
    ust
    iceandf
    airt
    rai
    lfacesdel
    ays,
    theuncheckedper
    jur
    y,i
    l
    legalcompoundi
    ngof
    of
    fencesout
    sidet
    hecour
    troom andnon-
    avai
    l
    abi
    l
    ityofwi
    tnesses.

    ACaseSt
    udyOfMukht
    araanMai

    WHOI
    SMukht
    araanMai
    ?

    Mukhtar
    aan (Mai)ist
    hef ounderofMukht ar
    aan Maiwomens’ swelfar
    e
    or
    gani
    zat
    ion t
    o help suppor
    tand educate Paki
    staniwomen ang gi
    rl
    s and i
    s an

    222|Page
    out
    spokenadvocateforwomen’ sri
    ghts.Beforejune22,2002howevershewasnota
    l
    eadi
    ngwomenr ight
    sadv ocatebutani ll
    i
    terate,di
    vor
    celivi
    ngintheruralv
    il
    lageof
    meerwal
    a,i
    nthesouthernPunjabregi
    onofPaki stan.

    Onj une22,2002Mai ’
    s12y ear
    sol dbrotherShakoorwasaccusedofhav ingi l
    li
    cit
    sexualr el
    ationswi thSalmaat20y earsoldgir
    l memberofl ocalMastoitr
    ibe.Asar esul
    t
    Shakoorwast aken bysev er
    almember soft hecl an and hel
    d againsthi swi ll
    .A
    panchay at( tr
    ibecounci l
    )washel dthatsamedayt oresolvethedisuputeandi twas
    decidedt hatMaiwi uldmar rySal
    ma’sbrother,AbdulKhal i
    qinexchangef orrel easeof
    herbor ther.Ul t
    imatel
    yt hesetermswer enotagr eedupnbuti twascommuni catedt o
    Mait hatifshecamet othepanchayatandaskf orfor
    givenessforherborther
    , hewoul d
    bepar doned.Uponherar ri
    valMaiwasforcibl
    yt akentonearbyhutandgangr apedasa
    for
    m ofhonorr evenge,upntheordersofthepanchay at.

    Aft
    eralmost10y ar
    sandmult
    ipl
    et r
    ial
    sonApr
    il21,
    2011t
    heSupr
    emeCour
    tofPaki
    stan
    acqui
    tt
    edallbutoneoft
    hataccused.

    .TheSt
    atesOfVi
    olenceAgai
    nstWomenI
    nPaki
    stan

    Pakist
    anr atif
    iedt heconv entionont heel i
    mi nati
    onofal lf or
    msofdi scri
    minati
    on
    agai
    nstwomeni n1996, subj ecttot hepr ovisionsofi tsconst i
    tuti
    on.Howev eraccordi
    ng
    toa2007r eportsubmi ttedbyt henat ionalcommi ssionf orjusti
    ceandpeaceandhe
    democraticcommi ssionf orhumandev elopment ,“Pakist anhasnotadopt edanyl egal
    fr
    amewor kfort r
    ansl ati
    ngt hepr ov isionst oitsdomest icl aws.”Thi sisevidencedinpar t
    bythecont i
    nuingpr esenceofdi scr iminatoryl awsagai nstwomen,i ncl
    udingr emaini
    ng
    contr
    oversyov erpr ov i
    sioni nt heOf f
    enseofZi na( EnforcementofHudood)Or di
    nance
    of1979,51984l aw ofev idence6 andt heQi sasandDi y
    aror dinanceof1990.The
    i
    nabil
    ityoft hest at et o adequat elyandef f
    ectivelyimpl ementt heprov i
    sionoft he
    conventi
    onwasev i
    dencei n1999,whent hePaki st
    aniSenat er ejectedar esolut
    iont o
    condemnhonorki l
    lings.I tcanal sobeev i
    dencedbyt hest aisti
    csofv i
    olenceagai st
    womeni nPakistansuchast he4153casesr eportedofwomenhonorki ll
    i
    ngsf rom 2001
    to2004law.

    I
    n2004,Paki stanGov ernmenti mplement edtheCr iminalActwhi chr ecognizedand
    i
    mposedpuni shment sforhonorcr i
    mesandi n2006i mpl ementat i
    ont heprotecti
    onof
    womenactwhi chaddr essedhonorki ll
    i
    ngsandgenderdi scri
    mi nati
    oni nthehudood
    ordinance.Howev eraccor ding t
    ot hehuman r ight
    scommi ssion ofPaki st
    an 2009
    annualr eport,mor et han640womenwer ekill
    edi nthenameofhonor .In2010t he
    federalshariatcour tofPaki st
    andecl aredsev er
    aloft hepr ovisionsi nthe2006act
    unconst i
    tut
    ional andsoughtt orei
    nstat
    epr ovi
    sionsofthehadoodor di
    nancesuchast he
    requirementt hat‘ women who hav e been raped…pr oduce fourwi tness to suppor
    t
    testi
    monyandt her eest
    ablishmentofther i
    ghtofpol i
    cetoar r
    estwomenonachangeof

    223|Page
    adul
    teryont hebasisoft hei
    rrepor
    tofr ape.Whil
    et hecour
    thasnolegalaut
    hori
    tyto
    over
    turnt heprovi
    sionsof2006act ,t
    hedeci si
    onitsel
    fisanexampleoftheongoing
    di
    scri
    mi nati
    onathi ghl ev
    elsofgovernanceani mportantf
    actorwhenanaly
    singthe
    cont
    inuedv i
    olenceagainstwomeninPaki st
    an

    Anot herr easonfort hecont inuationofhonorcr imesi sther emai ningpresenceofQi sas
    andDi y atLaw whi chsanct i
    onsagai nstt het radi t
    ionaldi sput eresoluti
    onpr acti
    cwsof
    panchay ats.Thi sl aw makes anyand al lof fenses agai nstt he bodyofa per son
    compundabl e by al lowing compr omi ses bet ween t he v i
    ctims’f amil
    ies and t he
    perpetrat orsthroughr et
    ri
    but ionorcompr ehensi on.Theset y pesofcompr omiseshav e
    tr
    aditi
    onal lybeenat tr
    ibutedt opanchay atsy st emswhi chst i
    llenjoyawi der angeof
    accept abilit
    ythroughPaki stanespeci all
    yi nthemor er uralareas.Forexampl ein2002a
    Pakistanimagazi ner eportedt hat“largesect ionoft hepopul ati
    oni sweddedt ot he
    custom t hatuphol dst hesur renderingofwoment oar i
    v alpart ytosettledispute”
    .
    Accordi ngt ot hehumanr ightscommi ssionofPaki stan.Thespeedwi t
    hwhi chtheJirga
    system i sexpandi ngmakest heneedf orstrengt heningt hej ust i
    cesy st
    em allathemor e
    pressing”

    Chr
    onol
    ogyOfEv
    ent
    s

    TheRapeOfMukht
    araan

    MaionJune22,2002,maybr otherAbdulShakooront hesuspi ci


    oust hathehadi ll
    icit
    rel
    ationwi thmast oidwomannamedSal ma,wasabduct edbyt hreemast erymen,
    sodomi zedinasugar canef i
    eldandt akent other esi
    denceofAbdulKhal i
    q,Sal ma’ s
    brother
    .A panchay atwasconv enedt hatsamedayandadeci si onwasmadet hat
    Shakoorwoul dmar rySal maandmaywoul dmarryKhal iqinor dert osettl
    edi sput e.
    Theset ermswer enotagr eesuponhowev erandsoont hereafterseveraloft hose
    presentfrom main’stribeleftthepanchay at.I
    twasthenconv eyedtosayt hatifshewas
    tocomet opanchay atandaskf orherbr otherfor
    giveness, hewouldbepar doned.When
    mayar rivedatthepanchay atwher e,accor di
    ngtomayt herewer e200t o250peopl e
    present,shewasf orciblytakentonear byhutbyKhal i
    qandt hr
    eeot hersandgangr aped.
    Anhourl atershewasr eleasedandappear edhal
    fnakedi nf r
    ontoft hevil
    l
    agers.

    Cour
    tPr
    oceedi
    ngs

    Onjune30,2002mayandmember sofherfami l
    ywentt opati
    opoli
    cest at
    ionto
    fi
    lechargesagai
    nstthoseresponsibl
    eforherrape.Asar esul
    t14menwer ear r
    ested
    andchargedundervari
    ousprovi
    sionsoftheant
    i-t
    err
    orism actof1997andoffenseZina
    ordi
    nanceof1979.Fourofthe14accusedwer echar gedwi tht
    herapeofmayandt he
    remaini
    ngtenwerechargewithsancti
    oni
    ngtherapeasamemberpuf fpanchayat.

    224|Page
    I
    nJul y2002,Paki stanchi efjust
    icepublicall
    ycondemnedt herapeandt hePunjab
    governororderedani nquiryintopanchayatact i
    onsont hedayinquest
    iontherapeand
    possi
    blepolicecorruption.Thespecialbenchoft hesupremecourtal
    sorebukedpoli
    ce
    multi
    plet i
    mes f ornegl igence intheirinv est
    igat
    ion.The governmentofPaki st
    an
    awardedmay500000r upeesi ncompensationpr i
    ortothestar
    tofthetr
    ial
    .

    Thet ri
    albeganinanant i-
    terrori
    sm cour tJuly2020.Onaugust312002,t hecourt
    sentencedsi
    xment odeat
    h, fourwer esentencesf
    orrape,t
    wof orbei
    nginv
    olv
    edinthe
    panchayatandei ghtwerer eleased.Thest ateandmayf il
    edsepar at
    eappealsthe
    court’
    sjudgmentont hebasisofi nsuffi
    cientandfaul
    tyinv
    estigati
    ons.Thehighcour
    t
    acquitt
    edfi
    veofthesixmenandr eleasedthem

    Maif i
    l
    edanappeali nthesupremecour tofPakist
    anbutonApr il21,2011.Thecour tup
    heldt he Lahore high courtdeci sion arguing thatt he accused enj oyed a t ri
    pe
    presumptionofi nnocence.Thesupr emecour talsoquest i
    onedmayabi l
    it
    yt oidentif
    y
    herpapists,t
    heWi ghtofhertestimonyandt heWi ghtdaydelayinr eporti
    ngtheincident
    tothepolice.Thecour tref
    usedt oat tachaccompl i
    celiabil
    it
    ytoot hermember soft he
    counciloranymemberoft hecrowdof200t o250peopl ewhicht hecour townr ecord
    admitswer epresentwhent heincidenttookplace.Thedeci si
    onci t
    edl ackevidenceand
    thereasonforupholdingtheacquittal
    s.Mai hasf i
    l
    edapet i
    ti
    onforrev i
    ew.

    Analysi
    sOfTheActionsOfPaki st
    anInRegar
    dToItsObli
    gati
    onOfDueDi l
    igenceInThe
    CaseOfMukht ar
    aanMai :
    byanalysi
    ngeachcomponentoft
    heint
    ernati
    onalstandardof
    duedi l
    i
    gence,i
    tisevidentthatPaki
    stanhasbr
    eacheditsdutyt
    opr ev
    ent,invest
    igat
    e,
    prosecute,
    andcompensat eint
    hecaseofMukhtar
    aanmay .

