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i
tseasy
for
u.co

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i
tseasy
for
u.co
 Tabl
eofCont
ent
s

1 I
ntr
oduct
ion P.1

2 Basi
cPr
inci
ples P.5

3 Magnet
icPr
oper
ti
es P.6

4 Yokes P.31

5 TheDet
ect
ingMedi
um P.47

6 Heal
thandSaf
etyConsi
der
ati
ons P.51

7 Demagnet
izat
ion P.53

8 Magnet
icFi
eldI
ndi
cat
ors P.57

9 Vi
ewi
ngCondi
ti
ons P.61

10 Ver
if
icat
ion P.62

11 Accept
anceLev
els P.72

12 Repor
ti
ng P.74

13 COSHHRegul
ati
ons P.77

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
 Magnet
icPar
ti
cleI
nspect
ion
I
ntr
oduct
ion

MAGNETI C PARTI CLE INSPECTI ON i s a met hod of l ocat i

ng sur face and
subsurf acediscont i
nuit
iesi nferromagnet icmat erials.Itdependsont hef actthat
whent hemat er
ialorpar tundert esti smagnet i
zed,magnet i
cdi sconti
nui t
iesthat
l
iei nadi recti
ongener allytransv erset ot hedir ectionoft hemagnet icf ieldwi l
l
causeal eakagef iel
dt obef or medatandabov et hesur f
aceoft hepar t.The
presenceoft hisleakagef ield,andt hereforethepr esenceoft hediscont i
nuity,is
detectedbyt heuseoff inelydi videdf erromagnet icparti
clesappl i
edov erthe
surface,wi thsomeoft hepar t
iclesbei nggat heredandhel dby t heleakagef i
eld.
Thismagnet i
cal
lyhel dcoll
ect i
onofpar t
iclesformsanout li
neoft hediscont i
nuity
andgener all
yindicatesitslocation, size,shape,andext ent.Magnet icpar ti
clesar e
appliedov erasur faceasdr ypar ticl
es, oraswetpar t
iclesinaliquidcarriersuchas
wateroroi l
.

Ferromagnet icmateri
alsincl
udemostoft heiron,
nickel
,andcobaltall
oys.Manyof
thepr eci pi
tat
ionhardeningsteel
s,suchas17- 4PH,17-7PH, and15-4PHst ai
nless
steels,ar e magnetic afteraging.These mat eri
alsl ose thei
rf er
romagnet i
c
proper tiesaboveachar acteri
sti
ctemperaturecal
ledtheCur i
epoint.Al
thoughthis
temper aturevari
esfordi f
fer
entmat er
ial
s,theCuriepointformostf er
romagnet i
c
mat erialsisapproxi
mat ely760
°C(1400° F).

TheHi
stor
yofMagnet
icPar
ti
cleTest
ing
Thema gn et
icp art
icl
ee qu i
pme nta ndt esti
n gp r
oc essesweu set oday
haveal on ga ndinteresti
ngh i
stor y
.Int hemi d-
18 00ss omeoft h efirst
ma gne t
icp art
icl
ete st
ingwa sc ompl etedu singn aturalma gn et
st ot est
ri
fl
eb arr
e l
sf ord efects.F rom t hise arl
yt esti
ngt ot oday '
s mod e r
n
mu l
ti
d i
recti
on alu ni
tsi sav eryl arges tep .Alfred Vic t
ord eF or est
comp leteds omeoft hef ir
str ea lma gneticp arti
cletes ti
ngi nth el at
e
1920s .Hise arl
ywor kwa sth ef oun dat
ionoft hete st
ingme t
hodst h at
areus edtoda yandpr oduc edth eide aofu si
n gc ur
rentp ass edthrou gha
parttop rodu ceama gn et
icf i
eldi nt hep art.Ina ddi
ti
on ,h ed eveloped
thep rocessofu si
ngma gn eticp a r
ti
clest ode tectdis conti
nuiti
e sin
parts.Int hev er
yl astp artoft h e1 920sF osterB.Doa nej oinedh i
m.
Theirwor ka ndv isi
onr esu l
tedi nt hee stablishme ntoft heMa gn afl
ux
Corpora t
ion.Th r
ou ghoutthe1 9 30 s,deF os t
era ndDoa n ec onti
nue dto
developth ema gne t
icp r
inciplesth atareus edint oday.Ina dd i
ti
on ,work
i
n Ge rma nyr esult
e d in t he d evel
op me nt of ma g neti
c p a r
ticl
es
suspe ndedinwa t
erb ei
ngu se dtoi ncreaset hes ensi
tivi
tyoft ests.Wh il
e
someoft hef i
rstapplicat
ionsi nt he1 930swe reinthea v i
ati
oni ndu st
ry,
Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
ot
herindust
ri
eswe r
ea l
soqu i
c kl
yapply
ingthema gneti
cpar
ti
clet
esti
ng
pr
ocess.Ma nyoft hesea ppli
cati
ons we re dr
iven bythen eedto
i
mp r
ovesafetyandrel
iabi
li
ty.Oneint
erest
ingappl
icat
ionwastheuseof

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
ma gne t
icp arti
clet es t
sons teeringp a rtsoft her acec arsc ompe tinga t
theInd i
an apoli
sMot orSp eedwa yi nt h emi d-1930s .Itwa sa lsod u ri
ng
the1930st hatg reats tr
ides we r
e ma de i n de velopin g ma gn eti
c
parti
cle t e st
ing e qu i
p me nta n di ntrod u ci
n gt r
aininga ndt ech nical
book s on t hes ubje ct.Int he1940st hewor ldwa sa twa r.Asi sof t
en
thec as e,wa rsa dva nc et echn ologya taf a st
erp acea nd ma gn eti
c
parti
clet estingwa sn oe xcep t
ion .Pr od u cti
ononama s ss calewa s
necess ary.Se veralimp ortante v entsoc c u r
redd uringt h i
sp e ri
od .On e
wast hed e vel
op me n toft hequ ickb reakd e si
gnn ece ss arywh ent es ti
ng
withc oil
s.An oth erde velopme n twa st h eu s eoff l
u ore scen tma g neti
c
parti
cles.I twa sa lso du r
ingt hist ime p er
iod t ha tt ra ini
nga nd
quali
ficati
on ofp er son nelb ec ame a r e quireme ntdu e pr ima r
ilyt o
govern me nt ma nufa cturing qu ali
tyr e qu i
reme nts.Th e t raining of
person nelresult
e dins omeoft hef ir
stor ga nizedtrainingc l
a s sesbe i
ng
develope da ndc on du ctedf orma g neticp a rt
icletesti
n g. Th e1 950ss aw
thed evelop men tofma gneti
cp a r
ticl
et es ti
ngi nma n yi ndu s t
ri
e s.Th e
aerosp acei ndu stry wa se nteringa ne ra wh erej ete n gines we r
e
beginning t o r e pl
a ce r eci
p r
oc a t
ing e n gines. Wh ere as t he ol der
reci
proc ati
n ge ngin esp utma gn eticp articl
et e st
ingt ogoodu se ,the
newe rj ete ngin es wi thv eryh ighr p m t urbinec omp on e ntsp laced
additi
on ald ema n dsf orh i
gherqu a l
ityt ests.Ina dd i
tion,d uringt hi
s
peri
odma gn et
icp arti
c l
et estingwa si nc reasinglyb eingu s edonn ew
andov erhauleda utomot i
v ep arts,bu ildin gsa ndb ridg es.I n t hel ater
partoft h e 5 0s ,thef ir
s tmu ltidir
e ction alma gnetict estingu n i
twa s
i
n t
rodu ced.On ea dd it
ion alan dv eryimpor tantd evelop me n td uringt he
1950 swa st hep ublicationoft hef ir
ste d i
ti
on oft h e Non d est
ru cti
ve
TestingHa ndbook .Th eh andbookwa sma deu poft wov olume sa nd
wa sb yf a rthemos tc omp lete doc u me ntonn onde structivet es t
in g.It
rema i
n edon eoft hepr ima ryr esou rce soft h enonde struc ti
vet e sti
ng
i
ndus tr
yf ors eve ralde cades.The1960ss awt hei ntroduc tionoft rul
y
portablema gnetict est i
nge qu i
pme n t
.Th ise qu i
pme n twa sf irstu s edin
thes hipb u i
ldi
n gi nd us t
ry,bu tqu i
c klyb eca meac ommon p i
e ceof
testi
nge qu i
p me nta th ighr i
seb u il
dinga ndb r
idges it
e s,offs h ored ri
lli
ng
pl
a t
forms a n donp ipe l
ines.Th isp eri
oda lsos awt h ei ntrod uctionof
devices,su cha squ a ntitati
ves hims , t
oi mpr ovet echn i
qu ede v el
opme nt
andt he qu ali
ty ofr es ul
ts.F l
u oresc en tma g net
icp arti
c l
eb a thi n
pressurizedc an swa sa l
s ointrodu ce d.Th e1 970sa n d1 9 80 ss awt he
i
ntrodu ct
ionofi mpr ove df l
uores ce ntp articlesa ndth eu seofs oli
ds tat
e
compon ents i n ma gn eti
c p arti
cle e qu ipme nt. Th e re h ave b een
continuingi mpr oveme n tsine qu i
pme n t,p arti
cles,qu ali
tyv eri
fica ti
on
devicesa ndt ech ni
qu e sd uri
n gth elas tp artoft he20t hc en t
u ry.An dt he
fut
u r
eh oldse venmor eoppor tun i
tiesf orimpr oveme n t.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Met
hodAdv
ant
agesandLi
mit
ati
ons

Nonfer
romagneti
cmat er
ialscannotbeinspect
edbymagnet i
cparti
clei
nspect
ion.
Suchmat er
ial
sincl
udeal uminum all
oys,magnesium al
loys,copperandcopper
al
loy
s,lead,
tit
ani
um andtitani
um al
loys,
andaustenit
icst
ainl
esssteel
s.

I
naddi t
iontotheconventi
onalmagneti
cpar
ti
clei
nspecti
onmet
hodsdescr
ibedi
n
thi
s art
icl
e,ther
e are sever
alpropr
iet
arymethods t
hatempl
oyferr
omagneti
c
part
icl
esonamagnet i
zedtestpi
ece.

Appl
icat
ions:

Thepr inci
pali
ndustri
alusesofmagnet icpart
icl
einspect
ionar ef
inalinspect
ion,
recei
vinginspecti
on,in-
processinspect
ionandqualit
ycontrol,maint
enanceand
overhaulinthet r
ansport
ationindust
ri
es,pl
antandmachi nerymaintenance,and
i
nspect i
onoflargecomponent s.

Althoughi n-processmagnet icparticleinspectioni susedt odetectdisconti

nuit
ies
andi mper fecti
onsi n mat er
ialsandpar tsasear lyaspossi bl einthesequenceof
oper at
ions,f inalinspecti
oni sneededt oensur et hatrejectabledisconti
nui
ti
esor
i
mper f
ectionsdet rimentaltot heuseorf unct i
onoft hepar thavenotdev el
oped
during pr ocessing.Duringreceivi
ngi nspecti
on,semi fi
nishedpur chasedpartsand
raw mat er i
alsar einspectedt odet ectanyi nit
iall
ydef ectivemat eri
al.Magnet i
c
particl
ei nspectioni sextensivel
yusedoni ncomi ngrodandbarst ock,f
orging
blanks,andr oughcast ings.

Thet r
anspor tati
onindustri
es( t
ruck,rai
lr
oad,andai r
craft
)hav epl anned ov erhaul
schedul es atwhi ch cr
iti
calpar t
s are magnet ic parti
clei nspect ed forcr acks.
Planned i nspect i
on programs ar e also used i n keeping pl antequi pmenti n
oper ati
on wi thoutbreakdownsdur ing servi
ce.Becauseofsudden and sev er
e
stressappl icati
ons,punch-presscrankshafts,fr
ames, andf l
y wheel sarev ulnerabl
e
tof ati
guef ailur
es.Asaf etyrequir
ementi nmanypl antsist hei nspectionofcr ane
hooks;f ati
guecr acksdev elopont hewor k-hardenedi nsi desur f
acesofcr ane
hookswher econcentratedli
fti
ngloadsar eapplied.Thebl ading, shaft,andcaseof
steam t urbi
nesar eexami nedforinci
pientfail
ureatplanneddownt imes.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Adv
ant
ages:

Themagnet icpart
icl
emet hodisasensiti
vemeansofl ocat
ingsmallandshal
low
surfacecracksinferr
omagneticmat er
ial
s.I
ndicati
onsmaybepr oducedatcr
acks
thatarelargeenought obeseenwi ththenakedey e,butexceedi
nglywidecr
acks
willnotpr oduceapar ti
clepatter
ni fthesurfaceopeni ngistoowi deforthe
parti
clestobridge.

Discont
inui
ti
esthatdonotact uall
ybr eakthrought hesur facearealsoindi
cat
edin
manycasesbyt hi
smet hod,al t
houghcer t
ainlimitationsmustber ecogni
zedand
underst
ood.Ifadiscontinuityisf i
ne,sharp,andcl oset ot hesurf
ace,suchasa
l
ongst ri
ngerofnonmetal l
icinclusions,acleari ndicati
oncanbepr oduced.Ift
he
di
scontinui
tyli
es deeper,t he indicati
on wi l
lbe l ess distinct
.The deeperthe
di
scontinui
tyli
esbelow t hesur f
ace,t helargeri tmustbet oyi
eldar eadabl
e
i
ndicati
onandthemor edi f
ficul
tthedi sconti
nuityist ofindbyt hi
smethod.

Magnet i
cparticl
ei ndi
cationsareproduceddi r
ectlyont hesurf
aceoft hepartand
consti
tute magnet ic pi
ctures ofactualdi sconti
nuit
ies.Thereis no el ect
ri
cal
cir
cuit
ryorelectronicreadouttobecalibrat
edorkepti nproperoper
atingconditi
on.
Skil
ledoperatorscansomet imesmakear easonableest i
mateofcrackdept hwith
suit
ablepowder sand pr opertechni
que.Occasi onalmonitor
ingoffi
eldintensi
tyin
thepartisneededt oensur eadequatefiel
dstrength.

Ther eisl i
ttleornol i
mi tationont hesi zeorshapeoft hepar tbei nginspect ed.
Ordinaril
y,noel abor atepr ecleani ngi snecessar y,andcr acksf il
ledwi thf oreign
mat eri
alcanbedet ected.
 L imi tati
ons:Ther ear ecer tainl i
mi tat i
onst omagnet i
cpar t
iclei nspectiont he
oper atormustbeawar eof ;forexampl e,t hincoatingsofpai ntandot her
nonmagnet iccov erings,suchaspl ating,adv er
selyaffectt hesensi t
ivi
tyof
magnet icpar t
icl
ei nspect ion.Ot herl imi tati
onsar e:Themet hodcanbeused
onlyonf erromagnet icmat er ial
s
 F orbestr esul ts,themagnet icf i
eldmustbei nadi rectiont hatwi l
linter
cept
thepr i
ncipalpl aneoft hedi scont i
nui ty; thi
ssomet imesr equi rest woormor e
sequent ial inspect i
onswi thdi f
ferentmagnet izati
ons
 De magnet izationf ollowi ngi nspect ioni sof tennecessar y
 Po stcleaningt or emov er emnant soft hemagnet i
cpar t
iclescl ingingt othe
surfacemaysomet imesber equi redaf tertest i
nganddemagnet i
zati
on
 E xceedi ngl ylargecur rent sar esomet i
mesneededf orver ylargepar t
s
 Ca r eisnecessar ytoav oidl ocal heat ingandbur ningoff ini
shedpar tsor
surfacesatt hepoi ntsofel ect r
ical cont act
 Al thoughmagnet icpar ticlei ndicat i
onsar eeasi l
yseen, exper i
enceandski ll
aresomet imesneededt oj udget hei rsigni f
icance