    Fai
    lur
    eToPr
    eventThePanchay
    atSanct
    ionedRapeOfMukht
    araanMai

    Accor
    dingtoAmnestyInt
    ernat
    ionalhumanr
    ight
    sor
    gani
    zat
    ion,
    int
    hear
    eaofpr
    event
    ion
    ofvi
    olenceagai
    nstwomen,

    “t
    hegov er
    nmentofPaki stanhasnotonl yfai
    l
    edt oeducatet hepublicingener
    aland
    womeni npart
    icul
    araboutr ightsandf r
    eedomsl ai
    ddowni nt heconsti
    tut
    ionandstate
    l
    aw, ithasalsofai
    ledtoremov ewidespreadmispercept
    ionsthatisl
    am sanct
    ioncri
    mes
    ofhonour .
    .andhast akennomeasur estocorrectthewidespreadgenderbiasoflaw
    enforcementpersonnelandt oprovideadequat
    egendersensitizat
    iontai
    nti
    ngtoallst
    aff
    l
    ikelytodealwithcomplaintsbyoraboutwomen”

    I
    nrecentyear
    s,Paki
    stangover
    nmenthasimpl
    ement edthecri
    minallaw actof2004
    whi
    chrecogni
    zeandimposedpuni
    shmentf
    orhonourcrimesandin2006impl ement
    ed
    t
    he prot
    ecti
    on of women actwhich al
    so addressed honor ki
    l
    li
    ng and gender

    225|Page
    discriminati
    on.Thel egi
    slati
    onconcer ni
    ngwomen’ sri
    ght shasl ar
    gelypr oventobe
    i
    nef fecti
    veinpartduet oexistenceoflegi
    slati
    onsuchasQi sasandDi yator di
    nanceof
    1990,whi chper
    mi tsperpetr
    atortowi ntheirfreedom atanyt i
    mei ftheyar eableto
    comet oacompr omi sewiththev i
    cti
    mf amilyt
    hr oughretr
    ibutionorcompensat i
    on.The
    l
    egisl at
    ionall
    owsf orthecontinuati
    onoft r
    aditi
    onalpar al
    l
    elal ter
    nativ
    edi sputesyst
    em
    suchaspanchay ats.Accordingtohumanr i
    ght sorganizati
    onswi t
    hinPaki st
    an,the
    gov ernmenthasf ail
    edtol egi
    slateorintr
    oducepol i
    cyreformst othetri
    balandcast e
    system andsocial normsthatunderminethestatusofwomen”

    In1973const i
    tutionofPaki st
    anst atest hatnocour tshallhavej uri
    sdictionunlessi tis
    authorizedbyt heconst ituti
    onorunderot herlawbuti tisunclearwhati fanystepshabe
    beent akenbyt hegov ernmentt oabol i
    sht hepanchay at
    .Now wher ei sthisbet ter
    i
    llustr
    ationthani nt hecaseofMukht araan mai .Ther ei snoquest iont hatapanchay at
    tookplacet odet ermi newhatwast obedonei nr egar dstomaibr otherShakoor .When
    thepanchay atdeci sionfmar r
    yingmait oKhal iqwasr ej
    ect
    ed,maiwast ol
    dthati tshe
    camet opanchay atandaskedf orherbr otherforgivenessf orherbor therhewoul dbe
    freesasperBal ochcust om.Thegangr apeofmaiupnherar r
    ivalwasr esul
    tofaf orm
    ofr et
    ri
    butiv
    ej ustice,sanct i
    onbyat radit
    ional,exclusivelymale,judicialcouncilthatnot
    onlyallowsbutor dersthebar t
    eringandr apeofwoment osettl
    edisput e.

    WhilethePaki stanigover nmenthaspassedcer tai


    nlegisl
    ati
    onr egardingthesecouncil
    s
    i
    ncludingrecent lypassingt heprevent
    ionofantiwomenpr acticesbil
    l2011,legisl
    ati
    on
    al
    onei sntsuf ficientt
    of ulfilt
    heduedel i
    gincestandard.Pakistanhasf ai
    l
    ednotonl yto
    ef
    fecti
    v el
    yimpl ementt hisl egisl
    ati
    onbutalsotopr omotechangesandmodi fi
    cati
    onsto
    el
    iminatet r
    adi tionalcust oms and pr act
    ices such as panchay ats which resul
    tsin
    vi
    olenceagai nstwomen.Asar esul
    tthewomenofPaki stansuchasmaiar enot
    ef
    fecti
    v el
    yprot ectedagainsthonourcr imesandgenderbasedv iol
    ence.

    Fail
    iurToFai
    rl
    yAndEf
    fect
    ivel
    yInv
    est
    igat
    eTheCi
    rcumst
    ancesOfMukht
    araan Mai
    ’
    s
    Rape

    Thesupr emecour tofPakistanst atedthati t


    sdecisionofacqui tal
    lbutoneoft he
    accusedwasbecauset hepr osecuti
    on’sevidencewasnotconf i
    denceinspir
    ing.Thereis
    nodoubtt hattheeightdaysbet weent herapeandmai courtf
    ail
    edt omentionr eport
    ing
    ofi tt othe pol
    ice made medi caland DNA ev idence ext
    remelydiffi
    cultto obtain
    (al
    thoughi twasr eport
    edt hatev idenceoft wo semenst ainswasf ounddur inga
    medi calevaluat
    ion perfor
    med af tert he cri
    me which the Supreme cour tfail
    ed to
    ment ioni
    nitsdecision)

    Howev ert
    herewereot herconcernsregardi
    ngtheinvesti
    gationofmaicaset hanthe
    l
    ackofmedi calevi
    dence.Thedi ssent
    ingjudgeinthesupr emecour tdeci
    sion,j
    usti
    ce
    nasi
    rulmulk,quest
    ionedtheevidencepresent
    edfrom theinvest
    igat
    ionconducted,due

    226|Page
    t
    odi
    spar
    it
    yoft
    het
    ri
    bei
    nvol
    ved.Just
    icemul
    kst
    atedt
    hat
    ,

    I
    nor dertoexami neandappreciatetheprosecuti
    onevidenceinits
    properper
    spectiv
    eonehast okeepinmindt hedispar
    ityl
    evelsofthesocialst
    atusof
    thecomplaintandaccusedpartyandtheinf
    luenceofthelatt
    er.Theaccusedbelonged
    toinsuf
    fi
    cientmastoi
    dt r
    ibeandthecompl
    ainanttoahumbl efamil
    yofgujj
    ars.

    Inhisdi ssent i
    ngopi ni
    on,j usticemul kr efer
    encedanewsr eportbyjour nalistNadeem
    saeed,whohadv i
    sitedt hepol i
    cest at
    ionwher et heaccusedwasbei nghel dandwher e
    “heobser vedt hatf aizmast oi
    d(t heheadofmast oidtribe)wasbei ngt reatedbyt he
    offi
    ceri nchar geoft hepol icest at i
    onasaspeci alguestandwast ryi
    ngt ohel poutt he
    accusedbygi vi
    ngadi fferentt wistt othei nci
    dent.”Therewer ealsocompl aintsr eported
    regardingnegl i
    genceandcor ruptionbyt hepoli
    cedur inginv esti
    gati
    on.Maiher eselfhas
    statedt hatt hepol icef ail
    edt or ecor dherownst at
    ement scor rect
    ly.Accor dingt ot he
    amnest yinternati
    onal ,“givent hwwi delocalparti
    cipati
    oni tmustbeassumedt hatlocal
    poli
    ce, wer eawar eoft heev entasi tunfolded,i
    fnotdi rectl
    ypr esentduringt hei nci
    dent.
    Howev er,theydi dnot hingt ost opi tandt oprotectthev ictim.”Maial sor ev eal edthat
    federalmi ni
    sterf ordef ensepr oduct i
    onsar darAbdulqay yum patiopr essur edhert o
    stopt her apechar gesagai nstt heaccusedwhi chi sev i
    dencet hatthosei nposi ti
    onof
    authorityhadgr eatinfluenceov ert heinv esti
    gat
    ionandpr osecut i
    onofmai ’scase.

    Fai
    li
    ureToFai
    rl
    yAndUnbi
    asedPr
    osecut
    eThoseResponsi
    bleForMukht
    araan Mai
    Rape

    Teny earsaftert
    her apetookpl acethesupremecour tofPaki st
    anacquittedallbutone
    oftheaccusedi nmaicase.I napr essconferencegiv
    enaf t
    erverdi
    ctinapril2011,sarah
    zaman, dir
    ectorofwaragai nstrape,st
    atedt hatt
    heout comeofmai ’
    scasewas“ typi
    cal
    i
    nal ongl i
    stofrapecasest riedudnerPakistancriminaljusti
    cesystem”.Inanannext o
    herst atement szamanpr ovi
    dedal i
    stofl egalandpr oceduralfl
    awsi nt hePaki st
    ani
    system t hat“makesout comessuchast ht
    ati nmaicaseani nevi
    tabl
    er eali
    tyformost
    rapecasesi nPakist
    an.”

    Thesei ncludedtheemphasi sputont hepastsexualhi stor


    yoft hev icti
    m andt he
    promptr eporti
    ngofthecr i
    me,ext r
    emepol i
    cebi asandpoorf or
    ensi cs,andl ackoft h
    wei ghtgiventothev ict
    im’st esti
    monywi t
    houtcor r
    obor ati
    ngmedi calev i
    dence.The
    effectsofthesepoli
    ci
    escanbeseeni ntheconvicti
    onr atesofinvolv
    ingr ape; fr
    om 2003
    to2009t her
    ewer eonluconv i
    ctionsinthreepresentofr apecasesi nKar achi.Justi
    ce
    mul kbroughtupmanyoft hesesamei ssuesinhi sdissent i
    ngopinion,quest ioningthe
    emphasi sthecourtplaceinmaidel ayi
    nreporti
    ngt her ape,thelackof fr
    eshi njuri
    esto
    herper sonandt heinsuffi
    cientwi gthgiv
    ent oamit est imonyduet ol ackofmedi cal
    evidence.

    227|Page
    TheLackOfFr
    eshI
    njur
    iesToMai
    ’
    sPer
    son

    Citi
    ngt obothPakistanandi ndiacasel aw,j usti
    cemul kst atedthatthelackofphy sical
    mar ksofv iol
    ati
    onont hebodyoft hev ictim doesnotsi gni
    fythatar apedi doccur .
    These cases,al ong wi t
    h precedence f rom ECHR and t he commi ttee ref
    erenced
    previousl
    y,makeitclearthattheabsenceoff r
    eshmar sori njuri
    esonmai ’
    sbodyar enot
    evidencethatar apedidnott akeplace.Nev erthel
    ess,thecour trepeatedlysharedi t
    s
    opinionthatitisnormalandusualf orav ictimt ostruggleandsust ai
    ni nj
    uir
    esdur i
    ng
    courseofr apeandusedt helackoff reshinjur i
    esonmaibodyasdeci si
    veev i
    dencethat
    mai wasnotr apedinthemanneri nwhi chshehaddescr ibed

    MaiEi
    ghtDayDel
    ayI
    nRepor
    ti
    ngTheRape

    Just
    icemulkal
    soaddressedthegreatsi
    gni
    fi
    cancethat
    hthecourtpl
    acedonmaieight
    daysdel
    ayinrepor
    tingthegangrape.Hestatedt
    hatrapevicnt
    imsinpaksit
    anarnot
    fr
    ee agent
    sr equi
    re permi
    ssion orapprovalfr
    om t he men inthei
    rf amil
    i
    es or
    communiti
    esandhence

    I
    tfol
    lowst hatiti
    squitenormalthatcr
    imeofr apearenotrepor
    tedprompt l
    y.The
    devastat
    ingef fect
    sofrapeont hevict
    im andherfami
    lyit
    sel
    ffurni
    shexplanati
    onfor
    delayi
    ni tsreporti
    ng.Delaypersewouldnotcastanyr
    efl
    ecti
    ononthetruthf
    ulnessof
    theall
    egationsmadei ntherepor
    t.

    I
    nmaicase, thecourtbasedmuchofi tsdecisiontoacquitallbutoneoftheaccused
    onmai ’sdecisiont owaiteightday stor eportther apeandallegedt hatt
    hisdelaywas
    notsuffici
    entl
    yexpl ai
    ned.Thecour tst
    atedt hatitdidnotunderstandmai ’
    shesit
    ationin
    report
    ingther apebecauset hef earofst i
    gmat i
    zati
    ont hatgoesal ongwithrapewoul d
    notbet hesamef oranolder,divorcedsuchasmai asitwouldforanunmar ri
    edv ir
    ginof
    youngerageandhencef oundt hatthi
    sdel aywasev idencedetri
    ment altomaicase.This
    i
    sexact lythekindofst ereotypingthatinternati
    onalhumanr i
    ghtslawhasemphasi zed
    shouldnotbepr esenti
    ndesci sionsbythej udici
    ary.

    LackOfCor
    robor
    ati
    onForMai
    ;
    STest
    imony

    Final
    lythej usti
    cemul kall
    egedthatdueweightwasnotgi vent ot hetesti
    monyoft he
    compl ainant,t
    hev i
    cti
    m ofthecri
    meandmani styftheprosecusioncase.Hert esti
    mony
    provi
    dedf oundati
    on.Healsopointedoutt
    hatthequest
    ionast owhet herintheabsence
    ofcor r
    obor ati
    on,convi
    csi
    on,onachar geofrapecanbeusedont hesoletestimonyof
    thevictom hasbeenanswer edbyanumberofjudgmentwher ethecourtsinPaki st
    anas
    wellasi nindiathatnocorr
    oborati
    onwasrequired.

    Thecourtbasedmuchofit
    sdeci
    siononi
    tsdter
    minat
    iont
    hatmaihadnocorr
    oborat
    ion
    forhert
    esti
    monyandthathert
    est
    imonyalonewasnotenought
    oconvi
    cttheaccused

    228|Page
    whichgoesagai nstnotonlyPaki stanicaselaw, butinternat
    ionall
    awpr ecedentaswel l
    .
    Alongwi t
    ht hefactthatduewei ghtwasnotgi v ent omait esti
    monyast hev ict
    im oft he
    rape,therewasal soconfusionr egardingwitnesst esti
    monyt hataffectedt hecour t
    decisi
    on.Accor ding tojusti
    ce mul kthere wer ei nf actwi t
    nesses to supportmai
    testi
    mony .Howev erwhil
    esupr emecour tacknowl edgedt hesewi t
    nessesatonepoi ntin
    i
    tsdeci si
    oni tst
    il
    lconcludedthatmaihadnocor robor at
    ionforhertesti
    monybecause
    noonehadseent herape.Thel ackofconv i
    ctionsi nrapecasesi nPakistanialongwi th
    theassumpt i
    onandgenderst ereotypethatper vadet hecourtdecisi
    ondemonst rati
    on
    thatfal
    iurofPakistantoproperlyprosecuteaccusedofmai rape.

    Fai
    li
    urToAdequat
    elyCompensat
    eMukht
    araanMai

    Asoft oday ,aft


    eralmostteny ear
    soft r
    ialsandconstantthreatstoherlif
    eandt he
    safetyofherf amil
    y,thegov ernmentofPaki stanhasawardedmaiat otalof500000
    rupeesi ndamagesadcompensat ionforbeinggangr aped.Consider
    ingthehei nous
    natureft hecr i
    meofr apeandt helongsufferi
    ngenduredbymait hemoneyawar dedby
    Pakistanj udici
    nayi
    sinsuffi
    cientandfail
    stomeett hestandar
    dt omeett hestandardof
    adequat ecompensat i
    onunderi nter
    nati
    onal l
    aw.

    229|Page
    MALALAYOUSAFZAE

    OnOct ober9,2012at alibanboyst oppedssmal lschoolbusi nt heswatv al


    leyof
    Pakistanandaskedwhoi sMal ala?Thoughnoonespoke, hei
    denti
    fiedMalalawhent he
    gi
    rlsner vousl
    ygl ancedather .Thenheshotheri nthehead.Shesur vi
    ved,mi r
    aculousl
    y
    aft
    eran or dealt hatincluded Paki staninati
    onalhel i
    copter
    saSaudiAr abi
    an jet,a
    hospitalinBirmingham,Engl andandmul ti
    plesurgeri
    es.Ay earlat
    er,shepublishedher
    memoi rIam Mal alaandt ouredt hewor l
    d.WhenMal al
    aspoket otheunitednat i
    onon
    hersixteenbi r
    thdaysheconv eyedt hesamemessaget hathadgainedattenti
    onoft he
    Tali
    bani nthef i
    rstplace,girl
    sev erywherehaverighttoeducationgi
    rlswil
    ldemandi t
    .

    Themedi acov er aget oMal alai ntheunitedst atesandEur opehasbeenunabashedl y


    dot i
    ng.ABCDi anesawy erNPR’ sMi chelMar ti
    nandCNNChr ist
    ianaamanpour,among
    manyot herspr aisedherbr avery.Whenshewasaguestont hedail
    yshow,hostj on
    stewar twasr ender edspeechl essbuherpr incipl
    edr esponseshewoul dnotraiseher
    shoet oat ali
    bshesai d.Insteadweshoul dfightot hersfi
    ghtotherst
    hroughpeaceand
    throughdi al
    ogandt hrougheducat i
    on.St ewartj okedthathel i
    ketoadopther .This
    i
    nt ervi
    ew hasbeenv i
    ewedov ert womi ll
    iont i
    mes.Iam Mal alaremainedont henew
    Yor kti
    mesbest sellerli
    stf ortwentyoneweeks.TheEur opeanunionawardedmal alt
    he
    Sakhar ovpri
    zef orfreedom oft hought.In2014,sher ecei
    vedthenobelpeacepr i
    zethe
    youngestper sonev ertodoso.

    Butther esponsetot hi
    sr esponsehasbeenl esscelebratory
    .Criti
    cs,whil
    e
    i
    mpressedwi t
    hMal alaandhercour agequestionwhyshei sadar li
    ngoft hewetern
    media“whyMalala?”asksFati
    maBhut toniecetothelatepr i
    mei ni
    stermini
    sterBenazi
    r
    bhot
    to,i
    nanot herwiseposit
    ivebookr ev
    iew intheguar dian.Whynotnoorazi zei
    ght
    year
    soldwhenkilledbyadronest r
    ikei nPakist
    anorot herki l
    l
    edbydr onesiny emenor
    I
    raq?Mumt azaHussainansweri nalJazeer ainbluntsinceMal alawasav icti
    m ofthe

    230|Page
    Tali
    banshedespi
    teherprost
    estat
    ionisseenaspotential
    toolofpolit
    icalpr
    opagandato
    beutil
    i
    zedbywaradvocatesI
    brahim khanasenatorandleaderi
    npaksi tani
    slam j
    amaat
    eisl
    amipart
    y, war
    nsinawashi gtonpostart
    icl
    eshei snowbeingusedr at
    hermisused
    i
    nt hewestbypor t
    rayi
    ngawr ongi mageofPaki st
    anasav i
    olentandant iwomen
    soci
    ety

    Becauset hewestwasabl et oscurr


    yMal alaoutofPaki st
    anandi nt
    othesaf etyof
    Englandhi storyftosat ypicalnarr
    ati
    ve,thewestrescuespoorwomenf r
    om theedgeof
    ci
    v i
    li
    zation.Likewi se,Malalacauseaccesst oeducat i
    onforallgi
    rl
    sandboy sar ound
    aroundt hewor ldf i
    tsanot herpopularwesternstoryeducati
    oni stheonlynecessary
    precursort odemocr acy.Asoft hedeterior
    ati
    nginfrastr
    uct
    ureofpaksit
    aniciv
    ilsociet
    y
    i
    nunr elatedt othehar shconditi
    onsoft heint
    ernat
    ionalwarter
    ror.

    Crit
    icoft hecoverageofMal alari
    ghtlycautionsv i
    ewersnottof al
    lforthet ypi
    cal
    narrati
    vseofi mperi
    alistdiscourse.Iunderstandt hi
    scr it
    iqueIfi
    ndi taccurateand
    valueablebutIam fr
    ust r
    atedthathecrit
    iqueendt here.Indeedgi
    venourunderstandi
    ng
    thatnayhegemonicdi scourseappropri
    ateseverythingitcan.

    Ifindmedi at hemedi acov eragedistr


    essingbutunr emar kablehatdi
    stressingmemor e
    howev erist hattheanalysi
    sf ocusesonlyonhowMal alahasbeenr ewr i
    ttenbythewest.
    Wel lintentionedasi tmightbet hecrit
    iqueposi t
    ionsappr opri
    ateacti
    vistsashelpl
    ess
    victi
    ms.I tsmacksofapat ri
    archalnatureasomi dsaf ihassaid“noamountofanal ysi
    s
    orconcer nev enrighteousconcer nshoul dt akeawayf r
    om agency ,herresist
    anceto
    negat eheragencyenenwoul dbeal li
    esi syetanotherattemptt onegateherhumanity”.
    I
    nst eadofnot hi
    ngonl ythatsuchappr opr i
    atehappensIwantt olookatanot herpar
    tof
    thisquest ion.

    I
    si tpossibletomakev i
    sibl
    emoment sofr esi
    st ancemoment sofpot ent
    ialagency?
    More specifi
    cal
    lywhen we exami ned Malala actionscan we i denti
    fyanycount er
    narr
    atives?
    To begin answert hi
    s quest
    ion Ist udy Mal ala perfor
    mance i n herUS
    apperancesbetweenjull
    y2013andOct ober2013.Iar guet hatevenasmaal areli
    eson
    western mediat o cir
    culate hermessage she per si
    stentl
    y disrupt
    si tdomi nant
    messages.Ther ol
    eofcrit
    icsthenshoul
    dbet oampl i
    fythesedi sr
    upti
    ons.