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Basi
cpr
inci
ples
Ama g net
icfi
eldisintr
od ucedintoas pecimentob et est
ed,a ndthen
f
inep ar
ticl
esoff er
roma gnet
icp owder,orfer
roma gneti
cp art
icl
esina
l
i
qu i
ds uspensi
on,areappli
edt otheareabeingtest
ed.An ydisconti
nui
ty
i
nthet estareawh i
chc ut
sa crossthema gneti
cfi
e l
dc reat
esal eakage
f
iel
d.Al eakagefi
eldhasan ortha ndSouthPoleone i
th ersi
deofi t
,and
t
hereforewil
latt
ractthefer
roma gneti
cp ar
ti
clesi
ng r
e atnumb ers.
Itiscommonons it
ewor kt o u se b l
ack inks a s t he d et
ecting
me di
um, t hesea r
eu suall
yc on t
rast
ed a gainst a wh it
e p a i
nt
background wh ichh a sb eenp re-
appli
ed.Inwor kshopsa nds i
milar,i
t
i
smor ec ommont ous efluorescenti
nkswh i
c hareusu al
lyGreeky ell
ow.
Fluor
es centin ksorpowde r
sa rea ut
oma t
icall
yc ontrasteda gai
nsta
deepvioletbac kgr
oun d createdby t
h euseof anult
raviol
et (
U V-
A) l
i
g ht
,
thi
sise ssent
ialtocau sefluorescenceofthep art
icl
es,alt
h oughtheu se
ofad arkenedinspectiona reaisrequir
ed.Con t
rastpaintisnotrequired
withfl
uorescentinks.fluorescentinksorpowd ersaremor es ensi
ti
vea t
detect
ingd ef
e ct
sc omp aredt o n onfl
uorescenti nks or powde r
s,
becauseoft heg reat
e rcon t
rastachievedbetwe enthet esti
ngme dium
andtheb ackground.
Ther
ea re manywa y
st oa ppl
y a magneti
cf i
eld,e.
g.byt he use of
per
ma nentmagnet
s,el
ect
romagnet
icyokes,coi
l
s ,pr
ods,cabl
esa ndother
devi
ces.
Abasi
cs equenceofoper
ati
onsfortheexami
nati
onofawe l
d usi
ng
MPIwit
hap ermanentmagnetandbl
acki
nkisshownbel
ow:

 Cleana re ausingawi rebrushifre quir

e d.
 Applyat hinlayerofwhi tecontras tpaint.
 Whe nt hepa intisdr y,st
raddlet hemagne tov erthewe ldat90° t o
thewe l
dsa xi
s.
 Applyi nk( 1.
25%t o3. 5%f err
oma gne ti
cpa r
ticl
est oapa raf
fi
nba se).
 I
nte rprett hea rea.Lookf orindic ati
onswi t
ht heirlengthlyi
ngal ong
thes amea xi
sast hewe ld.Evaluatei nac cordanc ewiththerelevant
spec if
ic ation.
 Tol ookf ort ransve r
sewe l
dde fec t
s,turnmagne tapproxi
mat el
y90°
andr e- appl ytheink .
 I
nterpr ett he a r
e a. Look f or i ndi cat
ions wi t
h t heir length
perpe ndi culart ot he we lda xi
s.Ev aluatei na ccordance witht he
rel
ev ants pecifi
cation.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
 Magnet
icPr
oper
ti
es
Magnet
ism

Al
lmateri
alsconsistofat
omsa ndmol ecul
eswhi
chmayorma ynothave
aper
ma nentma gneti
cinf
luencedependi
ngontheel
ect
ron conf
igur
ati
on
wi
thi
nthema teri
al
Atomsinma gnet
icmater
ial
sg roupt oget
herinregionscalledma gnet
ic
doma i
ns,eachdomainhasi t
sownn ort
ha ndsou thpole.Wh enthese
doma i
nsa r
erandomlyposit
ioned ,t
h ema t
eri
alisu nmagn et
ized.I
fthe
doma i
nsa reali
gnedinac ommon dir
ecti
onthe nthema t
erialwi
llbe
ma gnet
izedandthema ter
iali
t sel
fwi l
lhaveitsownn orthan dSouth
Pole.

Posi
ti
onofdomai
nsinunmagnet
izedmat
eri
al Posi
ti
onofdomai
ns
i
nmagneti
zedmater
ial
Thedoma inscanbea li
gne dbybr ingingt hem wit
hina nexi
sti
ngma gne ti
c
fi
eld. Ifthedoma i
nsr ema i
na li
gne d,whe ntheya reremovedf rom t he
i
nfluenceoft hema gneti
cf i
eld,t
he nthema teri
ali
ss aidt
obepe r
ma ne ntl
y
ma gneti
zed.
Thepol esofmagne ti
zedmat er
ial
sha vea ninherentatt
ract
ion/repulsion
eff
e ct
.Iftwopiecesofma gneti
zedma t
e r
ialar
eplacedwiththeirdi
s si
mi l
ar
polesendt oe ndthereisa na t
tracti
on, butift
hepol esar
ea l
ikethent here
i
sr epul
s i
on,ther
efore:
l
ikepol
esr
epul
se,unl
i
k epol
esar
eat
tract

I
na ddi
ti
on,a barmagne tdoe s notne cessar
il
yha v
ej ustone nor th
and oneSout h Pole.Long ba rma gnet
sc ould haves ever
alnor tha nd
south poles.Whe nthisoccursthepole sares ai
dt oha vec onsequent
poles.Thi
sisi mportanttoknowbe causewhe nal ongpa r
tismagne t
ized
wit
hs ever
alc oilshot
s ,di
ff
erentpol
e sareestabl
isheda l
ong the a xi
s of
the bar.The i nspector mus tbea war
eoft histoe nsuretha tpossi
ble
Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
nonr
elevant i
ndi
cat
ions caused by t
hese pol
esar
e not i
ncor
rect
ly
i
denti
fi
ed.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Li
nesofforce
Faradayu sedthec onceptofli
nesoff
orcetoe x
p l
ainwhathappensin
thes paceb et
we entwoma gnet
s.Hesuggestedp r
opert
iesfor t
hese
l
ines off orce,whichhei magi
nedasspr
e adi
ngou tfr
om allmagnet
ic
polesint
ot hesurroundi
n gspace.

Mat
eri
alchar
act
eri
sti
cs
Thede gr
eet owhich ma t
eri
alsarecapabl
eofbe ing inf
luenced by a
magne t
icfi
eldvar
iesgreat
lyfr
om ma t
eri
altoma t
erial
,howe vert
heyfal
l
i
ntothreespeci
fi
cc at
egori
esde f
inedbythei
rbehaviourinthemagne t
ic
fi
eld.
Diamagnet
icMater
ial
Th esearev er
yh ighdegr
eer
epel
ledbyamagneticf
iel
dandi
ncl
ude
copp er
,al
u mini
um, t
it
ani
umandmostnon-
met
als.

Li
nesoff
orcef
oradi
amagnet
icmat
eri
al

Paramagnet
icmater
ial
s
Theseareveryweaklyat
tr
act
edbymagnet
icf
iel
dandi
ncl
udeoxy
g en
andmos tmetal
s.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
 Li
nesoff
orcef
orapar
amagnet
icmat
eri
al

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Fer
romagneticmater
ial
s
Thesearestr
ongl
ya t
tract
edbyama gnet
icf
ieldandincl
udeir
on,cobal
t,
ni
ckelandma nyofthei
ra l
loys.Theyal
soe xhibi
tper
manentmagnet
ism
andc anthemsel
vesbema gnet
ized.

Li
nesoff
orcef
oraf
err
omagnet
icmat
eri
al

Li
nesoff
orcearoundt
heMagnet
bar
Bya ssumi
ngtheli
neswer
eintensi
on,l
ikepiecesofstret
chedelast
ic,
hec oul
daccountf
ortheat
tr
act
ionofunlikepoles,si
ncetheli
nes of
for
ces t
ret
chfr
om onepol
etoanot
her.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
 Li
nesofFor
ce

But,thetensi
onoft hel i
nesoff or cemus tincr
easeastheys hor
ten,
si
ncet herepulsiforcebe t
we entwol i
kepolesincr
easesast hepol
es
approach.Wit
hlikepole s,t
heli
ne soff or
cea l
sotendtocur
veoutwards,
seeming tos ugge stthatt heyr epele ach ot
herFaraday usedthi
s
hypothesi
stoa ccountfortherepulsionofli
kepoles.

Thepr
oper
ti
esofmagnet
icl
i
nesoff
orcear
easf
oll
ows:
 Theyfor
m cl osedloopsbet weennor t
hands outhpol
es.
 Theyd on otc r
os son ea nother.
 Theys eekp athsofl eastma gneti
cres ist
a nce.
 Thei
rde nsityde cr
eases ,withinc r
easing distancefrom thepol
es.
i
.e.thenumbe roflinesoff orceinauni tareade cr
eases.
 Theya r
ec onsideredtoh avedirecti
on ,thatis,f
rom thenort
hpol
e
tosou t
hpol ee xter
na ltothema gn et
, andf rom thes out
hp ol
e
tothen orthp olewithinma gn et
.

Magnet
icFi
eldst
rengt
h(H)
Thema gneti
cfi
eldstr
engt
horma gnetizi
ngf or
cei sthatwhi
chi
s
neededtoinduceafluxinama gneti
cc ir
cuitandisme asur
edi
n
amperespermetr
e(A/
m)orinol
d(cgs)unit
st heoer
sted(
Oe )
.

Oneoer
sted=79.
58amper
espermet
re

Coerci
vefor
ce
Coerceme anstof or
cibl
yc ontr
ol,inthi
scont
extitrel
atestot he
rever
sema gnet
izi
ngforcene cessar
ytoremov
er emnantorresi
dual
ma gnet
ismfordemagneti
zat
ionofap ar
t.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Magnet
icHy
ster
esi
sCur
ve

Att hehe a r
tofunde rstandi ngma gnetism inma te r
ialsi sthema gne ti
c
hysteres i
sc ur ve.Fr om t hiss implec urveaL evelI
Ite chnicianc anc omet o
amor ec ompl e t
eunde r
s t
a ndingofwhyc ert
ainma gne ti
cpa rti
c l
et esting
proc esss tepsa reus ed.Someoft he sepr ocesss tepsa restrengthoft he
i
nduc ingma gne tism,t hea dv antageofc onti
nuousv e r
s usr esi
dua lfields
during a pplica ti
on ofpa r
ticlesa nd t he princi
ple ofdi ama gne ti
s m of
ma terial
s .
Themagnet ichy steresisc urveisal soc al
ledthehy steresisloop.Thes teps
ofitsdev elopmentar es hownbel ow.
I
nF i
g u r
e, theHl iner e pres ent
st hema gneti
zingf orc eindu cedi ntoa
ma terial.Th isf orcec ou ldb eama gneti
cf iel
dora ne lectr
ica lcu r
re nt.
Th eBl i
n ei st her e su l
tingma gne ticfluxd ensityt hati se st
a bli
sh edi n
thep art.Th eh ysteres i
sl oop s hows t her el
ation sh i
pb etwe ent he
ma g netizingf orcea p pli
eda n dt her e sulti
ngma gne ti
zingf ieldi nt he
part.
Not eingr apha tthe0poi ntoft het woi ntersecti
ngl i
nesi ndicatesno
ma gne ti
cf ieldint hema ter
ia l
.Asapos iti
vema gnetizi
ng f orcei sa pplied,
a ma gne ti
cf ieldisc r
e atedi nthe ma teri
al.As t he magne ti
z i
ng f orce
reache spoi ntA t hev i
rginc urvelinebe ginstogof lat
. Rega r
dles sofhow
muc h mor e ma gne ti
zingf or ceisa ppl
ied, t
he r
ewi llnotbea ni ncreas ein
the ma gne t
icf i
e l
d orf luxde nsityoft he ma teri
a l
.Thi sisc all
e dt he
saturationpoi nt.
I
ngr aphb,t hema gnet
izingforcebeginstode cr
ea se.Ther elat
ionshipof
l
inesH a nd B do notf oll
ow the vir
gincurve.Thisi sc aused byt he
material'
sabil
it
ytoretai
nmagne ti
sm andisc al
ledres i
dual magne ti
sm or
r
e mane nce.Atthepointt hatt
hema gnet
izi
ng forcer eaches 0,not i
ce
t
ha tt he ma gneti
cf iel
d s tr
ength intheba risnow a tpoint B.The
me asureme ntfr
om poi nt0 t oBi st heresi
dua lma gnetismi nthepa r
t
ands howst hema t
eri
al'
sr et
enti
vi
ty.

Graphcs howst hatt

oremoveresi
dualmagnet
ismtakesacert
ainamount
ofne gat
ive oroppos i
te magnet
izi
ng f
orce.Thi
sf orceisc al
l
e dthe
coerci
veforce.Theamountoffor
ceisshownfrom poi
nt0topoi
ntC
Graphd a stheneg at
iveorop posi
te magnetizi
ngf orcecontinuesthe
rat
io ofthema gnet
izi
ngf or
c eandma gne t
icfieldbeginstoa ga i
n
buil
d.Thiswil
lcon t
inueu nti
lthema gnet
izi
ngf or
cer eversesd i
rect
ion
ortherever
ses at
urati
onpoi nti
sreached.Th ema gn et
izi
ngf orcethen
goesi nt he opposited ir
ecti
ona sshowni ng raphe .Thema gneti
c
fi
eldstr
engthint heb aragainl agsbehi
ndt her educingma gneti
zing
for
cea ndtheresidualma gneti
cfiel
dstrengt
ha tEi se st
abli
s hedwith

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
thema gnet
izi
ngforceat0 .Themagnet
izi
ngforcebegi
nstoa gai
ngo
i
nt heposit
ivedir
ecti
ona sshowningraphfandthep ar
tproceedst
o
decreasei
tsma gnet
icfi
eldandbui
ldi
tintheopposi
tedi
rect
ion.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Hys t
eres i
sda t
af orunma gne t
izeds t
eel:(a)v
irgi
nc ur
veofahy st
eresi
s
l
oop; (b)hy st
eresisloops howingr esi
dua l
ma gneti
sm; (
c)hyst
eresi
sloop
showingc oerci
vef orce;
(d)hy ster
esisloopshowingreversesat
urati
on
point;(e)hyster
es i
sloops howingreverseresi
dualma gnet
ism;and(f)
compl etehy st
eresisloop

Legend
H-Negat
iveMagnet
icField
St
rengt
hBMagnet i
cFluxDensit
y
H+Pos i
ti
veMagneticFieldSt
rengt
h

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
A hy st
eres i
sl oopf orame talisde pendentont hema teri
al'
sa lloyor
chemi calc ompos it
ion,mi crostr
ucturea nd grains i
ze.Asnot e di nt he
magne ticf l
uxs ec t
ion,par tsma deofl owc arbonandhi ghc ar
bonc ontent
havedi f
ferenthy st
ere si
sl oopsa sc anbes ee ninfi
guregi venbe l
ow, Note
i
nFi guret hatahi ghc arbons t
eelpa r
twi l
lha veas tr
onge rresidua lfi
e l
d
thanal ow c ar bon s teelpa r
twhe ne achi sma gne t
izeda tt he s ame
ampe ragel evel.Ina ddi
tion,t hi
sgr aphs hows t hat the mat eri
als wi ll
requir
e di ffer
e nt amount s of c oerciv
ef orcet oremov et her es i
dual
magne tism.I nt hisc ase, t
hehi ghc arbons t
e elwit
hta keagr eatc oe rci
ve
force.Thiswi l
lha veadi re cta f
fectonthea bil
it
ytode ma gneti
zeapa rt.
Hy st
eresisloops :(
a)ha rde neds teelhyster
esisloop;and( b)anne al
e dlow
carbons teelhys teresisloop

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Per
meabi
li
ty(
µ)

Forma g net
icp a r
tic
leinspecti
o nth eonlyma t
e r
ial
sofi nter
esta rethos e
whicha r
ef erroma gnet
ic,wi t
hint hi
sg r
oup ,somema t
eri
a l
sa remor e
easil
yma gnetizedt hanot hers,thati
st os aymor ep er
me able,
Tope r
me at
eme anstos preadthrough. I
nthisc ont
e xti
tref
erst othee ase
by whi ch the ma gnetic li
ne s of f orce a re spread through t he
ma t
eri
alSof tirona ndlowc arbons teelHaveahi ghpe r
me abi
li
ty,.
i.e.
,they
aree asyt o,ma gne t
ize.Ha rdi r
on and high c arbon st
eelha veal ow
permeabili
ty,i
.e. t
he yarediff
icultt
oma gneti
ze .
Perme abil
i
ty( µ)ma ybec al
culatedbydi vidingthema gneti
cf orce( H)
appli
ed,intothef l
uxde ns i
ty(B)a chi
eved:

Thepermeabi
li
tyofama t
eri
alma ybegivenav aluebasedonaratio
whencomparedwithfreespace.Thesev
a l
uesvarydependi
ngon al
loy
composi
ti
on,heatt
reat
me ntandanyworki
nga ppl
i
e d.

Ret
ent
ivi
ty

Whe nama gneti

zingfor
c eremov edfrom af er
romagneti
cma t
eri
althe
amountofma gneti
smrema i
ningwillvar
ybe t
weenma ter
ial
sa nddepends
uponthepe rmeabil
it
yofthema ter
ial
.Therema i
ningmagnetismister
me d
resi
dualma gneti
sma ndthema ter
iali
ss ai
dtoha ver
etenti
vi
tyorretai
ned
ma gnet
ism
I
fama ter
ialhashi
ghp er
me abi
li
tyiti
sea si
lyma gnet
ized.Butitwil
ljust
aseasi
l
yg i
veu pthema gneti
cfo r
ce,theref
oreithasal owr etent
ivi
ty.
I
fama teri
alhaslowp ermeab i
l
ityiti sv er
yd i
ffi
culttoma gnet
ize,
t
hati st o s ayit h ash igh ma g net
icr el
uc t
an ce,b uto nce
magneti
zati
o nh asb eena chievedth enitd oesn otg i
veu pt he
magneti
cforceeasi
ly
,ther
eforeithashighretent
ivi
ty.