    Mal
    alaYousafZae:AYoungFemal
    eAct
    ivi
    st

    “l
    etuswageagloriousstruggl
    eagai
    nsti
    l
    li
    ter
    acy,pover
    tyandter
    ror
    ism, l
    etuspickup
    ourbooksandpurpens,t heyarethemostpowerfulweapons.Onechil
    donet eacher
    onenokandonepencanchanget heworl
    d.Educati
    onistheonlysolut
    ion.Education
    fi
    rst
    ”Malal
    ayousafzae

    Swatv
    all
    eyand t
    he paksi
    taniTal
    i
    ban swatv
    all
    eypr
    evi
    ousl
    ya t
    our
    istdest
    inat
    ion

    231|Page
    sometimes r eferr
    ed t o as t
    he Swi t
    zerl
    and ofpaksi t
    an was located in paksi
    tan
    nort
    hwest er
    nr egion.In2007,themi li
    tantgroupgr oupknownast ehri
    kITal i
    banTTP
    begantooccupyandcont r
    olpart
    sofswatv all
    eyandt oimposet hei
    rver
    sionshar i
    ah
    i
    ncludedapr ohibit
    edowomeneducat i
    onandt hedeat hpenal
    ityforbarbers,music
    shopowner sandt hieves,themili
    tants alsoclaimedt hatpoli
    ov acci
    nat
    ionswer ea
    western consipir
    acy.Theyal so requi
    red women t o wearshuttl
    ecockbur qasb and
    bannedthem f r
    om goi ngtomarket.

    Ov ertheyears,TTPmi l
    it
    antsperiodicall
    ycl ashedwi tht hepaksi taniarmyandengaged
    i
    nt otwomaj orcampai gnsin2007and2009.Thought hearmywasabl et or ecl
    aim parts
    ofswati ncl
    udi ngMi ngorat hebiggestci tyint heswatdi str
    ictlargepar tsoft her egion
    remaini mpenet r
    able.Accor dingt
    ogov ernment alestimat esnear l
    yt hr
    eemi lli
    oncivil
    ians
    wer edispl
    acedf rom theirhomesdur i
    ngt hebat tl
    esov ertheswatv all
    eyr egion.TheTTP
    wasanor ganizeddi st
    inctf r
    om butcl oselyr el
    atedt ot heTal i
    banbasedi nAf ghanistan
    andalqaedaanot hermi l
    it
    antgroupwi thant itendenci es.InDecember2009t heTTP
    bombedamosqueki l
    ling36andwoundi ng75peopl eandcl osedov er150school s.It
    alsoclaimedr esponsibili
    tyforattempt edbomi ngintimessquar eapopul artouri
    stsopt
    i
    nnewYor kci tyinmay2010.Accor dingt ot hedirectorofpol i
    cyandpr ogr ammsatt he
    j
    innahi nst
    it
    iuteanonpr of
    it,nonpar ti
    sanor ganiati
    onbasedi nPaki stan.Tt pprimar y
    targetwast hePaki stanist ateandmi li
    tarybecause“ i
    tresentst hef actt hatithasan
    all
    iancewiththewestandi twantsshar iat obei mposedi nPakistan”

    Mal
    alaYousafZaePubl
    icPr
    ofi
    leBef
    oreTheShoot
    ing

    In2009mal alay ousafzaian11y ear


    soldgirlliveninthet ownofMi ngoraswatval
    ley
    andwasanout spokeneducat i
    onandhumanr ight sact
    ivi
    stdespi
    tehery out
    h.Herf
    ather
    ziauddi
    ny ousafzaiwasapoet ,schoolowner ,amemberofswat ’speaceJirgaand
    educati
    onalactivi
    st.In2008hehadbeent akenhi sgaughtertoPeshawartospeakata
    l
    ocal pr
    essclubaboutgi rl
    srighttobasiceducation.

    Ssonaf t
    ershebegananony mouslybloggingforBCCur duaboutwhayi twasliketol iv
    e
    underhar shTTP r ule.Theseentriesdespictedlifefrom aschoolgi r
    lpersepect iv
    e
    duri
    ngt het i
    mewhi l
    i
    sttheTTPpassedf or
    maledi ctsprohi
    bit
    inggirl
    sfrom attending
    school.Yousaf zaiwasal so f
    eatureinnew Yor ktomesdocument arycall
    ed“ class
    Dismissed.Thedeat hoffemaleeducat i
    on.In2011shewasnomi nat
    edforint
    enat i
    onal
    chil
    drenpeacepr i
    zebusout hAf r
    icanactivi
    stdesmondt ut
    .Laterthanyearpaksitani
    pri
    memi nisterawardedherPaki stanifi
    rstnati
    onaly outhpeacepr i
    ze.Asy ousaf zai
    publi
    cpr of i
    legrewshebeganr ecei
    v i
    ngdeaththreats.

    TheEv
    ent
    sOfOct
    ober9,
    2012

    OnOct
    ober9t
    h2012i
    nMi
    ngor
    ayousaf
    zainow14y
    ear
    sol
    dwasr
    etur
    ninghomef
    rom

    232|Page
    schoolwhenhoodedTTPmi li
    tantst
    oppedandboardedtheschool bus.Theydemanded
    thattheotherschoolchi
    ldr
    enont hebusident
    if
    yyousafzaiaski
    ng“ whoismalal
    a”aft
    er
    beingidenti
    fi
    edshewasshoti nhead.Alt
    houghabul l
    ettranver
    edherbr ai
    nandlodged
    i
    nt oherspineshesurvi
    vedtheshooti
    ngbutwascriti
    cal
    lyinjur
    ed.Twoot her
    egir
    lswere
    alsoinj
    ured.

    TheGov
    ernmentResponse

    Thepaksi t
    anigov ernmentt ookr esponsibil
    ityforhercar etreatingheratMHPeshawar
    underheav eysecur i
    ty.Herdoct orsandt hegov ernmentdeci dedtot r
    ansf erheroutof
    count ryt
    oandEngl i
    shhospi t
    alwhi chisspeci al
    izedinmi l
    it
    ar yrelat
    edt r
    auma.Paksi tani
    presedentasifal izardaristatedthatt hev i
    olentassaultony ousafzaiwasanat tackon
    allgirlsinpaksi tan,anat tackoneducat ionandonal lci vil
    izedpeopl e.Authori
    ties
    offeredUS100, 000r ewar dforherat tackerscapt ured.Paksitanpr i
    memi nisterandtop
    milit
    ar yoffi
    cial
    s al so condemned t he attack,cal l
    ing t
    he shoot ing inhuman and a
    heinousactoft errori
    sm.Amont hlaterthepaksi tanigovernmentpl edgedcasht opoor
    familiestosendt heirchil
    drent oschool .

    Paki
    staniTal
    ibanResponse

    A TTP spokesman conf


    irm thatyousafzaiwas t he speci
    fi
    ct argetofthe
    shoot
    ingandaddedthatshewasasy mbolofinfidel
    sandobsceni ty
    .Hewentt osay
    ,
    shehasbecomeasy mbolofwesterncult
    urei
    nt heareashewasopenl ypropagat
    ingi
    t
    addi
    ngthati
    fshesurvi
    vedt
    hemi l
    i
    tantswouldtr
    yt okil
    lheragai
    n.

    Publ
    icResponse&I
    nter
    nat
    ional
    Out
    rage

    Rall
    iesandpr ayersessi onswer ehel dacrossPaki stanwhi l
    esocialmedi af or
    ums
    bustledaspeopl efrom ar oundt hewor l
    dv oicedt heirdisgustwiththeattackedand
    expressedtheiradmirat
    ionf ory
    ousaf zai
    .Fif
    tyIslamiccl er
    icsinPakist
    anissuedaf at
    wa
    anIslamicreli
    giousdecreeagai nstthegunmenandt heSunnii j
    tehadcouncilpubli
    cal
    ly
    denouncedt heTTPr eli
    giousargument sforjustif
    yingtheshoot i
    ngofy ousafzaiandher
    cl
    assmat es.

    Theshoot ingal
    sodr ew signi f
    icantinternationalresponse.TheUSpr esidentObama
    stronglycondemntheshoot ingcal l
    ingrepr ehensibl
    edi sgust
    ingandt
    ragi
    c.UNsecr etar
    y
    gener albankimoonal sov oicedhi sout rageandst r
    ongcondemnationatt hi
    sheinous
    andcowar dly
    .Gabri
    ell
    agi f
    fordst herepr esentati
    onf r
    om t heUSstat
    eArizonawhowas
    shoti ntheheadbygunmandur i
    ngar all
    yin2011andj ohnKerryt
    heUSsecr et
    aryof
    states,formersenatorfrom t heUSst ateMassachuset t
    s,wereamongt hemanywho
    reachedoutt ooff
    erassistance.

    “
    IAM MALALA”

    233|Page
    In October15 2012,Gor don br own fromerbriti
    sh pr i
    memi nister
    ,who had been
    appointedUN Specialenvoyf orglobaleducat
    ioninj ul
    ly2012,launchedapet i
    ti
    onin
    yousafzainamet ocallPaki
    st an“ t
    oensurethateverygirlli
    keMalalahast hechanceto
    got oschool ”theslogan“Iam Mal al
    a”achantwashear eddemonst rati
    onsacross
    Pakistan.Heal socallthei nternati
    onalcommuni t
    yt oensur ethatal lchil
    drenhave
    accesst oeducati
    onbyt heendof2015.On12Jul y2013dubbedMal aladayov er500
    youthf r
    om 75nationgatheredatt heUNheadquar terscalli
    ngforeverychildworl
    dwide
    tohav etherightandaccesst oaneducat i
    onasy ousafzaispoket oUNl eaderstocal
    l
    forwor l
    dwideeducati
    on.

    NobelPeacePr
    ize

    OnOct ober10,2014t heNor wegianNobelCommi ssionjointlyawar dedt henobel


    peacepr i
    zetoy ousaf zaiandKai l
    asSat y ar
    thi
    ,ani ndianact i
    vi
    stdedi catedt oimproving
    childrenr i
    ghts“ fort hei
    rst r
    uggleagai nstthesuppr essionofchi l
    drenandy ounger
    peopl eandf ort her ightofal lchi l
    dreneducat ion.”Thecommi ttednot e“ despit
    eher
    yout h,Malalahasal readyf oughtf rsev eralyeardfort her i
    ghtofgi r
    lst oeducationand
    hasshownbyexampl ethatchi ldrenandy oungpeopl etoocancont ri
    butet oimproving
    theirown si tuations.Thi sshehasdoneundert hemostdanger ousci rcumstances.
    Through herher onic st ruggle becomes a l eading spokesper son f orgi rl
    sr i
    ghtt o
    educat i
    on.”“Iwantt ot el
    lal laroundt hewor ldthatt heyshouldst andupf ort hei
    rrights,
    theyshoul dn’twai tforsomeoneel se.”Thi sawar di sf orallthosechi ldrenwhoar e
    voiceless,whosev oi
    cest obehear ed.”