Hi
ghPer
meabi
l
ity=Lowr
etent
ivi
ty
Lowpermeabili
ty=Hi
g hretenti
vi
ty

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Magneti
cflux(Φ)andmagne ti
cfluxde nsi
ty(B)
Whenas peci
me nisma gneti
zed ,l
ineoff or
ceorf luxexist
swi t
hinthe
speci
me n.Thes tr
on germa gnetizi
ngf orcea ppli
ed t heg r
eaterthe
amountoff l
uxpr oduced.Th e ma g net
icforcea pp l
i
e db yusinga
per
ma nentma gnetore l
ectr
icalope r
a t
edma gneti
cflowa pparat
us,or
bypassi
nga nelectr
iccurr
entthrought hespe ci
me n.
Magneti
cfluxisme asur
e di
nWe bers(Wb ).

Thenu mberofl i
neso ffor
ce( orfl
u )p
x assi
ngtransver
sely
t
hroughag iv
e nc rosss ect
ionalar
eai sknown asthef lux
densi
ty(B)Fl
uxd e nsi
tyi
sme asuredbytesl
a(T).
.
1Wb/=1tesl
a(T)

Theo ld(cgs)uni
tf orf l
uxdensi
ty whi
chi
sst
il
lwi
del
y
encount
eredi
sthegauss.
1gauss=1l
i
n eoff
orce/.
10,
004(
10)gauss=1t
esl
a.

BS6 072-Magnet
icpart
icl
eflawd et
ecti
on,st
atest
hatMPIs hal
lonly
bec ar
ri
edoutt
hema gnet
icfluxdensit
ylevelatt
hes ur
faceofthe
testareai
se qualto,org r
eaterthan0 .
72T.Thislevelo f fl
ux
densit
yi sapproxi
ma t
elyo net hir
do ftherequi
redma gnet
ical
ly
satur
atemostst
eels.

Byc ont
inui
ngallt
heprevi
ousacti
onsintheopposi
tedirect
iona
comp l
eteloopwil
lbeformed.Wh enal
ter
nat
ingcurrentisused
forma gneti
zi
ngas peci
men,a c ompl
etehyster
esislo opis
producedw i
theachcycl
eo fcur
rent
,inUKthisis50t i
me sp er
second.
A ma t
erialwhiche xhi
bit
sah yster
esi
sl oop wit
h a wide
appear
an cewil
lh aveh i
ghretent
ivi
tyandt her
efor
ema yb e
usef
ulf orma kingp er
ma nentma gnet
s.A ma t
eri
alwh i
ch
exhi
bit
sah yst
eresisloop wi
than arr
owa ppear
ancewil
lhave
l
ow retenti
vi
tya ndt her
efor
e ma yb eu sefulforma ki
ng
magneticpani
cles.
Theg r
adientoftheloopa lsogivesi
nfor
ma t
ionregar
dingo nt
he
usef
ulnesso fma ter
iasf
l orusei n magneti
zi
nga pparat
us,for
making ma gnet
icp art
icl
eso rf or Magnet
izi
ng purposes.For
example,amateri
alwhichexhi
bit
sas t
eepgradi
entwil
latt
ainahi
gh

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
f
luxdensi
tywhenusi
ngal
owmagnet
izi
ngf
orce.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Descr
ipt
ionofMagnet
icFi
elds

Magneticfi
eldsareusedi nmagneticpar
ticl
einspectiontorevealdi
sconti
nui
ti
es.
Ferromagnet
ism ist hepropert
yofsomemet als,chiefl
yir
onandst eel
,toatt
ract
otherpieces off err
omagnetic materi
als.A hor seshoe magnetwi llatt
ract
magneticmat er
ial
st oitsends,orpol
es.Magnet i
cli
nesoff or
ce,orfl
ux,fl
owfrom
thesouthpol
et hrought hemagnettothenorthpole.

Magnet i
zedRi ng.Whenamagnet i
cmat eri
ali spl acedacrosst hepol esofa
horseshoemagnethav i
ngsquar eends, formingacl osedorringli
keassembl y,t
he
l
inesoff orcef l
owf r
om thenor thpol et hrought hemagnet icmat erialt
ot hesout h
pole( Fig.1a) .( Magneticlinesoff orce flow pr eferent
ial
l
yt hr ough magnet ic
mat erialratherthant hr
oughnonmagnet icmat erialorair.
)Themagnet i
cl i
nesof
forcewi llbeenclosedwi thi
nt heringli
keassembl ybecausenoext ernalpolesexist,
andi ronf il
ingsormagnet i
cpar t
iclesdust edov ertheassembl yar enotat t
ract
ed
tot hemagnetev enthought herear elinesofmagnet icfor
cef l
owi ngthroughi t
.A
ri
ngl i
kepar tmagnet i
zedi nthismanneri ssaidtocont ainacir
cularmagnet i
cf i
eld
thatiswhol lywit
hinthepart.

Met
hodsofGener
ati
ngMagnet
icFi
elds

Oneoft hebasi cr equirement sofmagnet icpar ticleinspectioni st hatt hepar t

under goinginspect i
onbepr operlymagnet izedsot hattheleakagef i
eldscreated
bydi scont i
nuit
ies wi llattr
actt hemagnet icpar t
icles.Per manentmagnet sser v
e
someusef ulpurposei nt hisrespect ,butmagnet izationisgener all
ypr oducedby
elect
r omagnet sort hemagnet i
cf iel
dassoci atedwi ththeflowofel ect
r i
ccurrent.
Basically,magnet izationi sder ivedf rom theci rcul armagnet icf i
eldgener ated
whenanel ectr
iccur rentflowst hroughaconduct or.Thedi rect i
onoft hisfi
eldis
dependentont hedi recti
onofcur rentf l
ow,whi chcanbedet ermi nedbyappl y i
ng
theright-handrule( seet hesect i
on" Descr i
pti
onofMagnet i
cFi elds"inthisarti
cle).
Gener alappl i
cations,adv antages,and l i
mitati
ons oft he var i
ous met hods of
magnet i
zingpar tsf ormagnet i
cpar ti
cleinspectionar esummar izedi nTable1.
Additionalinformat i
oncanbef oundi nthear ti
cle" Magnet icFi eldTest i
ng"int hi
s
Volume.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Table 1 Gener
al appl
icat
ions,advant
ages,and li
mitat
ions of t
he
var
iousmagneti
zingmet
hodsusedi nmagneti
cpart
icl
einspect
ion

Appl
icat
ion Adv
ant
ages Li
mit
ati
ons

Coi
ls(
singl
eormul
ti
plel
oop)

Medium-sizeparts Al l generall
y l ongit
udinalPar tshouldbecentered in
whose surf
aces are l ongi
tudinal
lycoilt o maxi mize length
l
ength predominates,magneti
zed to locat
eef fecti
vely magnetized
suchasacr ankshafttr
ansver
sedisconti
nui
ti
es. dur ingagi venshot.Length
orcamshaf t may di ctat
e addi ti
onal
shot s as coil i s
repositi
oned.

Large Longit
udinal fiel
d easi
lyMulti
pleprocessi
ngmaybe
casti
ngs,
for
gings,
or att
ained bywr apping with arequi
red because of par
t
shaft
s fl
exi
blecable. shape.

Miscel
l
aneous smalEasyandf ast,especi
all
y Lengt h-t
o- diamet er ( L/D)
l where
part
s resi
dual met hodisappli
cabl
e.ratio i s i mpor tant i n
Noncont actwi thpart
. det ermi ning adequacy of
Relati
vely
compl expar tscanusuall
ybe amper e-
tur ns;effect i
ve
ratio
processedwi thsameeaseascanbeal ter edbyut ili
zing
simplecr osssect i
on. pieces of si milar cr oss
-
sect ionalar ea. Sensi ti
vit
y
dimi nishesatendsofpar t
becauseofgener al l
eakage
fi
eldpat ter n.Quickbr eakof
cur rent i s desi r
abl e to
mi nimi zeendef f
ecton
shor t
par tswi thl owL/ Dr at i
os.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Yokes

Inspect
ion of l
argeNo electr
icalcontact.Highl
yTime consumi ng. Yoke
surface areas forport
able. Can mustbe
surface l
ocate discont
inui
ties i
n anysystemati
cal
lyrepositi
oned
discont
inui
ti
es di
recti
on,wi th proper yoketo l ocat
e disconti
nuiti
es
ori
entati
on withrandom or
ientat
ion.

Miscellaneous par t
sNo el ectricalcontact .GoodYoke must be pr oper l
y
requi
ring i nspecti
onsensiti
v i
ty to posi t
ioned r elat
ive t o
oflocalizedareas surf
acedi scont
inui
ties.Hi ghl
yorientati
onofdi scontinuity
.
port
able.Wetordr ymet hodRelativel
y good cont act
can be used. Al ternati
ngmust be est ablished
curr
enty okecan al soser vebet weenpar tandpol esof
as demagnet i
zer i n somey oke;compl ex partshape
cases. maycausedi ffi
culty.Poor
sensitivi
ty to subsur face
discont i
nui
ti
es except i n
isolatedareas

Cent
ralconduct
ors

Miscell
aneous shor tNoel ectri
calcont act
,sot hat Sizeofconduct ormustbe
parts hav i
ng hol espossi bi
lity of bur ning i sampl e to carry r equired
thr
ough whi ch ael i
mi nated. Ci r
cumf erenti
allycurrent.Ideal
ly
,conduct or
conductor can bedi rected magnet ic field i sshouldbecent rall
yl ocated
thr
eaded, such asgener ated i n al l surfaceswi thinhole.Large-
diamet er
beari
ng r i
ngs,holl
owsur r
oundi ng the conduct or.partsrequir
esev er
alset ups
cyl
inders,gears,l
argeIdealf orpar t
sf orwhi cht hewi th conductor near or
nuts,large clevi
ses,residualmet hodi sappl i
cable.againstinnersur face and
andpipecoupl i
ngs Li ghtwei ght par t
s can ber otati
on of par t between
suppor ted by theset ups. Wher e
cent r
al continuous
conduct or .Mult
ipleturnscanmet hodisbeingempl oy ed,
be used t o r educe t heinspect i
on i s r equired
amountof after

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
 cur
rentr
equi
red. eachset
up.

Long tubul
ar part
sNo el ectr
icalcontact.BothSensi ti
vityofoutersur
face
suchaspipe,t
ubing,i
nside( ID)and outside(OD)t o i ndicat
ions may be
holl
owshaft
s surf
aces can be i nspected.somewhat dimini
shed
Enti
re l ength of par t i srel
ati
v etoinnersurf
acef or
ci
rcularl
ymagnetized. l
arge-diameter and thick-
wallparts.

Lar
geval
vebodi
es Goodsensi
ti
vi
tytoi
nner- Sameas f orlong
andsi
mil
arpar
ts sur
facedi
scont
inui
ti
es tubul
arpar
ts,
above

Di
rectcont
act
,headshot

Sol
id,relat
ivelysmallFast ,easypr ocess.Compl etePossibil
i
tyofbur ni
ng part
par
ts(cast,forged,orci
r cularf i
eldsur roundsent i
reexist
s i f proper contact
machined) t hat cancur r
entpat h.Goodsensi ti
v i
tyconditi
ons ar e not met .
be inspected on at o sur face and near -
surf
aceLong par t
s shoul d be
hor
izontal wet-discont inuit
ies.Simpleaswel li
nspected i n secti
ons t o
methodunit as r elat i
vely compl ex partsfacil
i
tate bath appli
cation
can usual l
y be easi lywithout resorti
ng t o an
i
nspect ed wi th one ormor eexcessivel
y l ong current
shot s. shot.

Di
rectcont
act
,cl
ampsandcabl
es

Lar
ge cast i
ngs Large sur
face ar
eas can beHigh amper
age
andfor
gings i
nspectedinar el
ati
vel
yshortrequi
rements(8000-
20,
000
ti
me. A)dictat
e use ofspecial
dir
ectcur
rentpowerpack.

Long tubular par t

sEntirelengthcanbeci
rcul
arl
yEffecti
vefiel
di sli
mitedt o
suchast ubing,pipe,magnetizedbycont
act
ingendoutersur f
ace so pr ocess
andhol
l
owshaf ts -t
o-end. cannotbeusedt oinspect
inner surf
ace. Part ends
mustbeshapedt oper mi t
electr
ical contact and
mustbeabl et o
carry r equired cur rent
without
Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
 excessi
veheat
ing.

Longsoli
dpart
ssuchEnti
relengthcanbeci r
cularl
yVoltage
as bi
ll
ets,bar
s,andmagnet i
zedbycontacti
ngendr equir
ement si ncrease as
shaf
ts - to-
end. Amper agelengthi ncreases because
requi
rementsareindependentof gr eat
er impedance of
of l ength. No l oss ofcabl e and par t.Ends of
magnet i
sm atends partsmusthav eshapet hat
permits electri
calcont act
and mustbe capabl e of
carryi
ng r equired current
withoutexcessiv eheat
ing.

Pr
odcont
act
s

Welds, for cracks,Circular f i

eld can beOnl y smallar ea can be
i
nclusi
ons, openselectiv
ely directed to weldinspectedatonet ime.Arc
r
oots,ori nadequatearea by pr od pl acement.Inbur ncanr esultfrom poor
j
ointpenet
rati
on conjunct i
on wi t
h hal f
-wav econt
act.Sur f
ace mustbe
current and dr y powder ,dry when dry powder i s
provides excellentsensiti
v i
tybei
ng used.Pr od spacing
tosubsur f
acedi sconti
nuit
ies.mustbei naccordancewith
Prods, cabl es, and power magnetizi
ng-curr
entlevel
.
packs can be br ought to
i
nspect ionsit
e.

Large cast
ings orEntire surface area can beCov erageofl ar
gesurface
for
gings i
nspect edinsmal lincrement sareasr equi
resamul ti
pli
cit
y
usingnomi nalcurrentvalues.ofshot s,whichcanbev ery
Circularmagnet i
cf i
eldcanbet i
meconsumi ng.Arc burn
concent rat
edi nspecif
icareascan r esul
t f rom poor
l
ikely t
o containcont act
.Sur face mustbe
discontinui
ties.Prods,cables,dry when dr y powder is
and power packs can bebei ngused.
broughtt otheinspectionsite.

I
nducedcur
rent

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Ring-shapedparts, No el ect
rical contact. Al l
Lami natedcor eisrequi
r ed
forcircumferent
ial surfacesofpar taresubjectedthrough r i
ng t o enhance
discontinui
ti
es toat oroidalmagnet icfield.
magnet ic pat h. Type of
100% cov eragei sobtai
nedi nmagnet izi
ng cur r
entmust
si
ngl emagnet izati
on.Canbebe a compat i
ble wi th
automat ed magnet ic har dness or
softness of met al
inspected. Other
conduct or
senci rcl
ing f
ield
mustbeav oided.

Bal
l
s Noel ectri
calcont act
.Per mit
sFor small
-diamet
er bal l
s,
100% coverage f
oruse i
slimited toresidual
i
ndi cations ofdi scont i
nui
ti
esmethodofmagnet i
zat
ion.
i
nanydi r
ectionbyuseofa
three-step pr ocess wi th
reorientati
on ofbal lbetween
steps.Canbeaut omat ed

Di
sksandgear
s No el ectr
icalcontact.Good100%cov eragemayr equi
re
sensitivit
y at or near two-
steppr ocess.Typeof
peripher yorr i
m.Sensit
ivi
tyinmagnetizi
ng currentmust
variousar eascanbev ari
edbybe compat i
ble wi
th
selection of cor e or polemagnetic har dness or
piece.I nconjuncti
onwithhal
f-soft
ness of metal
wav ecur rentanddr ypowder,i
nspected.
prov i
des excel l
entsensit
ivi
ty
to di scontinui
ties l
yi
ng just
belowt hesurface

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Fig.1Schemat i
csofmagneti
cli
nesoffor
ce.(a)Horseshoemagnetwithabarof
magnet icmat er
ial pol
es,f
ormingaclosed,
ringl
ikeassembl
y,whichwi
ll
not
acrossat t
ractmagnetc (
i b)Ringl
ikemagnetassembl ywit
hanairgap,t
owhich
parti
cles.

magnet
icpar
ti
clesar
eat
tract
ed

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
I
foneendofthemagneti
snotsquareandanai
rgapexistsbet
weenthatendofthe
magnetandt
he mater
ial
,thepol
eswi
llst
il
lat
tract magneticmater
ial
s.
magnet
ic

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Magnet i
cpart
icl
eswil
lcl
ingtothepolesandbri
dgethegapbet weent
hem, as
showni nFi
g.1(b)
.Anyradial
cracki
naci r
cul
arl
ymagnet i
zedpiecewi
llcreatea
northandasout h
magnet i
cpol
eatt heedgesofacr ack.Magnet
icparticl
eswi l
lbe ttr
act edto
thepoles
creat
edbysuchacr ack,f
orminganindi
cati
onofthediscont
inui
tyint
hepi ece.