    Shar
    minUbai
    dChi
    noy

    Gi
    vi
    ngv oicet othosewhocannotbehear d,
    Obaid-Chinoyhasmadeov eradozenawar d
    wi
    nningfilmsi nmor ethan10countri
    es.Shecelebratesthestr
    engthandr esi
    l
    ienceof
    t
    hosefightingagainstseeminglyi
    nsur
    mount abl
    eodds–andwi nning.Idareanyoneto
    wat
    chthisf il
    m andnotbemov edt
    otearsandinspir
    edi nt
    oact
    ion.–AngelinaJoli
    e

    SherminUbai dChinoyisamongt hosefamousPaki stanipersonal


    it
    ieswhoar eserving
    thecountrypr ett
    ywel l
    .Shei samong t hosef ew peoplewho ar ehi
    ghl i
    ghting the
    dif
    ferentproblems and issues.She covers both nati
    onalas wel las internati
    onal
    problems.Sher min Ubai
    d Chinoyis a Muslim and was bor nin Karachion 12t h
    Nov ember
    ,1976.Herear l
    yeducationyearswer ecompl etedf r
    om KarachiGr ammar
    School.Furthermore,she wentoft he studies to Smith Coll
    ege fr
    om wher e she

    234|Page
    compl
    etedherB.
    A.Forf
    urt
    herst
    udi
    es,
    shet
    ookpar
    tint
    heSt
    anf
    ordUni
    ver
    sit
    y.

    ABi
    tOfHerHi
    stor
    y

    From v er
    year l
    yage,Sher mi nUbai dChi noywasconsi deredascat chywr i
    ter.Shewas
    onlyfourteenwhenshewasr ecognizedasapr ominentwrit
    erwhopr ovedt ohav ethe
    capacityofwr i
    tingont hei ssuesf acedbypeopl e.Shetookhert eenageasaj ournal
    ist
    andst art
    edshar ingdif
    ferentst ori
    esofpeopl ewhi chneededt obeshar ed.Ther ewer e
    numer ouspeopl einthesur roundingst hatweresuf f
    eri
    ngf r
    om injust
    iceandwer enot
    havingalltherightsthatwast obeenj oyedbyahuman.Sher minUbaidChi noywentt o
    them andl i
    stenedt otheirhear tpanickingstor
    iesandpr esentedthem onhi gherlevels
    bythehel pofherbeaut i
    fulwr it
    ingwor k.ShewasatSmi thandshewor kedf orvari
    ous
    Canadianaswel lasAmer icanpubl icat
    ions.

    Shewasi nneedofaki cktostarthercar eerofdocument arymakingandthatwasgiven


    toherbyt hepresidentofNewYor kTi mesTel evisi
    on.Thishappenedwhensher et
    urned
    toAmer i
    caaf tervisi
    ti
    ngPakistanandspendi ngsomei nthecampofr ef
    uges.Shermin
    UbaidChinoywasnothav i
    nganysor tofpr evi
    ousexper i
    enceandshewr otealet
    terto
    80 dif
    ferentchannel s and organizati
    ons butf aced rej
    ect
    ion.This was when Bil
    l
    Abraham’s, TheNewYor kTimesTVpr esidentgav eherashotandshecapi t
    ali
    zedonit
    pret
    tywell byproducing“Ter
    ror’
    sChi l
    dren”.

    HerCont
    ri
    but
    ion

    SHERMI N UbaidChi noyalsoservedast hememberoff acult


    yinthedepar t
    mentof
    sciences f ort he Shaheed Zulfi
    qarBhut t
    oI nsti
    tute ofSci ence and Technology
    (SZABI ST).In2011;shest art
    edrunni
    ngherf i
    lm maki ngcompanySOCFi lmsandwent
    ont hecar eeroffil
    m making.Shemadeadocument arywhi chisnamedas“ Savi
    ngFace”
    whichwasi mpr essiv
    eenought ogetherandOscarAwar d.Thisdocumentaryhi
    ghli
    ghts
    thei njusticewitht hewomenofPaki stanwhoar ebur nedbymen.Theaci disusedt o
    destr oyt heirf
    aceandbody .Nobodyisreport
    ingt hesei ssuesinPaki
    stanandi twasa
    mat tert owor ryabout .NotonlyOscarbutal otofawar dswer egiventoherbyt hi
    s
    singlemov i
    e.

    Rel
    ated:
    “3Bahadur
    ”Paki
    stanani
    mat
    edmov
    iebySher
    minUbai
    dChi
    noy

    Writ
    enowsheiswor
    kingonaPaki
    staniani
    matedmov
    iewhi
    chisnamedas“3Bahadur”
    .
    Forthef
    ir
    stt
    imei
    nPakist
    anani
    matedfullf
    eat
    uremov
    iei
    sundert
    heprocessofmaki
    ng.

    Rel
    ated:
    “Bur
    aaq”Paki
    stanani
    mat
    edmov
    ie

    She has herserv


    ice i
    nter
    nat
    ional
    l
    yand she has made documentar
    ies i
    n over10
    count
    ries.Shei
    sthefi
    rstnon-
    AmericanwhohaswontheLivi
    ngstonAwardast hebest

    235|Page
    i
    nter
    nat
    ionalrepor
    ter
    .Wr i
    tenow,shei
    senjoyi
    ngasuccessf
    ulcar
    eerandt
    hef
    ame
    br
    oughttoherbyoveronedozenf
    il
    mswhichwonsev
    eral
    awards.

    Paki
    stanf
    ir
    stOscar
    -Wi
    nnershoul
    dbecel
    ebr
    atedf
    orexposi
    ngt
    he‘
    badbi
    ts’
    .

    Fi
    lm makerSher minUbaidChinoyhasmadet heheadlinesbybri
    nginghomePaki stan’
    s
    fi
    rstev erOscarf orherdocument ary short
    -“Sav
    ing Face”
    .The f i
    lm exposes the
    horr
    if
    yingbr utalacidat t
    acksonwomen,andt heamazi ngworkofBr i
    ti
    shPaki stani
    pl
    asti
    csur geonM.Jawad,whot ravel
    l
    edbackt ohiscountryofbi r
    thtor ebui
    ldthe
    vi
    cti
    ms’di sfiguredfaces.Ubai
    dChinoydedicatedtheOscarto“alltheheroeswor ki
    ng
    onthegr oundi nPakist
    an”andtoallt
    hewomeni nPaki
    stanwhoarewor ki
    ngf orchange.

    Unsurprisingl
    y,Facebook and Twi t
    terfeeds were soon cl
    ogged wi
    th over
    joyed,
    patr
    iarchicall
    yproudPakist
    anis,repost
    ingt hecl
    ipofherOscarspeech,withsome
    suggestingandi twasanev engreateroccasiont
    hentheImranKhanrai
    setheCricket
    WorldCupi n1992.

    The Express Tribune,Pakistan’


    sl i
    ber
    alEngli
    sh language newspaper,hai l
    ed Ubaid
    Chinoyasar ol
    emodel ,the“ FaceofMor eLiberaland TolerantPakistan”.Dawn
    newspaperwr oteofthe“Wel comeChange”ofseei
    ngPaki st
    antalkedaboutinaposi t
    ive
    contextint
    ernati
    onally,whiletheUrdupaperNawa- e-
    Waqtev enpr oducedaspeci al
    supplementtohonorherwi n.“ThewholeofPakistanprayedf orher”itissaid.“Her
    vi
    ctorymadeev eryPakistanihappy”
    .Thegovernment ,meanwhile,wil
    lpresentthe33
    yearsoldwit
    ht hecivil
    i
    anawar d.

    Butnotever
    y oneissoov erjoyedalongsi
    detheprai
    sear emumbl i
    ngcr i
    ti
    cism fr
    om
    commentat
    ors who feelUbai d Chi
    noy has br
    oughtshame on t he country
    .They
    compl
    ainshei smerel
    yreinf
    or ci
    ngthewestnegati
    veview ofPaki
    stan.AsaPaki st
    ani
    her
    sel
    f,t
    hedissent
    ersargue,sheshouldnotbepromot
    ingitinabadlight
    .

    Sofarsheisbeingcal
    leda“LiberalFasci
    st”anda“ Tr
    ait
    or”,
    whois“Def aming”Pakistan
    and“Beli
    ttl
    i
    ngt heCountr
    y”throughherv oiceofsubjectmatt
    er.Therear ecomment s
    l
    ikethi
    sundernewspaperar ti
    cles;“Shehasmadeacar eeroutoftrashingPakistan.I
    don’
    tknow whysomanypeopl ear estarti
    ngtol i
    keher,shehasdonenot hingt o
    i
    mprovet heimageofPakist
    an”andbl ogsasking;
    “Wast her
    enopositivestoryavail
    able
    i
    nPakistanforHoll
    ywoodtoenjoy ?
    ”

    Sadly
    , t
    hisexasperat
    ingatti
    tudeisnotj
    ustfocusedonUbai dChinoy,butalsorefl
    ect i
    ve
    ofal azy,my opicat
    tit
    udet hattheminor
    it
    yofPaki stanisshare,thekindthatwoul d
    rat
    herturnabl i
    ndeyetoi t
    ssociet
    y’
    sproblemst hanacknowledgeseriousviolat
    ionof
    women’ srightsandt
    acklethem.WhenIv i
    sitedawomen’ sshel
    terinLahoreaf ewy ears
    ago,fori nstance,t
    oi ntervi
    ew women who had f l
    ed domest i
    c abuse and for ced

    236|Page
    marr
    iage,
    Iwasi
    mplor
    edtowr it
    e“ Wri
    teaboutthegoodbit
    s,nott
    hebad”.Icannotdeny
    t
    hewor kofwomen’
    sshelterwasi ndeedf ant
    ast
    ic,buti
    gnor
    ingthevi
    olencethatled
    t
    hesewomentoseekshel
    terisi
    rresponsi
    ble.

    Ubai
    dChinoyisnot“Trai
    tor”
    ;shehashonest lyopenedherey estot heproblemsofher
    homecountr
    y.Iti
    spossibletobepatr i
    oti
    ctoanat i
    on,andy etcrit
    icalofitatthesame
    ti
    me.Aswrit
    erMohsinHameedt weeted;“UpsetPak[i
    stan]haswoni t
    sfirstOscarf
    ora
    fi
    lm‘
    cri
    ti
    cal
    ’ofthecountr
    y ?Yourat
    ti
    tudemi ghtexpl
    ainwhyi t
    ’stakensol ong”.

    I
    nt heNew Yor
    kTi mes,aPakistanij
    ournal
    i
    stwr ot
    e:“Whydoesitsayaboutacount ry
    t
    hati twoul
    drejoi
    ceatatt
    ractingglobalat
    tenti
    onf orr
    ampantviol
    ationsofwomen’s
    r
    ight?Ubai
    dChinoy’
    sfi
    lmshighlightt
    heseprobl
    em-hardl
    yapoi
    ntofprideforPaki
    stan”
    .

    ButifPakistani
    sar epr
    oud,it
    ’sbecauseUbaidChi noyhascreatedhi storyandknowing
    so,sheisgi venhercountryhopeatmanyl evel
    s.Ther eishopef ory oungPakist
    ani’
    s
    gir
    lsthattheyhav eopt
    ionstofoll
    owacar eer,nomat t
    erhowunconv enti
    onal
    .Thereis
    hopef orPakistan’
    sincredi
    bleart
    ist
    ic,cul
    turaltalentthati
    tmi ghtonedaybet aken
    seri
    ously.

    Butmosti mportantl
    y,ther
    eishopeforwomenlikeZakiaandRukhsana,thewomen
    whof eat
    ureinthef i
    l
    msandwhosehusbandst hr
    ewacidont hem.Thereishopethey
    don’
    thavetoliv
    ei nshamebecauseofwhathasbeendonet othem.Ther
    eishopethey
    wil
    lfi
    ndjusti
    ce,thatthementhatdothi
    swon’
    tgounpunished.Ther
    eishopethatmore
    peopleli
    keJawadwi l
    lcomeforwar
    dandshow vi
    ctimsoft hi
    sbrut
    ali
    tyt
    hattherei
    sa
    chancetoli
    veagain

    Andther
    eishopeaftert
    heOscarEuphori
    adiesdown,Pakist
    anwil
    lsearchit
    ssouland
    l
    ookforway stobet
    teri
    tssoci
    etyforwomen.Afterwinni
    ngherOscar,SherminUbai
    d
    Chi
    noylaunchedananti-
    aci
    dattachcampaign.Hermot herexpl
    ainedthatitwasto
    make“oursoci
    etymorehumane”
    .Theeffor
    taloneissomethi
    ngtobeproudof.

    Gl
    ossar
    yofTer
    ms

    237|Page
    Al
    ly
    :Someonewhoadvocat
    esforandsupport
    smembersofacommuni
    tyot
    hert
    han
    t
    hei
    rown.
    Reachi
    ngacr
    ossdi
    ffer
    encest
    oachiev
    emut
    ualgoal
    s.

    Andr
    ogy nous:Someone who r
    efl
    ects an appear
    ance t
    hatis bot
    h mascul
    i
    ne and
    femi
    nine,orwhoappear
    stobeneit
    herorbothaboyandagi r
    l.

    Asexual:Havi
    ngnoev i
    dentsexorsexorgans.I
    nusage,mayr
    efert
    oaper
    sonwhoi
    s
    notsexuall
    yacti
    ve,
    ornotsexual
    l
    yatt
    ract
    edtootherpeopl
    e.

    Bi
    as:Pr
    ejudi
    ce;
    ani
    ncl
    i
    nat
    ionorpr
    efer
    ence,
    especi
    all
    yonet
    hati
    nter
    fer
    eswi
    thi
    mpar
    ti
    al
    j
    udgment.

    Bigendered:Ref
    erst
    othosewhof eelt
    heyhavebothamaleandaf
    emalesidet
    othei
    r
    personal
    iti
    es.Some“bi
    gendered”peopl
    ecrossdr
    ess,ot
    her
    smayevent
    uall
    yhaveasex-
    change
    operati
    on,other
    smaydoneither.

    Bi
    phobi
    a:Thei
    rr
    ati
    onal
    fearandi
    ntol
    eranceofpeopl
    ewhoar
    ebi
    sexual
    .

    Birt
    hSex/Sex:Thesexoneisassi
    gnedatbirt
    hduetothepresenceofwhatev
    erexternal
    sex
    organs.Oncethi
    sdeter
    minati
    onismade,itbecomesalabelusedforr
    aisi
    ngthechil
    din
    ei
    theronegenderimageorother(
    eit
    herasmal eorf
    emale)
    .

    Bisexual:Alsobi.A personwhoi satt


    ract
    edtotwosexesort wogenders,butnot
    necessarily
    si
    mul taneousl
    yorequall
    y.[Thi
    susedtobedefi
    nedasapersonwhoisat t
    ract
    edt obot
    h
    gender sorbot hsexes,butsincether
    ear enotonlytwo sexes(seei nt
    ersexand
    tr
    anssexual )andther
    ear enotonlytwogenders(seet
    ransgender
    ),thi
    sdef i
    nit
    ioni
    s
    i
    naccur ate.
    ]

    Comingout:Torecogni
    zeone’
    ssexualori
    ent
    ati
    on,genderi
    dent
    it
    y,orsexi
    dent
    it
    y,and
    tobe
    openabouti
    twit
    honeselfandwi
    thother
    s.

    CrossLi
    ving:Livi
    ngful
    l-
    ti
    mei nthepref
    err
    edgenderi
    mage,opposi
    tet
    oone’
    sassi
    gned
    sexatbi
    rt
    h, gener
    all
    yinprepar
    ati
    onforasexchangeoper
    ati
    on.

    Dir
    ection:Refer
    stothewayi
    nwhi
    chonei
    scrossi
    ngt
    hegenderl
    i
    ne.Mascul
    i
    ne/
    Malet
    o
    Feminine/Female(MTF)isoneway
    ;Femini
    ne/Femal
    etoMasculi
    ne/Male(
    FTM)is
    another.

    Di
    scr
    imi
    nat
    ion:Theactofshowi
    ngpar
    ti
    ali
    tyorpr
    ejudi
    ce;
    apr
    ejudi
    cial
    act
    .

    238|Page
    Domest icPart
    ner:Onewholi
    veswitht
    hei
    rbel
    ovedand/orisatl
    eastemot
    ional
    l
    yand
    fi
    nanciall
    yconnectedinasuppor
    ti
    vemannerwit
    hanother.Anot
    herwordf
    orspouse,
    l
    over,signi
    fi
    cantother
    ,et
    c.

    Domi
    nantcul
    tur
    e:Thecult
    uralv
    alues,
    beli
    efs,
    andpr
    act
    icest
    hatar
    eassumedt
    obet
    he
    most
    commonandinf
    luent
    ial
    wit
    hinagivensoci
    ety.

    Drab:Meansdr essi
    ngasaboy,referr
    ingtomen’scl
    othesorweari
    ngmen’
    scl
    othes;i
    s
    used
    mainlybygenderbender
    sandcross-dresser
    sofbot
    hdirect
    ions.

    Drag:Theactofdressingingender
    edclothi
    ngaspar tofaperf
    ormance.DragQueens
    per
    forminhighlyfeminineatt
    ir
    e.DragKingsperfor
    mi nhighl
    ymasculineatti
    re.Drag
    may be perf
    ormed as a pol i
    ti
    calcommenton gender ,as parody,orsi mply as
    ent
    ert
    ainment.Dragper for
    mancedoesnoti ndi
    catesexual
    it
    y,genderident
    it
    y,orsex
    i
    denti
    ty.

    Family
    :Col l
    oquialt
    erm used t
    oi dent
    if
    yot herLGBTI
    Q communi
    tymember
    s.For
    example,
    anLGBTI Qpersonsay
    ing,
    “thatper
    sonisfami
    ly
    ”oft
    enmeanst
    hatt
    heper
    son
    theyarer
    eferr
    ingtoi
    sLGBTIQaswel l
    .

    Familyofchoice(chosenf amil
    y):Personsorgr oupofpeopleani ndiv
    idualseesas
    signi
    fi
    cantinhisorherlif
    e.Itmayi ncludenone,all,orsomemember sofhi sorher
    famil
    yofor igi
    n.In addi
    ti
    on,itmayi ncludeindiv
    idualssuch assigni
    ficantother
    s,
    domesticpart
    ners,
    fri
    ends,andcoworkers.

    FTM:f
    emal
    e-t
    o-mal
    e(t
    ransv
    est
    it
    eort
    ranssexual
    ).

    Gay:Menat
    tract
    edt
    omen.Col
    l
    oqui
    all
    yusedasanumbr
    ell
    ater
    mtoi
    ncl
    udeal
    lLGBTI
    Q
    peopl
    e.

    Gender :1)A soci allyconst r


    uctedsy stem ofcl assificat iont hatascr i
    besqual i
    ti
    esof
    mascul init
    yandf emi ninitytopeopl e.Genderchar acter isticscanchangeov erti
    meand
    are differentbet ween cul tures.Wor ds thatr efert o genderi nclude:man,woman,
    transgender ,mascul ine,f emi ni
    ne,and genderqueer .2)One’ s sense ofsel fas
    mascul ineorf emini ner egardlessofext ernalgenital
    ia.3) Ref erst othewayweper cei ve
    certai
    nt hingst obemascul i
    neorf eminine.Theset hingsneednotbehuman;f or
    exampl e,int hel anguageofmanycul t
    ures,cupsar ef emi nine,andpenci l
    smascul ine.
    [Tradi
    tional l
    y,wet endt oassoci at
    egender–t hatis,mascul ineandf emi ni
    nemeani ngs
    –wi t
    hf eat urest hati nclude:·phy si
    calsexorgeni tals;·ot herphy sicalfeat
    ures( for
    exampl e hei ght,wei ght ,and bodyhai r
    );·sexualor ient ation (gaymen ar e often
    consider edmor ef emi ninet hant heirheterosexualcount er parts,andl esbianwomen
    mor emascul ine);and·behav iorordress( amanwhocr iesmaybeconsi deredunmanl y,
    a woman who i saggr essiveorwear sa sui t-
    coatand sl acksmaybeconsi dered
    unfemi nine).]

    239|Page
    GenderBinarySy stem:A syst
    em ofoppressi
    ont hatrequi
    resever
    yonetober ai
    sed
    ei
    thermaleorf emale,andmasculi
    neorfemini
    ne.Eli
    minates5thepossibi
    l
    ityf
    orot her
    genderexpressions,andgi
    vespowert opeopl
    ewhosegender sdonotbr eakgender
    norms att he expense oft r
    ansgenderand int
    ersex peopl
    e.Manifestsitselfas
    tr
    ansphobi
    a.

    Gender Charact
    erist
    ics:Ref
    erst ot he primary and secondar y sexualphy sical
    char
    acteri
    sti
    csli
    kehei ght
    ,weight,andbodyhai r,overwhi cht heindiv
    idualhasno
    contr
    olandwhichdonotconstitutepartoftheirexpressionoridenti
    fi
    cati
    on.Examples
    mightincl
    udeamanwi thahi
    ghv oice,awomanwi thpromi nentf
    acialhai
    r,oraperson
    wit
    hanomal ousgenit
    ali
    a(mor
    ecor rectl
    yref
    erredtoas“ inter
    sex”)
    .

    GenderConf
    ormit
    y:Whenyourgenderidenti
    tyandsex“
    mat
    ch”(
    i.
    e.f
    itsoci
    alnor
    ms)
    .
    For
    exampl
    e,amalewhoismascul
    i
    neandi denti
    fi
    esasaman.

    GenderExpression/GenderImage:Thewayonepr
    esentsonesel
    ftotheworld,asei
    ther
    masculi
    ne orf eminine,orboth orneit
    her
    .This can i
    ncl
    ude dress,posture,v
    ocal
    i
    nfl
    ecti
    on,andot herbehavi
    or.

    GenderI dentit
    y:1)“ Genderi denti
    ty”referst o an indi v
    idual’s self
    -awareness or
    fundament alsenseoft hemsel vesasbeingmascul ineorf emi nine,andmal eorfemal e.
    Thephr ase“ genderidentit
    y”ori
    ginatedasapsy chi
    atri
    ct erm,andi scommonl yusedt o
    protecttranssexualort ransgenderempl oy
    ees,par ti
    cularlythosewhot ransi
    ti
    onfrom
    onesext oanot heront hejob.2)Thegendert hataper sonseesonesel fas.Thiscan
    i
    ncluder efusingtolabelonesel fwit
    hagender .Genderi dentityisalsoof tenconfl
    ated
    withsexualor i
    entat
    ion,butt hi
    si si
    naccurate.Genderi dent i
    tydoesnotcausesexual
    ori
    entati
    on.Forexampl e,amascul i
    newomani snotnecessar i
    l
    yal esbian.