Thef i
eldssetupatcr acksorot herphy sicalormagnet i
cdiscont i
nuiti
esinthe
surf
acear ecal l
edleakagef i
elds.Thest rengthofal eakagefiel
ddet erminesthe
numberofmagnet ic part
icl
es t hatwi llgat hertof orm indicati
ons;st r
ong
i
ndicati
onsar efor
medatst r
ong f iel
ds,weaki ndi
cationsatweakf iel
ds.The
densit
yoft hemagnet icfiel
ddetermi nesitsstrengthandi spartl
ygov ernedbythe
shape,siz
e, andmat eri
alofthepar tbeinginspect ed.

Magnet
izedBar
:

Ast raightpieceofmagnet i
zedmat eri
al(barmagnet )hasapol eateachend.
Magnet icl
inesofforceflowthroughthebarfrom thesout hpoletothenorthpole.
Becauset hemagnet icli
nesoff orcewithint
hebarmagnetr unthelengt
hoft he
bar,i
tissaidtobel ongit
udinal
lymagnetizedortocont ainalongi
tudi
nalfi
eld.
I
fabarmagneti sbr okenintotwopi eces,aleakagef iel
dwi t
hnor t
handsout h
polesiscreatedbetweent hepieces,asshowninFi g.2(a).Thi
sfiel
dexist
sev enif
thefractur
e

Fig.2Leakagefi
eldsbetweentwopiecesofabrokenbarmagnet.(
a)Magnet
pi
eces apart.(
b)Magnetpi ecest
ogether(
whi
chwoul dsi
mulateaf l
aw)
.(c)
Leakagef
iel
datacr acki
nabarmagnet

sur
facesarebr
oughtt
oget
herFi
g.(
2b).I
fthemagnetiscr
ackedbutnotbr
oken
complet
elyi
ntwo,asomewhatsimil
arresul
toccur
s.Anort
handasouthpole
Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
for
m atopposit
eedgesoft hecr
ack,j
ustast hought
hebreakwerecomplet
eFig.
2(c).Thi
sfi
eld
att
ractst
heir
on thatout
li
nethecrack.Thest
rengt
h t hesepol
eswill
be
part
icl
es of

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
dif
fer
entf
rom t
hatoft
hefull
ybr
okenpi
ecesandwil
lbeaf
unct
ionoft
hedept
hof
thecr
ackandthewidt
hoftheai
rgapatt
hesurf
ace.

The dir
ection ofthe magnet
icfiel
din an elect
romagnetci
i s cont
roll
ed by
ci
rcui
tdirecti
onofthefl
owofmagnet i
zi
ngcur r
entthr
oughthethebema gnet
ized.
partt
omagnet i
cli
nesoffor
cearealwaysatr
ightangl
estotheThe of cur rent
di
rect
ion fl
ow.To

remembert hedirecti
ontakenbyt hemagneti
clinesoffor
cearoundaconduct or
,
considerthatt
heconduct orisgraspedwithther i
ghthandsot hatthethumb
pointsint
hedirectionofcurr
entfl
ow.Thefingersthenpoi
nti
nthedi r
ecti
ontaken
byt hemagneti
cl inesoff orceinthemagneticfiel
dsurr
oundi
ngt heconductor
.
Thisisknownast her i
ght
-handrule.

Ci
rcul
arMagnet
izat
ion:

El
ect
r i
ccur rentpassingthroughanyst raightconductorsuchasawi reorbar
cr
eatesaci r cul
armagneticfieldaroundtheconduct or.Whentheconductorof
el
ect
riccur r
enti saf err
omagnet icmaterial
,thepassageofcur r
entinducesa
magneticf i
eldint heconduct or aswel lasint hesur r
oundi
ngspace.A part
magnetizedi nt hi
smanneri ssai dt ohav eaci r
cularfi
eldortobeci r
cular
ly
magnetized,asshowni nFig.3(a).

Fi
g.3Magneti s showi
zedbar ngdi
rect
ionsofmagnet
icf
iel
d.(
a)Ci
rcul
ar.(
b)
Longi
tudi
nal

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Longi
tudi
nalMagnet
izat
ion:

Electri
ccurrentcanalsobeusedtocr eat
ealongit
udi nalmagneti
cfi
eldinmagnetic
material
s.Whenel ect
r i
ccurr
entispassedthroughacoi lofoneormor eturns,a
magnet i
cfiel
disestabli
shedlengt
hwiseorlongi
tudinally
,withi
nthecoil
,asshown
i
nFi g.3(b)
.Thenat ureanddirect
ionofthefi
eldaroundt heconductorthatf
orms
t
het urnsofthecoilpr
oducelongit
udinalmagneti
zation.

Ef
fectofFl
uxDi
rect
ion:

Tof orm ani ndi cation,t hemagnet icf i

eldmustappr oachadi scontinuityatan
angl egr eatenought ocauset hemagnet i
cl i
nesoff orcet oleav et hepar tand
return af ter br idging t he di scont i
nui t
y. For best r esults,an i ntersection
appr oachi ng90°i sdesi rable.Fort hisreason, t
hedi rect i
on, si
ze, andshapeoft he
discont i
nui tyar ei mpor tant.Thedi rectionoft hemagnet icf i
eldi salsoi mpor tant
foropt imum r esul t
s, asist hest r
engt hoft hefieldi nt hear eaoft hediscont inuity.
Figur e4( a)i ll
ust ratesacondi ti
oni nwhi cht hecur r
enti spassedt hrought hepar t
,
causi ng t he f ormat ion ofa ci rcularf ield ar ound t he par t.Undernor mal
circumst ances,adi scontinui
tysuchasAi nFi g.4( a)woul dgi venoi ndicationof
i
tspr esence,becausei tisregulari nshapeandl iespar alleltot hemagnet icfi
el d.
Ift hedi scont inuityhasani r
regularshapebuti spr edomi nant lypar all
elt ot he
magnet icf ield,suchasB,t hereisagoodpossi bili
tyt hataweaki ndicat i
onwoul d
form.Wher et hepr edomi nantdirectionoft hedi scont inuityi sata45°angl etot he
magnet icf ield,such as C,D,and E,t he condi tions ar e mor ef av orablef or
det ecti
onr egar dlessoft heshapeoft hedi scont i
nui ty.Di scont i
nui ti
eswhose
predomi nantdi rections,regardlessofshape,ar eata90°angl et othemagnet ic
fi
el dproducet hemostpr onouncedi ndicat ions( F,G, andH, Fig.4a).

Fi
g.4Effectofdi
rect
ionofmagnet i
cfiel
dorfl
uxfl
owont hedet
ectabi
li
tyof
di
scont
inuit
ieswit
hvariousor
ientat
ions.(
a)Ci
rcul
armagneti
zat
ion.(
b)Longit
udi
nal
magnet
izati
on.Seetextfordi
scussi
on.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Alongit
udinal
lymagnetizedbarisshowninFig.4(b)
.Discont
inui
tiesL,M,andN,
whichareatabout45°tot hemagneti
cfi
eld,wouldpr
oducedetectableindi
cati
ons
as they would wi
th a ci r
cul
arfi
eld.Disconti
nui
ti
es J and K woul d di
spl
ay
pr
onounced i ndicat
ions, and weak i ndi
cati
ons would be pr oduced at
di
sconti
nuiti
esP,Q,andR.

Magnet
izat
ionMet
hods:

In magneticpar
ti
clei
nspect
ion,themagnet i
cpart
iclescanbeappliedt
ot hepart
whil
e t he magneti
zi
ng currentisf l
owing oraf t
ert he cur
renthas ceased,
dependi
nglargel
yon theretenti
vit
yoft hepart
.Thef ir
sttechni
queisknownas
thecont
inuousmethod;t
hesecond, t
heresidual
met hod.

Ift
hemagnet i
sm remaininginthepartaft
erthecurrenthasbeent ur
nedof ffora
peri
odoft i
me( r
esi
dualmagnet i
sm)doesnotpr ovideal eakagef i
eldst r
ong
enought oproducer eadableindi
cati
onswhenmagnet icpart
icl
esar eappl iedto
thesurface,thepartmustbecont i
nuouslymagneti
zeddur i
ngappl i
cationoft he
part
icl
es.Consequent l
y,t
her esi
dualmethodcanbeusedonl yonmat erialshav i
ng
suff
ici
entretenti
vi
ty;usuall
ytheharderthemateri
al,
thehighertheretentivi
ty.The
conti
nuousmet hodcanbeusedf ormostparts.

Magnet
izi
ngCur
rent

Bot
hdirectcurr
ent(dc)andalternati
ngcurrent(ac)aresuitablef
ormagnetizi
ng
par
tsformagneticparti
clei
nspection.Thestrengt
h,direct
ion,anddi
str
ibut
ionof
magneti
cfiel
dsaregreatl
yaff
ectedbyt hety
peofcur rentusedformagneti
zati
on.

Thef i
eldsproducedbydi rectandal t
ernati
ngcur r
entdiff
erinmanyr espect
s.The
i
mpor tantdiff
erencewithr egar
dt omagnet icpart
iclei
nspecti
onisthatthe fi
elds
producedbydi rectcurr
entgener al
lypenetratethecrosssecti
onoft hepart
,whi l
e
thef i
eldsproducedbyal ternat
ingcurrentareconfinedtothemetalatorneart he
sur f
ace of t he part,a phenomenon known as t he skin ef
fect.Theref
or e,
alternating current should not be used i n searchi
ng for subsurface
discont i
nuit
ies.

Di
rectCur
rent
:

Thebestsour ceofdirectcurrentist herectifi

cati
onofal ternati
ngcur r
ent.Boththe
single
-phase Fi g.(5a)and t hree-phase t y
pes ofal ter
nating current( Fi
g.5b)ar e
furnishedcommer ci
all
y.Byusi ngr ectifi
ers,thereversingal t
ernati
ngcur r
entcan
beconv ertedi
ntounidir
ectionalcurrent,andwhent hree-phaseal t
ernat
ingcurrent
i
sr ecti
fiedinthismanner( Fig.5c) ,thedel iv
ereddi r
ectcur rentisent i
rel
yt he
equi val
entofstrai
ghtdirectcurrentf orpur posesofmagnet icparti
cleinspect
ion.
Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Theonlydi
ffer
encebetweenr
ectif
iedt hree-phasealt
ernati
ngcur
rentandst
rai
ght
di
rectcur
rentisasli
ghtri
ppl
ei nthev alueoftherect
ifi
edcurr
ent,amount
ingto
onl
yabout3%oft hemaximum currentv alue.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Fi
g.5Al ternati
ngcurr
entwaveforms.(a)Single-
phase.(b)Thr
ee-
phase.(c)
Three-
phaserecti
fied.(
d)Hal
f-
waver
ect
ifi
edsingl
e-phase.(
e)Full
-wav
erect
if
iedsi
ngle-
phase

Whensingl
e-phaseal
ter
nati
ngcur
rentispassedthr
ougha r
ect
if
ier
,cur
rentis
si
mplepermitt
edtofl
owi nonedi
rect
iononly.Ther
ever fcy
sehal cl
eiscompletel
y
ofeach

blockedoutFi g.(5d).Ther esultisunidi

rect i
onalcurrent(
calledhal f
-wav ecur r
ent )
thatpulsates;thati
s, i
trisesf r
om zerotoamaxi mum andt hendr opsbackt oz ero.
Dur i
ngthebl ocked-outr everseoft hecy cle,nocur rentf
lows,t hent hehalf-cy cle
forwardpul sei srepeat ed,atar ateof60pul sespersecond.A r ectif
ierf or
alter
natingcur r
entcanal sobeconnect edsot hatt hereversehal foft hecy cl
ei s
turnedar oundandf edint othecircuit
fl
owi ngi nthesamedi rectionast hefirsthalfoft hecy cleFig.( 5e).Thi s
produces
pulsati
ngdi rectcurrent,butwi thnoi nt
er valbetweent hepul ses.Suchcur renti s

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
ref
err
ed toassingl
e-phasef
ull
-wav
edi
rectcur
rentorf
ull
-wav
erect
if
iedsi
ngl
e-
phaseal
ter
nat
ingcur
rent.

Ther eisa sl
ightski
n eff
ectfr
om thepulsat
ionsofthecurrent,buti
ti snot
pronounced
enoughtohaveaser i
ousimpactont hepenet
rati
onsofthefiel
d.Thepulsati
on
ofthe
currenti
susef
ul i
timpar
tssomesli
ghtvi
brat
iont
othe magneti
cparti
cl
es,
because

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
assi
stingthem inarrangi
ngthemselvest
of or
mi ndi
cati
ons.Half-wavecurrent
,
usedinmagnet i
zati
onwi t
hprodsanddrymagneti
cpart
icl
es,provi
desthehighest
sensi
tivi
tyfordi
sconti
nuit
iesthatar
ewholl
ybelowthesurface,suchasthosei n
casti
ngsandwel dments.

Magnetizat
ionempl oy ingsur gesofdir
ectcurrentcanbeusedt oincreaset he
str
ength ofmagnet icf i
elds;forexample,a rect i
fiercapabl
e ofcont i
nuousl y
deli
ver
ing400- Acurrentcanputoutmuchmor et han400A f orshor
tintervals.
Theref
ore,iti
spossi ble,by sui t
abl
ecurrent
-cont rolandswitchi
ngdev ices,to
passav eryhighcurrentf orashor tper
iod(l
esst hanasecond)andt henr educe
thecurr
ent,wi
t houti
nt err
uptingit
,toamuchlowerv alue.

Alt
ernati
ng curr
ent,whi ch must be si ngl
e-phase when used directl
yf or
magnetizi
ngpurposes,istakenfrom commer ci
alpowerl i
nesandusuallyhasa
fr
equencyof50or60Hz.Whenusedf ormagnetizi
ng,t
hel i
nevolt
agei
sst epped
down,bymeansoft ransf
ormers,tot helow volt
agesr equi
red.Atthesel ow
vol
tages,magneti
zi
ngcur r
entsofseveralt
housandamper esareoft
enused.

Onepr oblem encounter

edwhenal t
ernati
ngcur
rentisusedi sthatt
her esul
tant
residualmagnet ism inthepartmaynotbeatal evelashi ghast hatoft he
magnet i
sm gener at
edbyt hepeakcurrentoft
heaccy cle.Thisisbecauset he
l
ev elofr esi
dualmagnet i
sm dependsonwher eint hecy cl
et hecurrentwas
discontinued.

Yokes

Ther earetwobasictypesofyokesthatarecommonlyusedformagnet
izi
ng
purposes:per
manent-
magnetandelect
romagnet
icy
okes.Bot
har
ehandheldand
therefor
equit
emobil
e.

Permanent
-magnetyokesareusedforappl
i
cati
onswhereasour ceofel
ect
ri
c
powerisnotav ai
l
ableorwherearci
ngisnotpermissi
ble(asi
nanexplosi
ve
atmospher
e).Thel
imi
tati
onsofper
manent
-magnety
okesincl
udet
hefol
lowi
ng:

 Largear easormassescannotbemagnet izedwithenoughst rengt

hto
producesat isf
actor
ycr
ackindicat
ions
 Fluxdensi t
ycannotbevari
edatwi l
l
 Ifthemagneti sv er
yst
rong,i
tmaybedi ff
icul
ttoseparatefrom apart
 Par t
icl
esmaycl i
ngtot
hemagnet ,possi
blyobscuri
ngindicati
ons

Elect
romagnet
icy
okesFig.(6)consi
stofacoilwoundaroundaU- shapedcoreof
softi
ron.Thel
egsofthey okecanbeeitherfi
xedoradj ust
able.Adj
ustabl
elegs
permitchangi
ng t
he contactspacing and the r
elat
ive angle ofcontactto
Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
accommodat
e

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
i
rregul
arl
y-
shapedparts.Unlikeaper manent
-magnetyoke,anelect
romagnet
ic
yokecanreadil
ybeswi t
chedonorof f
.Thi
sfeat
uremakesitconv
enientt
oapply
andremov et
hey okef
rom thetest
piece.

Fig.6Elect
romagneticy
okeshowi ngpositi
onandmagnet icfiel
dforthedetect
ion
of
disconti
nui
ti
esparall
elt
oawel dbead.Di sconti
nuiti
esacrossawel dbeadcanbe
detectedbyplaci
ngthecontactsurfacesofthey okenexttoandonei thersi
deof
thebead( r
otat
ingyokeabout90°from posit
ionshownher e).