    Gender
    ism:Holdi
    ngpeopletot
    radi
    ti
    onalexpect
    ati
    onsbasedongender ,
    orpuni
    shi
    ngor
    excl
    udi
    ngthosewhodon’tconf
    ormtotradi
    ti
    onalgenderexpect
    ati
    ons.

    Gender-
    neutr
    al:Nondiscr
    iminat
    orylanguaget odescri
    ber elat
    ionshi
    ps—e.g.“
    spouse”
    and
    “par
    tner
    ”aregender
    -neutr
    alalt
    ernat
    ivest
    ot hegender
    -speci
    ficwords“husband,
    ”“wi
    fe,
    ”
    “boyf
    ri
    end”and“gi
    rl
    fri
    end.
    ”

    GenderQueer( orGender
    queer):Aper
    sonwhoredef
    inesorplayswit
    hgender,orwho
    refusesgenderalt
    oget
    her
    .Al abelf
    orpeopl
    ewhobend/breaktherul
    esofgenderand
    blurtheboundari
    es.

    GenderRol e:How “ mascul


    i
    ne”or“femi
    nine”ani ndiv
    idualacts.Societ
    iescommonly
    havenormsr egar
    dinghowmalesandfemalesshouldbehav e,expect
    ingpeopl
    etohav
    e
    personal
    it
    y
    charact
    eri
    sticsand/oractacer
    tai
    nwaybasedont heirbiol
    ogicalsex.

    240|Page
    GenderStereot
    ypes:“Genderstereoty
    pes”ar et hepat t
    ernsormentalt
    empl
    atesfor
    whatwe
    expectmembersofeachsext obe.Fori nstance,thestereot
    ypeformal
    esfr
    equent
    ly
    i
    ncludesbeingtal
    l,muscular,hi
    rsute,soli
    tary,andi mpassiv
    e.Forfemal
    esitmight
    i
    ncludebei
    ngsmall,weak,soci
    al,
    sensiti
    ve,andemot ional
    .

    Gender-
    variant/ Gendernon- conforming:Di splay
    ing gendert rai
    tsthatare not
    nor
    mat i
    velyassociatedwit
    htheirbi
    ologicalsex
    .“ Femini
    ne”behaviororappear
    anceina
    maleisgender -v
    ar i
    antasi s“masculi
    ne”behav i
    ororappear anceaf emale.Gender
    -
    var
    iantbehaviori
    scul t
    ural
    l
    yspecifi
    c.

    Genet
    ic:r
    efer
    stothechr
    omosomalendowmentoft
    hei
    ndi
    vi
    dual
    ,wi
    themphasi
    sont
    he
    sex
    chr
    omosomes( XXinwomenandXYinmen).

    Hatecr i
    me:Hat ecr
    imelegi
    slati
    onoftendef
    inesahatecri
    measacr i
    memot i
    vat
    edby
    theactualor
    percei
    vedr ace,col
    or,r
    eli
    gion,nat
    ionalori
    gin,et
    hni
    cit
    y,gender
    ,di
    sabi
    l
    ity
    ,orsexual
    ori
    entati
    onofanyperson.

    Heterosexi
    sm:Assuming ever
    yper son t
    o be heterosexualther
    efor
    e mar gi
    nal
    izi
    ng
    personswhodonoti dent
    if
    yasheterosexual
    .Itisalsobeliev
    ingheter
    osexuali
    tyt
    obe
    superi
    ortohomosexual
    it
    yandallot
    hersexualori
    ent
    at i
    ons.

    Heterosexuali
    ty:Sexual
    ,emotional,and/
    orromanti
    cattr
    act
    iontoasexothert
    hanyour
    own.
    Commonl yt houghtofas“ at
    tract
    iont otheopposit
    esex”butsi
    ncether
    earenotonly
    twosexes( see
    i
    ntersexandt r
    anssexual
    ),t
    hisdefinit
    ioni
    sinaccur
    ate.

    Heter
    osexualPri
    vi
    lege:Benef
    it
    sder
    ivedaut
    omatical
    l
    ybybeing(orbeingper
    cei
    vedas)
    het
    erosexual
    thataredeni
    edtohomosexual
    s,bi
    sexuals,
    andqueers.

    Homophobia:Theirr
    ati
    onalf
    earandintol
    eranceofpeoplewhoar ehomosexualorof
    homosexualf
    eeli
    ngswit
    hinone’
    ssel
    f.Thisassumesthathet
    erosexual
    i
    tyi
    ssuperi
    or.

    Homosexuali
    ty:Sexual,emot
    ional
    ,and/
    orromant i
    catt
    ract
    iont
    othesamesex.
    Inst
    it
    uti
    onalOppression:Arr
    angementofasoci et
    yusedt obenef
    itonegr oupatt
    he
    expenseofanotherthrought
    heuseofl anguage,medi
    aeducati
    on,rel
    i
    gion,economi
    cs,
    etc.

    Int
    ernal
    izedOppressi
    on:Theprocessbywhichanoppressedper
    soncomestobel
    iev
    e,
    accept,
    orli
    veouttheinaccur
    atest
    ereot
    ypesandmisi
    nformati
    onaboutt
    hei
    rgr
    oup.

    I
    nter
    sex:I
    nter
    sexual
    i
    tyi
    sasetofmedi
    calcondi
    ti
    onst
    hatf
    eat
    urecongeni
    talanomal
    yof

    241|Page
    the
    reproductive and sexualsy stem.That i s,i ntersex peopl e ar e born with“ sex
    chromosomes, ”
    externalgenit
    al i
    a,ori nternalrepr
    oduct i
    vesystemst hatarenotconsi dered“ st
    andard”
    foreithermal eorf emale.Theexi stenceofintersexualsshowst hatt
    herear enotjust
    two10sexesandt hatourway softhinki
    ngaboutsex( tr
    yingtof orceevery
    onet ofi
    tinto
    eit
    hert hemai lboxort hef emalebox)i ssociall
    yconst ructed.About1i n2000i nfants
    born ar e atriskf ori ntersexgenitalmut i
    l
    at i
    on.An ev en hi gherproporti
    on oft he
    populationisi ntersexi nsomeway .Thiswor dr eplaces“ hermaphrodit
    e”,whichi s
    gener al
    lyconsideredimpol i
    teand/orderogat
    or y.

    I
    nthecl
    oset
    :Keepi
    ngone’
    ssexual
    ori
    ent
    ati
    onand/
    orgenderorsexi
    dent
    it
    yasecr
    et.

    Invi
    sibl
    emi nori
    ty:A gr
    oupwhoseminor
    it
    ystatusisnotalwaysi
    mmediat
    elyvisible,
    suchas
    somedi sabl
    edpeopleandLGBTIQpeopl
    e.Thi
    slackofvi
    sibi
    li
    tymaymakeorganizing
    forri
    ghtsdif
    fi
    cult
    .

    Lambda:TheGayActi
    vi
    stAlli
    anceor
    igi
    nal
    lychoset helambda,t
    heGr eekl
    ett
    er“ L”
    ,asa
    symbolin1970.Or
    ganizer
    schoset helett
    er“ L”tosi gni
    fyl
    i
    berat
    ion.Thewor dhas
    becomeawayofexpr essingtheconcept“lesbianandgaymal e”i nami nimum of
    syl
    labl
    esandhasbeenadoptedbysuchor ganizati
    onsasLambdaLegalDef enseand
    Educati
    onFund.

    Lesbi
    an:Awomanat
    tract
    edt
    owomen.

    LGBTI
    Q:Lesbi
    an,
    Gay
    ,Bi
    sexual
    ,Tr
    ansgender
    ,Int
    ersex,
    Queer
    .

    Male supremacy:A syst


    em ofoppressi
    on t
    hatgives powert
    o men and v
    alues
    masculi
    nit
    y,att
    heexpenseofwomenandfemi
    nini
    ty.

    Margi
    nali
    zed: Excl
    uded, i
    gnor
    ed, or r
    elegat
    ed t
    o t
    he out
    er edge of a
    gr
    oup/soci
    ety
    /community
    .

    Menwhohav esexwi t
    hmen( MSM):Menwhoengagei
    nsame-
    sexbehav
    ior
    ,butwho
    maynotnecessar
    il
    ysel
    f-i
    dent
    if
    yasgay
    .

    MTF:MaletoFemal e(tr
    ansvestit
    eort ranssexual).
    Non-Op:Ref
    erstotranssexualswhoseeksexr eassi
    gnmentthroughhormonesandwho
    crossl
    i
    ve,
    butstopj ustshortofsur gery.Somehav econcernsaboutmaj orsur gery
    ,
    whichisnotal
    way ssuccessful,othersareunabl etopayfortheexpensiveprocedures
    surger
    ywouldentai
    l,andstil
    lothersfeelthattheyarecompletewithoutt
    hesurgery.

    OnT:WhenaFTM t
    akest
    hehor
    monet
    est
    ost
    erone.

    Oppr
    essi
    on:Resul
    tsf
    r heuseofi
    om t nst
    it
    uti
    onalpowerandpr
    ivi
    l
    egewher
    eoneper
    son

    242|Page
    orgroupbenef
    it
    sattheexpenseofanot
    her
    .Oppr
    essi
    oni
    stheuseofpowerandt
    he
    ef
    fectsofdomi
    nati
    on.

    OutorOutoft hecloset:Ref
    erst
    ov ar
    yingdegr
    eesofbei
    ngopenaboutone’
    ssexual
    ori
    entat
    ion
    and/orsexidenti
    tyorgenderi
    dent
    it
    y.

    Pansexual
    :Aper
    sonwhoi
    sfl
    uidi
    nsexual
    ori
    ent
    ati
    onand/
    orgenderorsexi
    dent
    it
    y.

    Pass:Meanst
    obei nyourpr
    efer
    redgenderi
    mageandtobeabl
    etodosoconvi
    nci
    ngl
    y
    i
    ntheeyesofthosear
    oundyou,forexampl
    eanFTM orcr
    ossdr
    esserordr
    agki
    ngwho
    l
    ooksli
    keamanandnotl i
    keawoman.

    Pol
    y amory:Thepr act
    iceofhavingmulti
    pleopen,honestl
    ov erel
    ationships.
    Post-Op:A transsexualwhohashadt hei
    rsexchangeoper ati
    onandnow hast
    he
    physical
    anatomywhi chmi micsthatofthesextheyhavetransit
    ionedt o.

    (I
    nst
    it
    utional)Power:Meanscont rol
    ,accessand i nfl
    uence.In U.
    S.societ
    y,power
    meanshav ingcontr
    olofandaccesstoruli
    ngi nsti
    tut
    ions;f
    reedom fr
    om thethreatof
    bei
    ngquest ionedorrepr
    imandedforwrong-doing;andtheabili
    tytodef
    inestandards
    andnorms.

    Pr
    esent
    :Refer
    stogenderexpressi
    onandthepr ocessofref
    lect
    ingonesgendert
    o
    ot
    her
    s;someonewhoi
    sbigenderedmaypr
    esentasfemaleonedayandmalet
    henext.

    Pre-
    Op:At
    ranssexualwhohasnoty
    ethadt
    hei
    rsexchangeoper
    ati
    on(
    s)butwho‘
    plans
    onhavi
    ngi
    t/t
    hem.