Thedesi gnofanel ectr

o agnet i
cy okecanbebasedont heuseofei t
her
dir
ector
alt
ernati
ngcur rentorbot h.Thef l
uxdensi tyofthemagneti
cf i
eldproducedbyt he
dir
ect
curr
entty pecanbechangedbyv ary
ingt heamountofcurrentint hecoil
.Thedirect
curr
entt ypeofy okehasgr eaterpenet rati
onwhil
et healter
nat i
ngcurrent type
concentratest hemagnet i
cf i
eldatt hesur faceofthetestpiece,provi
dinggood
sensit
ivi
tyf orthedi sclosureofsurfacedi sconti
nui
ti
esoverar elati
vel
ybroadar ea.
Ingeneral,di scontinuit
iestobedi sclosedshoul dbecentrall
ylocatedint hearea
betweenpol epieces
andor i
ented perpendicular
Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
toanimaginaryl
ine Fi
g.(
6).Ext
raneous
connect
ingthem

l
eakagefi
eldsi
ntheimmediat
evi
cini
tyoft
hepol
escauseanexcessi
ve
bui
ldupofmagneti
cpar
ti
cles.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Inoperation,thepartcompletesthemagnet i
cpathf ortheflowofmagnet icflux.
They okei sasour ceofmagnet i
cfl
ux,andthepartbecomest hepreferent
ialpat h
completingt hemagnet i
cci
rcuitbet
weent hepoles.(InFig.6,onlythosepor t
ions
ofthefluxl i
nes nearthepolesareshown.)Yokest hatuseal t
ernat
ingcurrentf or
magnetizat i
on hav e numer ous appl
icati
ons and can al so be used f or
demagnet izati
on.

Coi
ls

Single-l
oopandmul ti
ple-loopcoi l
s( conductors)areusedf ort helongitudi
nal
magnet izati
onofcomponent s(Fig.3band4b) .Thef i
eldwi thi
nt hecoilhasa
definit
edi r
ecti
on,correspondingt othedi r
ecti
onoft hel inesoff or
cer unning
throughi t
.Thefluxdensitypassi ngthroughthei nter
iorofthecoi lisproporti
onal
tot heproductoft hecurrent,I
, i
namper es,andt henumberoft urnsinthecoi l
,N.
Ther ef
ore,themagnet i
zingf orceofsuchacoi lcanbev ari
edbychangi ngei t
her
thecur rentort henumberoft urnsi nthecoi l.Forlargepar t
s,acoi lcanbe
producedbywi ndi
ngsev eraltur
nsofaf lexi
ble cablear oundt hepar t
,butcar e
mustbet akentoensuret hatnoindicati
onsareconceal edbeneat ht hecabl
e.

Por t
ablemagneti
zingcoilsareav ai
labl
et hatcanbepl uggedint
oanel ectr
ical
outlet.Thesecoil
scanbeusedf orthein-pl
aceinspectionofshaft
li
kepar tsin
rail
roadshops,ai
rcraf
tmaintenanceshops,andshopsf orautomobil
e,truck,and
tractorrepai
r.Tr
ansv er
secracksinspindlesandshaf t
sar eeasil
ydetectedwi t
h
suchcoi l
s.

Mostcoi lsused formagnet izi

ng ar eshort,especi al l
yt hosewound on f i
xed
frames.Ther el
ati
onshipoft hel engthofthepar tbeingi nspectedt othewi dthof
thecoilmustbeconsi dered.Forasi mplepar t,theef fecti
veov eralldi
stancethat
canbei nspectedis150t o230mm ( 6to9i n.)onei thersideoft hecoil.Thus,a
part305t o460mm ( 12to18i n.)longcanbei nspect edusi nganor malcoil
approxi
mat ely25mm ( 1in.)thick.Intesti
ngl ongerpar t
s,eitherthepartmustbe
mov edatr egul
arint
erval
st hrought hecoilort hecoi lmustbemov edal ongthe
part.

The ease wi t
h whi ch a par tcan be l ongi
tudinall
y magnet ized in a coilis
signifi
cantl
yrelatedtot helength-t
o-diamet L/
er( D)r at
iooft hepar t
.Thisisduet o
thedemagnet i
zingef f
ectofthemagnet icpolessetupatt heendsoft hepart.Thi
s
demagnet izi
ngef fectisconsiderableforL/ Drati
osofl essthan10t o1andi sv er
y
signifi
cantforr atiosofl ess t han3t o 1.Wher et he L/ Dr ati
oi sextremely
unfav or
able,polepi ecesofsi mi l
arcr oss-sectionalar eacanbei ntr
oducedt o
i
ncr easethelengt hofthepar tandt husimpr ovethe L/ Dratio.Themagnet izati
on
ofrings,disks,andot herpar t
swi thlow L/ Drati
osi sdiscussedandi ll
ust
ratedin
thesect i
on"InducedCur r
ent"i
nt hi
sar ti
cle.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Thenumberofamper
e-t
urnsr
equi
redtopr
oducesuf
fici
entmagnet
izi
ng
for
cetomagneti
zeapar
tadequat
elyf
ori
nspect
ioni
sgivenby:

NI=45, L/
000( D) (
1)

wher eN i sthenumberoft ur
nsi
nt hecoi,Ii
l sthecur rentinamper es,and L/
D
i
st he
l
engt h-t
o-diameterr
ati
oofhepart.Whent hepartismagnet i
zedatthislevelby
placingit
ont hebot t
om oftheroundmagneti
zingcoil
,adj
acentt othecoil
winding,thefl
ux
2 2
densi t
ywi l
lbeabout110li
nes/mm ( 70,
000li
nes/in.).Experi
mentalwor khas
shownt hatafl
ux
densi t
yof110l i
nes/mm2 ismorethansatisf
actoryformost appl i
cationsofcoi
l

magnet
izat
ionandthat54li mm2 (
nes/ 35,
000l
i
nes/
i 2
n.)i
saccept
abl
eforal
lbut
t
hemostcriti
cal
appl
icat
ions.

Whenitisdesi
rabl
etomagnet
izet
hepar
tbycent
eri
ngi
tint
hecoi
l
,Equat
ion1
becomes:

(
2)

whererist her adiusoft hecoi

lininchesand eff=( 6L/D)-5.Equat
ion2i s
appli
cabl
etopar t
st hatar
ecenteredinthecoil(
coincidentwit
hthecoi
laxis)and
thathavecr osssect i
onsconsti
tuti
ng alow fil
lf actor
,thatis,wi
th acr oss-
secti
onalar
eal esst han10%oftheareaencir
cledbyt hecoil
.

Whenusi ngacoi lformagneti

zi
ngabar -
li
kepart
,str
ongpol ari
tyatt
heendsoft he
partcouldmaskt ransver
sedefects.Anadv ant
ageousfiel
di nthi
sareaisassured
onf ul
lwav e,threephase,dir
ectcurrentunit
sbyspecialci
rcuit
ryknownas" qui
ck"
or"fast"break.A
"control
led"break onalt
ernati
ngcur r
ent
,hal
fwav e, onsi ngle-
phasef ul
l
feature and

wav
edi
rectcur
rentuni
tspr
ovi
desasi
mil
aradv
ant
ageousf
iel
d.

Cent
ralConduct
ors

Formanytubul
arorri
ng-
shapedpart
s,iti
sadv ant
ageoust
ouseasepar at
e
conduct
ort
ocarryt
hemagnetiz
ingcurr
entrat
herthanthepar
tit
sel
f.Sucha

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
conduct
or,commonl yr
eferr
edtoasacentralconduct
or,i
sthreadedthr
oughthe
i
nsideoft hepartFig.(
7)andis aconv
enientmeansofci r
cularl
ymagneti
zi
nga
partwithoutt he need formaki
ng di
rectcontacttot he partit
self
.Central
conduct
ors are made ofsol i
d and t
ubularnonmagnet i
c and fer
romagneti
c
materi
alsthataregoodconduct
orsofel
ectr
ici
ty.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Fi
g.7Useofcent r
alconduct
orsforthecir
cularmagnet i
zati
onoflong,hol
l
ow
cyl
i
ndr
icalpar
ts(a)and shor
t,holl
ow cyl
i
ndricalorr i
ngli
kepart
s( b)forthe
det
ect
ionofdi
scont
inui
ti
esoninsi
deandoutsi
desurfaces

Thebasicrul
es magnet
icf
iel
dsar
oundaci
rcul
arconduct
orcar
ryi
ngdi
rect
regardi
ngcur
rentar
eas
foll
ows:

 Themagnet i
cfiel
doutsi
deaconduct orofuni
form crosssecti
onisunif
orm
al
ongt hel
engthoftheconductor
 Themagnet i
cfiel
dis90°tothepathofthecurrentthroughtheconduct
or
 Thefluxdensi
tyoutsi
detheconductorvari
esinversel
ywi t
htheradi
al
di
stancefrom t
hecenteroft
heconduct or

Sol
idNonmagnet
icConduct
orCar
ryi
ngDi
rectCur
rent
:

Thedistri
buti
onofthemagnet i
cfiel
dinsideanonmagnet
icconductor
,suchasa
copperbar,whencarr
yingdi
rectcurr
entisdif
fer
entfr
om thedi
stri
buti
onexter
nal
tothebar.Atanypointinsi
det hebar,thefl
uxdensi
tyistheresul
tofonlythat

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
port
ionofthecur
rent t
hatisfl
owinginthemetalbet
weent hepointandt
he
cent
erofthebar
.Theref
ore,t
he f
luxdensi
tyi
ncr
easesl
inear
ly,f
rom zer
oatt
he
cent
eroft
hebartoamaximum val
ueat

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
thesurf
ace.Out sidethebar,t
hef l
uxdensi t
ydecr easesal ongacurve,
asshown
i
nFig.
8(a)
.Incalcul
atingfl
uxdensit
iesoutsi
dethebar ,
thecur r
entcanbeconsideredto
be
concentr
atedatt hecenterofthebar .I
ft her adiusoft hebarisRandt hef l
ux
densi
ty,B,att hesurfaceofthebarisequalt othemagnet izi
ngfor
ce,H,thenthe
fl
uxdensityatadi ance2Rf
st rom thecenteroft hebarwi llbeH/2;at3R,H/3;and
soon.

Fig.8Fluxdensi
tyinandar oundsoli
dconductor
soft hesamediameter.(
a)
Nonmagnet i
cconduct or( =1. 0)
carryi
ngdirectcurrent.(b)Ferr
omagneticconductor( >1.0)
carryi
ng dir
ectcur rent.(c)Ferromagnet
icconductor carr
yingalt
ernat
ing
( >1.
0)
current
.Seetextfordiscussi
on.

Sol
idFer
romagnet
icConduct
orCar
ryi
ngDi
rectCur
rent
:

Ift
heconduct
or di
rectcur
renti
sasol
i
dbarofst
eel ot
herf
err
omagnet
ic
carr
ying or

mat eri
al,t
hesamedi str
ibut
ionofmagnet i
cf ieldexistsasi nasimilar
nonmagnet ic
conductor,butt
hef l
uxdensit
yismuchgreater.Figure8(b)showsaconductorof
thesamedi ameterasthatshowni
nFig.8(a).Thef l
uxdensityatt
hecenteris
zero,butatthe
surface itis H, ist
hemat eri
al
wher e permeabil
i
tyof
the
Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
 magneti
cmat er
ial.
(Permeabili
tyi
stheeasewi t
hwhichamat erialaccept
smagnet
ism.)Theact ualfl
ux
density,t
heref
ore,maybemanyt imest hatinanonmagnet i
cbar.Justoutsi
det he
surface,however,t
hefluxdensi
tydropst oexact l
ythesamevalueast hatforthe
nonmagnet i
cconductor,andthedecreasei nfl
uxdensi t
ywi
thi
ncreasingdistance
fol
lowst hesamecur v
e.

Sol
idFer
romagnet
icConduct
orCar
ryi
ngAl
ter
nat
ingCur
rent
:

Thedi
str
ibut
i he magnet
onoft icf
iel
dinasol
i
dfer
romagnet
ic conduct
orcar
ryi
ng

al
ter
nati
ngcurr
enti
sshowninFig.8(
c).Outsi
detheconduct
or,t
hef
luxdensi
ty
decr
easesal
ongthesamecurv
easi fdir
ectcurr
entpr
oducedthemagnet
izi
ngfor
ce;
however
,whi
le

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
theal ternat
ingcurrentisfl
owing,thefi
eldisconstantlyvar
yinginst
rengthand
direct i
on.
Insidet heconduct or
,thef l
uxdensi t
yi szeroatt hecent erandincreases
towar dthe
out sidesurface--
slowlyatfi
rst
,thenaccelerat
ingtoahi ghmaxi mum atthe
sur face.Thef l
uxdensityatthesurfaceisproport
ional t
othepermeabili
tyofthe
conduct ormateri
al.

Cent
ralConduct
orEncl
osedWi
thi
nHol
lowFer
romagnet
icCy
li
nder
:

Whenacent ralconductori susedt omagnet i

zeahol l
ow cy l
indri
calpart
madeofa
fer
romagnet icmat er
ial,t
hef l
uxdensityismaxi mum att heinsidesur f
aceoft he
part(Fig.9).Thefluxdensityproducedbyt hecur rentinthecent r
alconductoris
maximum att hesurfaceoft heconductor(H,i
nFi g.9)andt hendecr easesalong
thesamecur v e outsidetheconduct or,asshowni nFig.8,throught hespace
between theconduct orand t hei nsidesurfaceoft hepar t
.Att hi
ssur f
ace,
howev er,t
hef l
uxdensityisimmedi at
ely
i
ncreasedbyt hepermeabili
tyfactor, ,oft hemat eri
aloft hepar tandt hen
decreasest ot heoutersurface.Heret hefluxdensi t
yagaindr opst ot hesame
decreasingcurv ei
twasf oll
owinginsi
det hepart.

Fi
g.9Fluxdensit
yinandaroundahol
l
owcy l
indermadeofmagnet
icmat
eri
alwi
th
di
rectcur
rentf
lowingt
hroughanonmagnet
iccentr
alconduct
or

Thi
smet
hod,t
hen,pr
oducesmaxi
mum f
luxdensi
tyatt
hei
nsi
desur
faceand
Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
theref
oregiv
esstrongindi
cati
onsofdi
sconti
nui
tiesonthatsur
face.Sometimes
theseindi
cati
onsmayev enappearontheoutsidesurf
aceofthepar t
.Thef l
ux
densit
yinthewalloft
hecyli
ndri
cal
par
tisthesamewhetherthecentr
alconduct
or
i
sofmagnet icornonmagneti
c

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
mater
ial
,becausei
tist
hefi
eldext
ernal
tot
heconduct
ort
hatconst
it
utest
he
magneti
zi
ngf or
cefort
hepar
t.

Ift
heaxi sofacent ralconductorispl
acedalongtheaxisofaholl
owcy l
i
ndricalpar
t,
the
magnet icfi
eldinthepar twil
lbeconcentri
cwithit
scy l
i
ndri
calwal
l.However,ift
he
centralconductorisplacednearonepoi ntontheinsi
decircumf
erenceofthepart,
thefluxdensi t
yoft hefiel
dint hecyli
ndri
calwallwillbemuchst r
ongeratt hi
s
pointandwi l
lbeweakeratt hediametr
ical
lyopposit
epoint.

I
nsmal lhollowcylinders,i
tisdesi
rablethattheconduct orbecentral
l
yplacedso
thatauni formf i
eldf orthedetect
ionofdi sconti
nui
ti
eswi l
lexi
statallpoi
ntson
thecylindri
calsurface.I n lar
ger-
diametert ubes, r
ings,orpr essure vessel
s,
howev er,t he current
necessar yinthecent r
all
yplacedconductortoproducefieldsofadequatest
rengt
h
for
properinspectionov ertheenti
reci
rcumferencebecomesexcessi vel
ylarge.

Anof fsetcentralconduct orshouldt henbeusedFi g.(10).Whent heconduct or

passingthrought heinsideoft hepar ti
spl acedagai nstani nsidewallofthepar t
,
thecurrentlevel
sgi v
enint hesect i
on" Magnit udeofAppl iedCur r
ent
"inthisart
icle
applyexceptt hatthediamet erwi l
lbeconsi der edt hesum oft hedi
amet erofthe
centr
alconduct orand t wice t hewal lthickness.Thedi stancealongt hepar t
cir
cumf erence(inter
iororexterior)thati
sef f ectiv
elymagnet i
zedwi l
lbet akenas
fourtimest hedi ameteroft hecent ralconduct or,asi ll
ust r
atedinFig.10.The
enti
reci r
cumf erencewi llbei nspectedbyr otatingt hepar tont heconduct or,
all
owingf orapproximatelya10%magnet i
cf ieldov erl
ap.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Fi
g.10Schemati
cshowingthatt
heef
fect
iver
egi
onofi
nspecti
onwhenusingan
of
fsetcent
ral
conduct
orisequal
tof
ourti
mesthedi
ameteroftheconduct
or

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
 conduct
ori
snotr
elat
edt
othe di
amet
erort
hewal
l
Thediamet
erofa i
nside
cent
ral

thi
cknessofthecyli
ndri
calpart
.Conductorsizei
susuallybasedoni t
scur r
ent-
carr
yingcapaci
tyandeaseofhandling.Insomeappl i
cat
ions,conduct
orslarger
than thatrequi
red f
orcur r
ent-
car
rying capaci
ty can be used tof aci
li
tate
centr
ali
zingt
heconductorwi
thi
nt hepart.

Residualmagneti
zati
oni susuall
yemployedwhenev erpr
acti
cablebecauset he
backgroundismi ni
mizedandcont r
astisther
eforeenhanced.Also, resi
dual
magnet i
zat
ioni
sfasterandlesscri
ti
calt
hancont
inuousmagnetizat
ion.

Thecent r
al-conductortypeofinspecti
onissomet i
mesr equir
edoncomponent s
hav ingparallelmulti
pleopenings,suchasengineblocks.Thecy l
inderscanbe
processedwi tha
singl ecent
ral conductorinthenormal manner.However,amul ti
plecentr
al-
conduct or
fi
xt urecanbedesi gnedthatenablestheoperatort
opr ocesstwoormor eadjacent
cylinders atone t ime wit
ht he same degree ofsensi t
ivi
tyas i fprocessed
i
ndi vidual
ly.Infact,intheareasbetweenthecent r
alconductors,thecir
cularfi
elds
reinforceoneanot hertoenhancesensiti
vi
ty.

Di
rect
-Cont
actMet
hod

Forsmal
lpar
tshav
ing openi
ngst
hrought
hei
nter
ior
, magnet
icf
iel
dsar
e
no ci
rcul
ar

producedbydi r
ectcont
acttothepart
.Thisi
sdonebyclampingthepartsbetween
contactheads(headshot)
,general
l
yonabenchunitFig.(
11)thati
ncorporat
esthe
sourceofthe
current
.Asimi l
aruni
tcanbeusedt osuppl
ythemagneting cur
zi rentt
oacent r
al
conductorFig.(7)
.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Fig.11Benchunitforthecircul
armagneti
zat
ionofworkpi
ecesthatarecl
amped
betweencontactheads( di
rect-
cont
act
,head-
shotmethod).Thecoilontheuni
t
canbeusedforlongit
udinalmagneti
zat
ion.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Thecont actheadsmustbeconst r
uctedsot hatt
hesurfacesoft hepartarenot
damaged- -ei
therphysi
call
ybypressureorst r
uctur
all
ybyheatf rom ar
cingorfr
om
hi
ghr esi
stanceatt hepointsofcont act.Heatcanbeespeci al
lydamaging to
hardenedsur facessuchas
beari
ngr aces.Fort hecompl et
ei nspecti
onofacompl expar t
,itmaybe
necessaryto
att
achclampsatsev er
alpoint
sont hepartort owrapcabl
esar oundthepartto
ori
entf i
eldsi
nt heproperdir
ecti
onsatallpointsonthesurface.Thisof
ten
necessit
atessev er
al
magnet i
zati
ons. magneti
zati
onscanbemi nimi
zedby usi ngtheover
all
Multi
ple

magnet
izat
ionmet
hod,
mul
ti
dir
ect
ional
magnet
izat
ion,
ori
nduced-
cur
rent
magnet
izat
ion.

Pr
odCont
act
s

Forthei nspecti
onoflargeandmassi vepartstoobulkytobeputintoaunithav i
ng
clampingcont actheads,magneti
zat i
onisof t
endonebyusi ngprodcontact sFig.
(12)topasst hecurr
entdirect
lythroughthepar torthroughalocalporti
onofi t.
Suchl ocal
contactsdonotal waysproducet r
ueci r
cularfi
elds,buttheyveryconvenient
arepract i
calformanypurposes.Prodcont act
sar eofenused andemagnet
t ic
i
nti nspectionoflar
gecastingsandwel dments. parti
cle

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Fi
g.12Singl
eanddoubl epr
odcont
acts.Discont
inui
ti
esar
edet
ect
edbyt
he
magnet
icf i
eldgener
atedbet
weentheprods.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Adv
ant
ages:

Prodcont actsarewidelyusedandhavemanyadv antages.Easyportabil

it
ymakes
them conv enientto use forthe fi
eldi
nspecti
on ofl arge tanks and welded
structur
es.Sensiti
vit
ytodefect
slyi
ngwholl
ybelowt hesurfaceisgreaterwiththi
s
met hodofmagnet i
zati
on thanwit
hanyother,especial
lywhenhal f
-wav ecurr
ent
i
s used i n conjuncti
on with dr
y powder and t he continuous met hod of
magnet i
zation.

Li
mit
ati
ons:

Theuseofpr
odcont
act
sinv
olv
essomedi
sadv
ant
ages:

 Suitabl emagnet icf i

eldsexi stonl ybet weenandneart hepr od cont act
point s.Thesepoi ntsar esel dom mor et han305mm ( 12i n.)apar tand
usual lymuchl ess;t herefore,iti ssomet i
mesnecessar ytor elocatet he
prodssot hattheent iresur f
aceofapar tcanbei nspect ed
 Inter f
erenceoft heext ernalf i
eldt hatexi stsbetweent hepr odssomet i
mes
makesobser vationofper t
inenti ndi cationsdi fficul
t;t hest rengt hoft he
curr entthatcanbeusedi slimitedbyt hisef fect
 Greatcar emustbet akent oav oidbur ni ngoft hepar tundert hecont act
point s.Bur ni
ng maybe caused bydi rt
ycont acts,i nsuff
icientcont act
pressur e,or excessi ve cur r
ent s.The l ikeli
hood ofsuch damage i s
par ti
cularl
ygreatonst eelwithacar boncont entof0. 3to0. 4%ormor e.The
heatundert hecont actpoi ntscanpr oducel ocalspot sofv eryhar dmat erial
thatcani nter
ferewi thl at
eroper ations,suchasmachi ni
ng.Act ualcracks
aresomet i
mespr oducedbyt hisheat ingef f
ect.Cont actheat i
ngi sl ess
l
ikel ytobedamagi ngt olow- carbonst eelsuchast hatusedf orst r
uctur al
pur poses

I
nducedCur
rent

Induced cur rentpr ovides a conv enientmet hod ofgener ati

ng circumf erent ial
magnet izingcurrentinr ing-shapedpar t
swi thoutmaki ngel ectri
calcont act.Thi sis
accompl i
shedbypr oper l
yor ienti
ngt her i
ngwi thi
namagnet izi
ngcoi lsucht hati t
l
inksorencl oseslinesofmagnet i
cf l
ux( f
luxl i
nkage) ,asshowni nFi g.13( a).As
thel evelofmagnet i
c f l
uxchanges( i
ncreasesordecr eases),acur rentf lows
aroundt her ingi
nadi rectionopposi ngthechangei nf l
uxl evel.Themagni t
udeof
thiscur r
entdependsont het ot
alfluxl i
nkages,r ateoff luxlinkagechanges,and
the electricalimpedance associ ated wi tht he cur rentpat h wit
hi nt he r ing.
Increasingt hefl
uxl inkagesandt her ateofchangei ncreases t hemagni tudeof
currentinducedi nther ing.Theci rcularfiel
dassoci atedwi t
ht hi
scurrentt akest he
form ofat oroi
dalmagnet i
cf iel
dthatencompassesal lsur f
acear easont her ing
andt hatisconduci vet ot hedi scl
osur eofci rcumf erentialtypesofdi scont i
nui ti
es.
Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Thisisshownschemat i
cal
lyinFig.13(
b).Toenhancet hetot
alfl
uxlinkages,
l
ami nat
edsoftir
onpol
epiecesar
eusuall
yinser
tedt
hroughthehol
einthepartas
showninFig.13(a)
.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Fi
g.13Induced-
curr
entmethodofmagnet i
zingar i
ng-shapedpart.(
a)Ringbeing
magnet
izedbyinducedcurr
ent.Cur
rentdi
recti
oncor r
espondst odecreasi
ng
magnet
izi
ngcurrent
.(b)Resul
tingi
nducedcurrentandt or
oidal
magnet icf
iel
dina
ri
ng

Di
rectVer
susAl
ter
nat
ingCur
rent
.

Thechoi ceofmagnet izingcurrentfortheinduced-currentmet hoddependsont he

magnet i
cpr operti
esoft hepar tt
obei nspected.Incasesi nwhi cht heresidual
methodi sappl icable,suchasf ormostbear i
ngr acesorsi mi l
arpartshavinghi gh
magnet i
cr etentivi
ty,directcur r
entisusedf ormagnet izing.Ther api
di nt
erruption
ofthiscurrent ,
byqui ck-breakci rcuitry,result
si nar api
dcol l
apseoft hemagnet i
cf l
uxand
the
generati
onofahi gh- amper age,cir
cumf erent
iall
ydirectedsi nglepulseofcur rent
i
nt hepar t.Ther ef
or e,t hepartisresiduall
ymagnet i
zedwi t
hat or
oidalfi
eld,and
the subsequentappl ication ofmagnet i
cpar ti
cleswi llproduce indicat
ionsof
cir
cumf erential
lyor i
ent eddisconti
nuiti
es.
Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Passi ng an alternati
ng currentthrough aconduct orwillsetup af l
uctuat
ing
magnet i
cf iel
dast helevelofmagnet i
cf l
uxrapi
dlychangesf rom a maxi mum
valuei nonedi recti
ontoanequalv alueintheoppositedi
rect
ion.Thi sissimil
arto
thecur rentthatwoul dfl
owi na
single-shorted-
turn secondar yof at r
ansformer
.Theal t
ernatingi nduced
current,i n
conjunct i
onwi ththecontinuousmet hod, r
enderst
hemet hodappl icablefor
processi ngmagnet ical
lysoft,orl
essr et
entiv
e,par
ts.

Appl
icat
ions:

Thei nduced- cur r

entmet hod, inaddi t
iontoel iminatingthepossi bi l
ityofdamagi ng
thepar t
,i scapabl eofmagnet izi
ngi noneoper ati
onpar tst hatwoul dot herwi se
requi remor ethanoneheadshot .Twoexampl esoft hi
stypeofpar tareill
ust rated
i
nFi g.14and15.Thesepar tscannotbecompl etelyprocessedbyoneheadshot
todi scl oseci r
cumf erentialdef ects,becauser egionsatt hecont actpoi ntar enot
proper l
ymagnet i
zed.Ther efore,a
two- stepi nspect i
onpr ocesswoul dber equiredf orf ul
lcover age, witht hepar t
rotated
appr oxi mat ely90°pr i
ort ot he secondst ep.Ont heot herhand,t hei nduced-
cur r
ent
met hodpr ov i
desf ullcoveragei nonepr ocessi ngst ep.Thedi sk-shapedpar tshown
i
nFi g.
15pr esent sanaddi ti
onalpr oblem whent hecont actmet hodi sempl oy edt o
disclose
circumf erent i
aldef ectsneart her i
m.Ev enwhenat wo-steppr ocessi sempl oy ed,
aswi tht her i
ngshowni nFi g.14,t hepr i
mar ycur r
entpat ht hrought hedi skmay
notdev elopaci r
cul arfieldofampl emagni tudei nther i
m ar ea.Thei nduced
cur r
entcanbesel ectivelyconcent r
atedi nt her i
m ar eabypr operpol epi ece
select iont opr ovidef ullcov er
age( r
im area)i nasi ngleprocessi ngst ep.Thepol e
piecesshowni nFi g.15( b)ar ehol l
owandcy l
indrical,wi
thoneoneachsi deoft he
disk.Thesepol epi ecesdi rectt hemagnet icf l
ux
throught hedi sksuch therimi stheonl ypor ti
onconst itutingat otall
yencl osi ng
thatcur rentpat h.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Fi
g.14Cur r
entandmagnet i
c-fi
elddi
str
ibuti
oninar i
ngbei ngmagneti
zedwi t
ha
headshot .Becausetheregionsatthecont actpoi
ntsarenotmagnet ized,t
wo
operati
onsarerequir
edforfullcover
age.Withtheinduced-cur
rentmet
hod,parts
ofthisshapecanbecompl et
elymagnetizedinoneoperati
on.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Fi
g.15Cur r
entpat
hsinarimmeddi
sk-shapedpartt
hathasbeenmagnet
izedby(
a)
head-shotmagnet
izat
ionand(
b)i
nduced-cur
rentmagnet
izat
ion

Polepiecesusedi nconjuncti
onwitht hismet
hodar epr efer
ablyconstr
uct
edof
l
ami nated
ferr
omagnet i
cmat er
ialtomi nimizet hefl
ow ofeddycur rentswithi
nt hepole
pieces,
whichdet ractf r
om t heinduced( eddy)curr
entdev elopedwi thi
nt hepartbei
ng
processed.Pol epiecescanal sobemadeofr ods,wire-fi
l
lednonconducti
v et
ubes,
orthick-wallpipesawcutt obreakupt heeddy-cur
rentpat h.Insomecases,even
asol i
dshaf tprotr
udingf r
om onesi deofagearordi skcanbeusedasoneoft he
polepieces.

Per
manentmagnet
s
Perma nentma gnet
sa r
es oc al
ledbecausetheyar
ea bl
eto
ma i
n t
aina
ma gnet
icf i
eldint hesu r
roundings pace.Thefi
eld'st
rengt
hc an
vary
consi
derabl
y, onthefluxdensi
tyi
nthe anditsshape.The
dependi
ng magne t

si
mplestf
orm ofper
manentmagneti
sabarmagnet,
whichisbas i
cal
ly
apieceatfer
romagnet
icma t
eri
alwi
thamagnet
icpoleateachend.I
f
t
heba rwas
f
o r
me dint
oac l
osed l
oo p,t
henthemagnet
icfi
eld wo ul
db efull
y

cont
ainedwi
thi
nac l
osedci
rcui
tandnoext
ernalf
iel
dwoul
dexi
st.If
a
def
ectwa spresenti
nt hel
oop ,af
luxl
eakagewo ul
dst
il
loccur.
Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Ne i
therb arma gne t
so rri
ng( l
oop ed)mag net
sh avean yuseinMPI .
Bu t
,ifab arma gn eti s simplyf ormed i nt
o a .U s hape,t he
ma gne ti
cl i
n eso ffo r
ce
willbec onc entr
a tedint heg apb etweent hema gneti
cp oles
this
providesa ni dealCo nfi
gurati
onfo rma gnetp ar
ticl
ein spect
ion
Pe r
ma n entma gne t
sp rovidema g net
icflowo nlyint he
spe ci
me na nd
produceal ongit
udinalma gnet
icfiel
d betweentinepoles. The
degree of
ma gnetizat
ioninp ermanentma gnetsisdeterminedbyt heamou ntof
pullrequir
edt oliftthema gnetc l
earofthewor kp i
ece,orbyitsli
ft
ing
powe r.Thep ulloffforceistheforcethathastobea ppl
iedtoon epole
tob r
ea kit
sa tt
ractiontothe

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
sur
face,whil
stleavi
ngtheotherpol
eat
tr
acted.Theli
fti
ngpower
i
stheab i
li
tyo fthema gnettolif
ta piece off er
romagnet
ic
mater
ialbya t
tract
ional
one.

Fi
gur
e16.Per
manentmagnet
s

They ok ei
sma def r
om highlype rmeabl
elow ret
entivesteel
.They okeis
l
a minatedtoreduceinduc ti
onc ausedby eddycurr
e ntflow (associ
ated
onlywithalt
ernati
ngcurrent)anda l
sohel
pst opreventtheyokebe coming
perma nent
ly ma gnet
ized. Ma gneti
sm isi nduced into the yok e by
encircl
ingi
twi t
hac oilt
hr oughwhi chacurrenti
spa ssedthestrengthof
thefiel
dproducedc anbev ari
edinoneoft woway s:

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
 1.Byadjusti
ngt hecurrent(ampe rage)f
lowingthroughth eyoke-
onl
ycertai
ne lect
roma gn et
sa l
lowforthis.
2.Byvaryi
ngth edist
a nceb et
we enthepolepiecesmos t
el
ectr
oma gn et
sa l
lowf orthi
sb utnotforal
l.
3.El
ectr
oma gn et
sina yop erat
ed i
rectfr
om thema i
nss uppl
yof
240Vbu tareavail
ablea t110Vwh enrequi
redfors i
teus e.