    Pr
    ivi
    lege:Meansari
    ght
    ,af av
    or,ani
    mmuni t
    yoranadv
    ant
    agespeci
    all
    ygr
    ant
    edt
    oone
    i
    ndi
    vidual oupandwi
    orgr t
    hheldfr
    om anot
    her.

    Queer :1)Anumbr ellat erm usedt orefertoal lLGBTI Qpeopl e.2)Apol it


    icalstatement ,
    aswel lasasexualor ientati
    on,whi chadv ocatesbr eakingbi narythinki
    ngandseei ng
    bot hsexual
    orientat i
    onand genderi dent i
    tyaspot ent ial
    lyf l
    uid.3)A si mpl elabelt o explaina
    compl exsetofsexualbehav iorsanddesires.Forexampl e,aper sonwhoi sattr
    actedt o
    mul ti
    pl egendersmayi dentifyasqueer .Manyol derLGBTpeopl efeelthewor dhasbeen
    hat efullyusedagai nstt hem f ortoolongandar ereluctantt oembr aceit.4)Or i
    ginall
    ya
    sy nony mf or“odd”,thiswor dbecamea
    der ogat or
    yexpr essionf orgay sinthe20t hCent ur
    y.Ev ent houghmanypeopl est i
    l
    luse
    “queer ”asanant i-
    gayepi t
    het ,amov ementemer gedint he1980st hatcallsit
    selfqueer .
    Usedi nt hi
    sway ,queermeanssexual lydi ssident,butnotnecessar il
    ygay .Manygay s,
    transsexual s,bisexualsandev enheterosexual swhosesexual it
    ydoesn’ tf i
    tintot he
    cul t
    uralst andardofmonogamoushet erosexualmar riagehav eadopt edt he“ queer ”
    l
    abel .I n academi c ci rcl
    es,t he t
    erm “ queer ”of t
    en r eferst ot he appr oaches and
    sensi bili
    ti
    esofqueert heor y.

    243|Page
    Raci
    sm:Discr
    iminat
    ionagai
    nstpeopl
    eofcol
    ort
    hatresul
    tsfr
    om thewhi
    tesupr
    emacy
    syst
    em ofdominati
    on.Raci
    sm i
    sprej
    udi
    cepl
    usi
    nst
    it
    uti
    onalpower
    .

    Rainbow Flag:TheRainbow Freedom Fl


    agwasdesignedi n1978byGi l
    ber
    tBakerto
    designat
    ethegr eatdi
    versi
    tyoftheLGBTIQcommunity.Ithasbeenrecogni
    zedbythe
    I
    nternati
    onalFlagMaker sAssociati
    onastheof
    fi
    cialf l
    agoft heLGBTIQ ci
    vi
    lri
    ghts
    mov ement.

    Self-
    Identi
    fy:Referst ot he pr
    ocess ofpeople choosing wit
    h whi
    ch i
    dent
    if
    ying
    terms/groups t
    heyi denti
    fy.(E.
    g.Someone coul
    d self-
    ident
    if
    yas male,f
    emale or
    bigendered,mul
    ti
    -raci
    al,
    etc.)

    Sex:Referstoaper sonbasedonthei
    ranat
    omy( externalgeni
    tal
    i
    a,chromosomes,and
    i
    nternalreproducti
    vesyst
    em).Sexter
    msar emal e,female,tr
    anssexual
    ,andint
    ersex.
    Sexisbiological
    ,
    alt
    houghsoci
    alvi
    ewsandexper
    iencesofsexar ecult
    ural
    .

    SexI
    denti
    ty:Thesexthataper
    sonseest
    hemsel
    vesas.Thi
    scani
    ncl
    uder
    efusi
    ngt
    o
    l
    abel
    onesel
    fwithasex.

    Sexism:Discri
    mi nat
    ionagainstwomenthatresul
    tsfr
    om themalesupr
    emacysy st
    em of
    oppressi
    on.
    Sex-ReassignmentSur gery(SRS)
    :Sexchangeoperati
    on.
    Sexualmi nori
    ty:1)Referstomember sofsexualori
    entat
    ionsorwhoengageinsexual
    acti
    vit
    iesthatarenotpar tofthemainst
    ream.2)Referstomembersofsexgroupsthat
    donotf allint
    ot hemaj orit
    ycategor
    iesofmal eorfemale,suchasint
    ersexual
    sand
    tr
    anssexuals.

    SexualOri
    entat
    ion:Thedeep-
    seat
    eddir
    ect
    ionofone’ssexual(
    eroti
    c)at
    tr
    act
    ion.I
    tison
    a
    conti
    nuum andnotasetofabsol ut
    ecategor
    ies,sometimesreferr
    edtoasaf f
    ecti
    on
    ori
    entat
    ionorsexual
    it
    y.

    Sociali
    zed:Ref er
    stot he “tr
    aini
    ng”pr ocess t
    hattakes pl
    ace once bir
    th sex i
    s
    determined/deci
    dedupon.Peoplewhosebi r
    thsexisf
    emaleare“soci
    ali
    zed”aswomen
    al
    thought heymayormaynotsel f-
    ident
    if
    yaswomen.

    SRS:Acronymf orSexualReassignmentSur
    gery
    ,thesur
    ger
    ydonebyt
    ranssexual
    sto
    maketheirbodi
    esandt hei
    rsexident
    it
    ymatch.

    St
    ereoty
    pe:An exaggerated oversi
    mplif
    ied bel
    i
    efaboutan ent
    ir
    e gr
    oup ofpeopl
    e
    wi
    thoutregar
    dfori
    ndi
    vidualdi
    fferences.

    Str
    aight:Per
    sonwhoisat
    tract
    edtoagenderothert
    hant
    hei
    rown.[
    Commonl
    ythought
    ofas
    “at
    tract
    iontotheopposi
    tegender,
    ”butsincether
    earenotonl
    ytwogender
    s( see

    244|Page
    tr
    ansgender ),
    thi
    sdefini
    ti
    onisinaccurat
    e.]
    Systemsofoppr essi
    on:Int
    erl
    ockingsocietal
    ,economic,moral
    ,andr el
    igi
    ousv al
    uest hat
    keepmanygr oupsofpeopledownt oensurethepowerandadv antageofaf ewgr oups
    oronegr oupofpeopl e.Somesy st
    emsofoppr essi
    onint heUSandEur opei nclude:
    heterosexism,malesupremacy ,
    whitesupremacyandt hegenderbinarysyst
    em.

    TransFemale/Woman:Amal e-
    to-
    femalet
    ransi
    ti
    on( MTF)
    .[Themedi
    call
    i
    ter
    aturetends
    tousetheextremelydemeaningterm“maletr
    anssexual
    ”tomeanthesamething.Note
    thatyoucantellt
    heprefer
    redformisinusewhent hegenderwor
    dcomesafterthe“T”
    word.]

    Transgender :1)Tr ansgender( somet i


    messhor t
    enedt ot ransorTG)peopl earet hose
    whose
    psychologi calsel f( “genderi dent i
    ty”)di ff
    er sf r
    om t he soci alexpect at
    ions fort he
    physicalsex t heywer e born wi th.To under stand t his,one mustunder stand the
    dif
    ferencebet weenbi ologi
    calsexwhi chi sone’ sbody( geni t
    als,chromosomes,ect .
    ),
    andsoci algender ,whi chrefer stol evelsof mascul init
    yandf emininit
    y.Of t
    en,soci ety
    confl
    atessexandgender ,vi
    ewi ngt hem ast hesamet hing.But ,genderandsexar enot
    the same t hing.Tr ansgenderpeopl e ar et hose whosepsy chologicalself( “gender
    i
    dentity”)di f
    fersfrom t hesoci alexpect ati
    onsf ort hephy sicalsext heywerebor nwi th.
    Forexampl e,af emal ewi thamascul i
    negenderi dentityorwhoi denti
    f i
    esasaman. 2)An
    umbr el
    lat ermf ortranssexual s,cross-dr essers( t
    ransv estites)
    ,transgender i
    sts,gender
    queers,andpeopl ewhoi denti
    fyasnei therf emalenormal eand/ orasnei t
    heramanor
    asawoman. Transgenderi snotasexualor i
    entation;transgenderpeopl emayhav eany
    sexualor ientati
    on.Iti si mportanttoacknowl edget hatwhi lesomepeopl emayf i
    tunder
    thi
    sdef initi
    onoft ransgender ,theymaynoti dentif
    yassuch.

    Transgender
    ist
    :Apersonwholi
    vesei
    therfullt
    ime,ormostofthet
    ime,
    inagenderr
    ole
    di
    fferentt
    hantherol
    eassoci
    atedwit
    ht heirbi
    ologi
    calorchr
    omosomalsex(agender
    nonconformi
    st)
    .

    Transi
    ti
    on:Acompl
    icat
    ed,mult
    i-
    steppr
    ocessthatcantakeyearsast
    ranssexualsal
    ign
    thei
    r
    anatomywit
    hthei
    rsexident
    it
    y;thi
    sprocessmayul t
    imatel
    yincl
    udesexreassignment
    surger
    y
    (SRS).

    TransMan/Male:Afemale-
    to-
    maletransi
    ti
    on(FTM) .[
    Themedicalli
    ter
    atur
    et endsto
    usetheext
    remelydemeani
    ngterm“femaletr
    anssexual
    ”tomeant hesamething.Note
    thaty
    oucantel
    lthepref
    err
    edformisinusewhent hegenderwordcomesaf t
    erthe“T”
    word.
    ]

    Transphobia:1)Discrimi
    nation,fearorhat r
    edofpeoplewhobl urt r
    adit
    ionalgender
    l
    ines thatr esul
    tsf r
    om the genderbi narysy st
    em.Oft
    en comes f rom one’ s own
    i
    nsecur i
    tyaboutbeinga“realman, ”ora“realwoman.
    ”2)Fearorhatredoft r
    ansgender
    people;tr
    ansphobiaismanifestedinanumberofway s,i
    ncludi
    ngv i
    olence,harassment

    245|Page
    anddi
    scr
    imi
    nat
    ion.

    Transsexual:Ref er
    stoaper sonwhoexper i
    encesami smat chofthebiologicalsexthey
    were bor n as and t he bi
    ologi
    calsex they identi
    fy as.A t r
    anssexualsomet imes
    undergoesmedi caltreat
    mentt ochangehi s/herphy si
    calsext omat chhi s/hersex
    i
    dentit
    yt hroughhor monet r
    eatmentsand/orsurgical
    l
    y.[Transexual
    sarei ncludedinthe
    umbrell
    at ermt ransgender,butnotal
    ltransgenderedpeoplear etr
    anssexual .Seealso
    gender,sex,transgender.

    Transvest
    it
    e/CrossDresser
    :Indi
    vi
    dualswhoregul
    arl
    yoroccasi
    onal
    l
    ywearthecl
    othi
    ng
    social
    l
    yassignedt oagendernott hei
    rown,butareusuall
    ycomfor
    tabl
    ewiththeir
    anatomyanddonotwi sh
    tochangeit(i
    .e.t
    heyarenottr
    anssexual
    s).

    246|Page

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