Thefiel
dproducedinEl
ectr
oma gnet
icy
ok eisl
ongit
udinal
, t
ravel
li
ngf r
om
et
pol opoleaswithper
mane ntmagnets,howeverthede pt
hoft heFi el
d
wit
hinthe testpi
ecewil
ldependuponthetype-
ofcurrentusedtoi nduce
magne t
ism.
Surfaced i
scon t
inuiti
es wi l
lb e morereadil
yf oundu s i
nga .
c.,su b
surf
a ced efectswi l
lbemor eeasil
ylocat
edu si
ngd .
c..Th ema gnetwi l
l
haveamu chg reaterpullond .
c.butthefl
uxwillbeless,atthes urf
ac e
ofthec omp on entbe i
ngt est
ed.
BS6072s tatesthata .
c.e l
ectr
omagne t
sshouldhaveal i
ft
ingpowe rofa t
l
east4. 5kgforapol espa ci
ngof300mm orl ess,
thestandarda l
sogivesa
minimum pul l
-offrati
ngof2. 25k gforthesamepol es pac i
ng.For d.c.
el
ectromagne ts,t helift
ingpowe randpull
-of
frati
ngist hes amea sf or
perma nentma gnets.

Adv
ant
agesofel
ect
romagnet
icy
okes

 A.C.orrect
ifi
edD.C.operati
on.
 Controll
abl
ef i
eldstr
ength(noti
nall
c ases)
.
 Canbeswi tchedon/offasrequi
red.
 Nodamagedonet otestpi
ece.
 Relat
ivel
yli
ghtweight.
 A.C.yokesc anbeusedt odemagneti
z e

Di
sadv
ant
agesofel
ect
romagnet
icy
okes
 Powersuppl
yr equir
ed.
 Onl
ysmallareasc anbeexami
nedateachmagnetl
ocat
ion.
L eaveso nl
yo neh andf
ree.

Cert
ainspeci
fi
cat
ionswillst
atet heminimum requir
eme nt
sf orthe
st
rengthofpermanentmagnets,e.
g.BS6 072s t
atesthatPermanent
magnetsshouldhaveap owerc apabl
eofl i
ft
ing1 8k gwithap ole
spaci
ng75-150mm, t
h epul
lofffor
ces hal
lhaveava l
ueequival
entto
Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
atl
east9kg.

Whennoti
nuseaper
manentmagnetshoul
dhaveakeeperpl
aced
acr
osst
he

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
polestopr eventlossofma gneti
sm.Somepe rma nentmagnet
sma yhave
adjustabl
ea r
ms ,ot
he rsma yha ver oll
ersa ttachedtothepoles;t
her ol
ler
s
ares ettok ee pthemagne tjustclearoft hes ur
facea ndenabl
eitt obe
mov edove rt
hewor kpiecewi threlati
vee a se.
Adv ant
agesofpe rmane ntmagne ts:
1.Nopower ssupplyrequired.
2.Nodamaget othetestpiecefr om arci
ng.
3.Rel at
ivelyli
ghtweight(easil
ypor tabl
e).
4.Theyc l
ingtov erti
calandov erheads urf
aces.
5.Bot hhandsf reeaf t
erthemagneti splacedontothesur
face.

Di
sadv
ant
agesi
ncl
ude:
1.Det
eriorati
onwithwear.
2.Havet obepul l
edfrom t hetestsur
face.
3.Magneticpart
icl
esattr
actedtopoles.
4.Li
mitedappl i
cat
iononawk wardshapes.
5.Nocont rol
overfiel
dstrength(unl
essadjust
abl
ear
msar
eused)
6.Onl
ysmal l
areasexami nedineachposi
ti
on

Sur
facecondi
ti
ons
Thebe t
te rthes ur
f acec ondition,themor es e nsi
tivea nd reli
ablet het est-
wil
lbe.The r
e forea l
l contami nantss ucha spa i
nt,dirt
,gr ease,
oil,sca l
ee tc.
shouldber emov ed,leavingifpos s ibleas moot hs urfacedr essedt obright
me t
al.Whe r
edr essingi snotpos siblea ndwhe nbl acki nksa r
ebe ingus e d,
ac oati
ng ofs uitablewhi t
ebac kgroundc ont r
as tpaints houldbea ppli
e d.
Contrastpa intss houldnor ma ll
ybei na ccordanc ewi thBS5044.Cont ras t
pai
ntsus e di nma gne ti
c pa rticl
ef l
a wde t
e cti
on.Cont r
a stpaintshoul dbe
appli
edt hinly.Thic kc oatsr educet hes ens i
tivi
tyoft hepr oce ssa ndt ak e
l
onge rto dr y.Cont rastpai nt sa reus uallywa t
e rba se dnowaday sa nd
ther
eforenota stox i
ca st hos econt a i
ningv olati
les ol
ve nts.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
 TheDet
ect
ingMedi
um

Thed etect
ing me di
as houl
dn or
mall
yb einaccor
dancewi
th BS
4069.MPIi nkso rdrypowderswheninksareusedforMPIt he
testmayb ere f
erredtoasawe tme t
hod,whenpowder
sareused
thetestmayb erefer
redtoasad r
ymethod.
Thebasi
crequi
rement
sformagnet
icpar
ti
clesar
easf
oll
ows:
F ineg rai
n stor ed u cetheg ravi
tati
onale ff
ec t
.Th ema ximum
grains i
zei ss p ecifiedinBS4 0 69as2 00µ m f orp owd er
,
10 0µm f orinks .Ho wever,iftheg r
ainsa rct oof i
n ethis
co ul
dc oa gul
a t
et h eparti
cles.
 Elongateds hapef ore asi
erpolar
izat
ion.Sph er
icalparti
cles
area l
son eededt o
 Ensuredispersalov erthesurf
ace.
 Highpe r
me abil
i
tyf orma gneti
zati
oninwea kfl
uxl eakagefi
elds.
L owr etenti
vit
yifp articl
esaretob eremov edfrom thetest
surfaceafterthete st.
 Highc on t
rast ag ains tt
heb ackgroundo f thet estsurface.

DryPart
icl
es
Thes ensi
ti
vityofdryv i
si
blep ar
ticl
esi si
ns ever
alwa ysdir
ectl
yr el
ated
tothes i
zeoft hep art
icl
es.Wh il
et hereisanincreaseins ensi
ti
vit
ya s
thep art
icl
e s ize become ss ma l
ler,thes mall
ers iz
ei sa l
so mor e
dif
fi
culttos ee,r
equ i
res ah i
gherc oncentr
ati
ona ndc anbema sked
byba ckgr
ou ndsoft hema t
e r
ialundertest.Ther
efore,mostdrypa r
ticl
e
mixtur
esa rema deu pofar angeofs i
zes.Inadditi
on,toincr
easet he
mixtur
e'ss ensi
ti
vit
y,thec hoi
ceoft hecolorofthepa rt
icl
esisu suall
y
onet hatresult
sinah ighc ontr
as ttoth ebackgroundoft hep artor
ma t
eri
a l
.
Drypa r
ti
clesa rea ppli
edt othes urf
a cein ama nne rthatpr ovi
de sf ora
unif
orm dus t
ingoft hes urface.Somes pecif
icat
ionsus ethet er
mf loatto
descri
bet hea ppli
c ati
onpr ocess.Onei mpor t
antpointisthatonc ea ppli
e d,
thepa r
ticl
esl osemobi l
ity.Thisc anbeov er
comebyge ntl
yt appingt he
part
.Ina ddi
ti
on,t heus eofa lt
ernati
ngc urr
enta ndha lfwav er ec t
if
ied
alt
ernati
ngc urrentt endstoi ncreasethemobi l
it
yoft hedr yparticl
eswi th
thelat
terprovidingt hebe stmobi l
it
y.
Gen er
all
y ,dr
yp arti
c l
esu sedi nma gn eti
cp art
icl
et est
inga resa i
dt o be
visi
blebe causet he yrefl
ec tl
ightfrom thev isi
blerangeoft hes pec trum.
Thisisn ottos a yt hatd ryp arti
clesc ou l
dn otbef l
u orescen t.Th e
advan t
ageofd rypa rti
clesi sthatth eyte ndtob eh ighlyportablea nd
excell
en tforr emot efielda p pl
icat
ions.I na ddit
ion,dryp ar
ticl
e sa re
Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
mor
esensi
ti
vef
ordet
ect
ingsubsur
facedi
scont
inui
ti
es.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
We tPa r
ticl
es
Ferroma gne t
ic pa r
ticles us edi ns tat
iona r
y ma gne ti
c pa rti
c l
e t esti
ng
equipme nta res us pende di nal iqui dv ehic l
et ha tinc reas est hemobi lit
yof
thepar ti
c l
esa ndpr ovide same ansf ore as ya ppl i
c at
ion.Thel i
qui dv ehicl
e
canr angef r
om wat ert os pecialpe troleum ba se dliqui ds.The rea r
et wo
disti
nctdi vi
sionswhe nde a l
ingwi thMPIi nk s ,the sebe ingf luor esc entinks
and non f l
uor escenti nks .Non- fluor esce nti nk sar e us ual l
ybl ac ka nd
ref
e rr
edt oa sbl ac kink s.Twodi s adv antage soft hisme t
hoda ret hatthe
particl
es mus t be c ontinuous lya gitate di nt he l i
qui da nd t he
conc entrati
on mus t be c ont rolled. I n s tationa rywe tba ths,pa rt
icl
e
conc entrati
onl evelsa rev e ryc ri
tica l.Conc e ntrationl ev elsmus tbev eri
fi
ed
accordingt ot hec ont rollingpr oc e s sdat aorpr oc edure .Av ariati
oni nthe
conc entrati
on l evelc an r esulti n ma sking of i ndi cations i ft he
conc entrati
oni stoohi ghornopa rti
c l
esbui ldupi fthec once ntrationi stoo
l
ow.Thi sc anlea dt omi ss eddi sc ont i
nui t
iesore rrone ousi de nt i
fi
c ationof
i
ndic ati
ons .We tpa rt
ic l
e sa l
soc omei na e ros ols pra yst hati nc rea sethe
portabili
tyoft heme thoda ndde cre asec onc entra t
ionl ev elconc er
ns .
We tpa rt
iclesma ybea ppliedbypour i
ng ors pr ay i
ng t he par ti
c l
e s onto
thepa rt orma terial
.I n a ddition, pa rt s c an be di ppe d i n a n
agitatedba th.Ift hepa rtsa redi ppe d,t heymus tr ema ini ntheba thf ora
suffici
entt i
met oa ll
ow t hepar ti
c lest obea t
t r
a ctedt oa nyf l
uxl e akage
areas.I nmanyc as eswhe rewe tpa r
ticlesa reus ed,t hepa rt
iclesa r
e
coloredwi thaf luore sce ntdy e .Thisr equirest ha tt hepar ti
clesbeus e dina
darkene dwor ka rea[ us ua l
ly21. 5l ux( 2f tc)orl es s]a ndi ns pe ct
e dunde r
anul traviol
etl ight.We tf luore sce ntpa rt
ic l
e sa rev e rys ens itivet ot he
detectionoff ines urfac edi s continui t
iess uc ha ss tressc racks .
I
naccor
dancewi
thBS4069,
thecomposi
ti
onofi
nksshal
lbeasf
oll
ows:
Ferroma gn et
icpa rt
icl
esi nn on-fl
u orescentin ksshouldn otbeless
than1 .25%a ndn otmor etha n3.5%byv ol
u me.
Ferroma gneti
cpa rt
icl
esinfluor escentinkss houldnotbelessthan0.1%
andnotmor ethan0.3%byv olume
Ca r
rierfl
uid,whichma ybeoi lba sed, e.
g.paraff
in,orwatershal
lmakeup
thev ol
umet o100%
Ifwa t
erisu sedi tsh oul
dc on t
aina ddit
ivest opreventc or
rosi
ono f
thes urf
ac eo rp art
icl
es,a ndi mp rovet hewe tt
ingac t
ion.Paraf
fi
n
b asedp r
o duct
sh aveg oo dwe ttinga ct
ion,a r
eo dou r
less,havea
relati
vet o l
erancet oo i
lo rg rea seo nt hes ur
facea nda ren ot
co r
ro si
ve.

BS4069givesthefol
l
owingme thodoft
estforassessi
ngt
hesoli
dc ontent
ofmagnet
icinks:
Maxi
mum v olumeofma gnet
icinkfortestshouldnotexceed5l it
ers.
Agi
tat
econtainerf
ornotlessthan5minut
e s.Poursampl
eofinkinto100
Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
mlset
tl
eme ntfl
ask(Centr
if
uget
ypeorSuther
landfl
ask).Al
low t
oscal
e
f
or60mi nutes.Readofft
hesol
i
dcontentt
one ar
est0.
1ml .

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Heal
thandsaf
etyconsi
der
ati
ons

Thes uppl
ierofMPIconsuma bl
esi
sob l
i
g edtoma keavai
labl
etothe
purchaser
,a l
l eal
thandsaf
etydataappl
i
c abl
e thesuppl
ied
rel
evant t
o

goods.Theuseralsohasanobl
i
gat
iont
ocompl
ywi
tht
heheal
th
andsafetyr
equir
eme nt
s.
Speci
fi
cheal
thandsaf
etyconsi
der
ati
onsar
e:
Fl
amma bil
i
ty:Readcontai
nerl
abelsforfl
ashpoi
n t
s.I
na ccordance
wi
thBS4 069,i
fanoilbaseisusedthefl
ashpointwhenassessedina
cl
osedcuptestshal
lnotbelessthan65°C.
Asthmati
c:Don ot u sei nco nfi
n eds paceswithout ma sk sor
adequat
e
vent
il
ati
on.

Ski
nhazar
d:Usepr
otect
ivecl
othi
ng.
Al
lareasun dert
estusingnon-fl
uorescenti
nksshoudb e
adequat
ely
i
ll
uminatedu si
nga r
ti
fi
ciall
ighti
fn ecessar
y.Forfl
uorescenti
nks,
aUV-Alightwit
hs ubduedbackgroundli
ghti
n gshoul
dbeu sed,t
he
dar
kertheb et
ter.
Ul
tr
avi
oletLi
ght
Amer cury-
arclampi saconv enientsourceoful tr
avioletlight.Thi stypeofl amp
emi tsl i
ghtwhosespect r
um hassev eralintensitypeakswi thinawi debandof
wav e-lengths.Whenusedf oraspeci fi
cpur pose, emit
tedl ighti spassedt hrougha
suitabl ef i
ltersot hatonl yar elati
velynarrow bandoful travioletwav elengthsi s
avai lable.Forexampl e,abandi nt helong- wav eult
rav i
oletspect r
um i susedf or
fl
uor escentl i
quidpenet rantormagnet ic
part i
cl einspection.Fl
uor escencei sthechar acteri
sti
cofanel emetorcombi nation
of
element stoabsor bt heener gyofl i
ghtatonef r
equencyandemi tl ightofa
differ entf requency.The f l
uorescentmat eri
als used i nl i
quid penet rantand
magnet icpar t
icleinspect i
onar ecombi nationsofel ement schosent oabsor b
l
ighti nt hepeak ener gybandoft hemer cur y-
arclampf ittedwi thaKoppgl ass
fi
lter .Thispeakoccur satabout365
nm ( 3650 ) .Theabilityoffluorescentmat erial
st oemi tli
ghti nt hegreeni sh-yel
low
wav elengthsoft hevisiblespectrum dependsont hei ntensi t
yoful t
ravioletlight
att he

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
workpi ecesurf
ace.Incontr
asttotheharmf
ulultr
avi
oletl
ightofshort
er
wav elengt
hs,
whichdamagesor ganssuchastheeyesandt heski
n,theblackl
ightof365nm
(3650 )
wav elengt
hsposesnosuchhazar dstotheoperat
orand vi
sibl
eevidenceof
providesdefect
sinmat er
ial
s,asshowninbelowFigure(17).

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
 Fi
gur
e(17)
.

Earl
yspeci fi
cati
onsr equired 970 lx( 90 f tc)ofi l
lumi nationatt hewor kpiece
surfacemeasur edwi thaphot ographic-ty
pel i
ghtmet er,whi chr espondst owhi te
l
ightaswel lasul t
ravi
oletlight.Becauset heul travi
oletout putofmer cury -
arclamp
decreaseswi t
hageandwi t hhoursofser vice,ther equi r
edi ntensi tyoft hedesi red
wav el
engthisof tenabsent ,al
thought helightmet eri ndicatesot her wise.Met er s
havebeendev elopedt hatmeasur et heov eralli
ntensi tyofl ong- wav eul t
raviolet
l
ightonlyinabandbet ween300t o400nm ( 3000t o4000 )andt hatar emost
sensiti
venearthepeakener gybandoft hemer cury-arcl ampusedf orf luorescent
i
nspect i
on.These met ersr ead the intensi t
yl eveli n mi crowat t
s persquar e
2
centimeter( W/ cm ).Forai r
craft
-quali
tyf luorescenti nspect ion,t hemi nimum
i
ntensityleveloful travioletill
uminationi s1000 W/ cm2.Hi gh-intensity125- W
2
ult
raviol
etbulbsar eavailablethatprovideupt o5000W/ cm at380mm ( 15in.)
.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
 Demagnet
izat
ion

Dema gnet
izat
ionofas peci
me nma yber equir
edb efor
e
t
esti
ng,b etweensuccessi
ves hot
s/magnet
izi
ngp osi
ti
ons,
and/
ora f
tertest
ing,in orderto remove any resi
dual
magneti
sminthespeci
men.

ReasonsforDe magneti
z at
ion
Therea re good rea sonsf ora p artto be de ma gnet
ized.Wh i
le
dema gneti
zati
onisu su al
lya ssociat
edwi tht
h efinaloperat
ionsofa
ma gneti
cparti
cletest
,itcana l
sooc curasap r
ep ar
ati
ons tep.I
ffer
rous
part
sa reu sedins t
rongma gne t
icfiel
ds,bef
oret heyaretes t
edthey
shouldb edema gneti
ze d to e nsure a nyfiel
d int hep artwil
lnot
i
nterf
e r
ewiththetest.

When a p arti s to b e rema gnet

ized in a d i
ffer
entd ir
e ct
ion,
demag net
izati
on ma yb er equir
ed.Th is oper
ati
on i ssome t
imes
misunderst
ood be cause dema gnet
izat
ion isn ot alwaysr equir
ed
bet
we enma g neti
zati
onope rat
ions.Dema gnet
izat
ionison l
yr equir
ed
whent hes ubsequentorn extma gneti
zati
ons t
epi sofe qualorless
amperage or s trengt
h th an thep recedi
ng op er
ati
on.F ail
uret o
demag net
izet hep artc anr esul
tinv ectorfiel
dst hatc anc ause
di
scontinui
ti
e stobemi ssed.

Ot
herreasonsf ordemagnet izati
onar e:
1.Whe ns ubs equentproc essi
ngope rati
ons,sucha smac hi
ningor
painting,c ouldbei mpa i
redbyr esidualma gneticfi
elds.
2.Wh e nin stru me nts,sucha st hos ei na na ircr
a f
t ,
c ouldb e
affec tedb yther esi
du alfi
eld .
3.Whe nwe ldingope rat
ionsc ouldbea ff
ectedbyt here si
dualfi
eld.
4.Whe nt her esidualfiel
dc ouldc a usei nserviceprobl emswi ththe
ope r
at i
onorus eoft hepa rt,suc ha sac rankshafti na ne ngi
ne
holdingpar ti
clesthatwouldi ncreas ebeari
ngwe ar
.
5.Whe nt her esi
dua lfi
eldwi l
la dverselyaff
e cttheprope rc l
eaningof
thepa rt;
6.Wh e ni tisr equ i
redb yth es pecificati
on ,procedu reo rstand ar
d
that co ntro l
st hema g neti
cp ar
ticletestingp rocess .

Therear
ealsoreasonswhendemagneti
zati
onmaynotber
equi
red.Someof
theser
easonsare:
1.Whent hepa rti
stobeh eattr
ea t
eda bovet
heCu r
iepointinthe
nextman uf
a ctur
ingorrepai
rp r
oc essst
ep.
2.Whe nthepa rtwil
lberemagn eti
zedb yast
rongerma g net
izi
ng

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
 f
o r
ce.
3.Whenthepart
,ifser
viceabl
e,wil
lbeusedinastr
ongmagnet
icf
iel
d
t
hatwouldnotbea f
fectedbytheresi
dualf
iel
d.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
 4.Whe nthepa rti
sfrom av er
ylar
ges t
ruct
ureandtheresi
dualf
iel
dwil
l
notaff
e cttheoperati
onofthepa r
t.
5.Wh ent her esi
d ualfi
eldinthep artisofs uchas ma l
lint
ensi
ty
thatitwi lln otinterf
erewi t
ht hep art'
ss erv
iceabi
li
tyo rwil
l
disappea raftert
h etesti
ngisc omp l
eted.

Demagneti
zat
ionMe t
hods
Thereares ever
alme thodstodema gnet
izeapart,heatt
reattoa
temperat
urea bovethec ur
iepoint
,al
ternat
ingcur
rentorrever
sing
stepdownd i
rectcurr
entandelect
romagneti
c.
HeatTr
eati
ngDemagnet
izati
on
Wh enaf er
rousmetalish eat
edtoitscur
iepoi
ntitistr
ansf
orme d
fr
om ferr
oma gnet
ictop aramagnet
ic.Whenthepartcool
sb el
ow the
Curi
ep oi
nt,t hema t
erialret
urnsto afer
romagneti
cu nmagnet
ized
condi
ti
on.

Alt
ernatingCurrentDemagnet izati
on
Themos tcommonme t
h odofd e ma gneti
za t
ionwi t
ha l
ternati
ngc urr
ent
i
st op as sthema g neti
zedp artthrou ghac oilenergizedwitha l
ternat
ing
current.Th epa r
ts houldmov ebe yondt hee ndoft hec oiladistanceof
approx i
ma t
elyt hreet of ourt ime st h ed i
a me t
eroft hec oi
l.Th i
s
di
s t
an ce ma yv ary de pending on t hec oilcurr
e ntstrengtha ndthe
shapeoft hec oil
.Proc eduress hou l
db eestabli
shedt ov eri
fythemos t
eff
e cti
vep rocessf ord ema gneti
zation.F orop t
ima lr esul
ts,p ar
ts
shouldpa ssa sclosea spos s i
blet oth einnerwa llofthec oil
.An ot
her
me thodofa lter
na t
ingc urr
en td ema gn et
izati
on ist op lacet hep ar
t
i
nt hec oi
la ndu sead eca yi
ngs t
re ngtha lt
ernati
ngc urr
en t
. Th i
s
me thodr equ i
resthema gneti
cp a r
ti
c l
ema ch i
net ob ec apableoft hi
s
operation .
De ma gneti
z at
ionc a na lso b ec omp leted wi t
hay okea nd
al
te r
n atingc urr
en t
. Inth i
sme thodt hey okei se nergi
ze da ndp ul
led
awa yf romt hep arto rthep ar
tisp u ll
eda wa yfromt hey oke.Eit
her
wa ywi l
l dema gne t
izep arts.

Thema j
orli
mitati
onwithal
ter
nati
ngcur
rentdemagnet
izat
ionisthe
l
ack ofp enetr
ati
on .Theal
ternat
ingcur
rentdoes notp rovi
dea n
ef
fect
ivedema gnet
izat
ionmethodforl
argepart
sorp ar
tswi t
hd eep
magneti
cfi
elds.

Dir
ectCurrentDemagnet
izat
ion
Dema gneti
zationwi
thdir
e ctcur
rentrequir
estha tthec ur
rentberever
sed
andde cr
ea sedatpr
ogressi
ves t
eps.Ma nystat
ionarya ndmobilemagneti
c
part
icl
euni t
sc anper
for
mt hisoperat
ion.Thisope r
a t
ionisoft
encal
ledthe

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
st
ep down me thod. Di
rect cur
rent i
s most effect
ive f
or t
he
demagnet
izat
ionoflar
gepar
tsorpar
tswit
hdeepf
iel
ds.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
El
ect
romagnet
icDemagnet
izat
ion

Therea res e v
e raltec hni que s f or de magne t
izing a n obj e ct us ing
electr
omagne t
ice nergy .Al loft hes et ec hnique ss ubjecta ma gneti
z ed
objecttoama gne ti
cf or c et hatisc ontinuallyrev ersingi t
sdi r
e cti
ona nd
graduall
yde creasingi ni nte nsit
y.
Inthef i
gu re,thet opc u rvei ll
ustrate sth ema gn eticf i
e l
ds tr
en g t
hu s ed
toge nerateth ef l
uxi nte n sityc urvebe l
ow. Ast hec u r
rentd i
mi nishesi n
valuewi the ac hr eve rs al,t heh ysteres i
sl oopt racesa ninc reasing l
y
sma ll
erp ath.Th eb ottom c urveillustratest h ed ec reasingres i
d ualflux
i
n t
e nsi
tyint he ob jec t
, ind icatedb yth es hrinkingh ysteresi
sl oop s.Th e
ma gne t
izi
n gc urrenta n df luxinten sityc urvesa r
ep lotteda gains tti
me .
Wh ent hec ur
r entre ac h esz ero,t her e si
d ualma gn et
isma ppr oach es
zero.
Suc cess f
ulde magne tizationde pe ndsons eve ralrequireme nts.First
thema gne ti
c f i
e l
d s trengt h a tt he s t
a rt of t he de ma gne t
izing
cycle mus tbehi ghe nought oov ercomet hec oerciveforce a nd t o
reverse t he di rectionoft her es i
dualf i
eld.Thi si sac compl ished by
demagne tizi
ng a ta s l
ight l
y highe rc urrentt ha nt hatus e di nt he
ma gneti
zingc y cl
e.Thes e condr equireme nti st ha t,ine achs uc cessive
cycle,t
her educ t
ionofmagne t
icfields tr
e ngthmus tbes mallenought hat
the rever
s e ma gne t
icf ields tr
e ngthe xc eeds t he c oercivef orcea nd
reversesthef luxdi r
e ctionf rom t he pr evious r e versal.Thisr equiresa
numbe rofc ycles,de pe ndi ngont he pe rme a bil
ityoft he ma t
erial.Tent o
thi
rtyreversal
sa reof tenr e quired.

Demagnet
izat
ionVer
if
icat
ionMet
hods
Oncet hede magne t
izat
ionprocesshasbe enc ompleted,therema i
ning
resi
dualma gneti
sm mus tbeme asur
ed.Themos tcommonme t
hodof
checki
ng forresidualma gnet
ismiswithafiel
di ndi
cator.Theprocedure
orspecif
icat
ions houl
dindicat
etheall
owableresidualma gnet
ism andifa
cal
ibrat
edfiel
dindicat
orisrequi
red.

Af i
eldindicat
orc ann otreli
ab l
yme asur
et heresidualma gneti
s mina
partthath asb eenma gne t
izedwithac ir
cu l
arfiel
d.Toa ssi
stint he
dema gneti
z at
ionpr oc ess,procedureswil
ln ormall
yh avet hec i
rcul
ar
ma gneti
cp arti
cletestp erforme dbefor
et helongit
udinal
.Th isall
ows
thete chni
ciant oh av e a me ans t o d eter
mine i f t he f i
nal
dema gneti
z at
ionpr oc ess wa ss uccessf
ul.
Wh en it i s n ece ssary to a chi
eve the g r
eatest a mou nt of
dema gneti
zation,th e Ea rt
h's ma gnet
icf i
eld mu stb et a keni nt
o
consider
a t
ion.Byp ositi
on i
ngt heaxisofthed emagne t
izat
ionc oi
linan
east-
we stdir
ec t
ion,l
on gp art
sc anbemor eeffect
ivel
yd ema gneti
zed.
Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
 Fi
gur
e18.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
 Magnet
icFi
eldI
ndi
cat
ors

Dete rminat i
onofFi e l
dSt rength
The reisar ela ti
ons hipbe twe ent hes trengthoft hema gne ti
cf i
elda ndt he
sens iti
vi
tyoft her es ults.Wi thoutt hepr ope rf ields trength,s uf
fici
e ntf l
ux
l
e aka gewi llnotbec re ateda tthedi sc onti
nui tys itet oa t
tractthema gne ti
c
particles.Howe ve r,toomuc hf i
elds tr
engt hc anc a usea ccumul ationof
particlesov e rt hee ntirepa rts urface ,ma skingi ndicationsand c a using
discont i
nui t
ies t o be mi ssed.So how i st he pr ope rfiel
ds trength
dete rmine d?
The rea rege ne r
a lrule stha ta pplyt ode termi ning t he ampe rage t o us e
toi nduc es uf fi
cientc urrentt opr oduc eas atisfa ctoryma gneti
cf iel
d.For
cir
c ularma gne t
ismt hege ne r
a lrulei s300t o800At oe ach1i n.c ross
sect i
on. Forl ongi tudina lma gne ti
smt herea res ev eralformulast hatc anbe
use dde pe ndi ngont hes izeoft hepa rta ndamountoff il
lfactorfort he
coil
.Howe ver,t he sege ne ralrulesa reonl ys tartingpoi nts.
Onc ea ni ns pe ctork nows t he s tarting poi nt ,heors he ca nus eot her
me thodst o de te r
mi ne t he pr ope rs tr
e ngt h. One me thod i s by
using a pi ega gea ss howni nbe l
owFi gure .Api ega gei sade vicewi th
seve rals ectionsofv e r
ype rme abl
emat e r
ials epa ratedbynonmagne ti
c
ma te r
ial
. Thega gei spl acedont ot hepa rt
, witht hec oppe rshimf acingt he
techni ci
an, aba thi sr unov erthega gea ndac urre ntisa ppli
ed.Byv ie wing
thei ndicationsont hegaget het e chnicianc an de terminet hedi r
ect i
onof
themagne ticf i
elda ndt heappr oximat es t
re ngt h.

Fi
gur
e19.

Anotherde viceusedtode t
ermine fi
elds tr
engtha nd direct
ion ist he
quanti
tati
ves him wi
tha narti
fi
cialdi
scont
inui
tya l
soc al
ledaqua nti
tat
ive
quali
tyindicat
or(QQI)
.Thisshimi smadeofav erypermeablema t
e r
ialand
hasa ne tchedimpressi
ononi t,suchasac i
rcl
ewithac r
ossha ir
.The
shapeoft heimpressi
onv ar
ies.
Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Thes himi sg luedort ap edtot hep a rt
,i mp ression s ided own ,a tt he
l
oc ation wh ered iscon ti
nu i
ti
e sa ret ob ef ou nd.Th ep arti st hen
proc es sedt h r
ou gh t he ma gn et
icp a r
ti
c lep roce dure.Th er e sult
ing
i
n di
c ationson t hes hi
ma reu se dt od e ter
mi nei fas atisfactoryf i
eld
dir
e ctiona nds treng t
hh asb eene sta bli
she d.
Itmu s tbek ep tinmi n dth atbotht hep ieg a gean dth equ an ti
tatives hi
m
onlyi nd i
catee xte r
n alfieldsa ndt hea pprox i
ma t
ef ieldor i
e nt
a ti
ona nd
str
e ng th.Howe ver,t h eya r
e wi d elyu s eda nda ccepte di n mos t
i
n dust ri
es.
The mos tc ommon e l
ec t
ronic me a ns to me asuret he e xternalf i
e l
d
str
e ngthonapa rta reHa l
lEffectme te r
sorga ussme ters.Howe ver,these
device sa l
s ome asureonl ythee xt
e rnals urf
a cef i
elds t
rength.Onel ast
me thodt ode ter
mi net hepr ope rfi
elds t
rengt hist or unat estona pa r
t
with a k nown di sconti
nuity. Thi s me t
hod i sa cceptablei ft he
discont i
nuityist rul
yr epr esentati
veoft het ypeands izetobef oundi na
part.Gi venthec hoice be t
we en ga ge s,s hims a nd e lectr
onicde vices,
thi
swoul d be t he pr eferr
ed me thod t o de t
e r
mi ne t he pr ope rfi
e l
d
str
e ngtha nd de velop apr ocedure.The rei sno k nown nonde struct
ive
techniquet ode terminet hefieldstre ngthi nsi
deapa rt.Whi l
eonemi ght
cons i
de rdr i
ll
ingahol ea ndme asuringt he s trengthi nt he hol e,this
woul d not be at rues t
rengthme a sureme ntbe ca uset hehol ewoul d
dist
or tthema gne ti
cfield.
Por
tabl
emagnet
icf
iel
dst
rengt
hmet
ers
To me asureres i
dualma gneti
sm,c ali
brated ma gneti
cf i
elds tr
eng t
h
i
nd i
catorsofthet ypewh i
chc ontai
nsas of
t;ironva nea r
ec ommon l
y
used.Th evanea li
gnsitsel
fwitht hema gneti
cf i
eld,thes t
rengtha nd-
di
recti
onoft hef i
eld'i
sme asur
e dbytheme t
e rcal
ib r
ateding aussor
tesl
a'
s,s i
milarnon-cal
ibr
atedinstrumentsa l
soe xist.Neit
heroft hese
i
nstrume nt
s' shoul
db eb roughti nt
oc losec ontactwi t
ha nys t
rong
ma gneti
cfiel
dsa sthi
sma yc ausedama getoth ei
n str
u ment.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
 Fi
gur
e20.Fi
eldst
rengt
hmet
er

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Bur
mah-
Cast
rolst
ri
ps
Theseares mallbr
as sorsi
lv
e rfi
nishstr
ipscontai
ningarti
fi
cialdefect
s
(3slots)in Mu me t
al.Mu me t
alisah ighl
yp er
me ablema t
e r
ial
cont
a i
ningn i
ckel,ma nganesea ndiron.Th eb r
assf i
nishs t
ripsa r
e
commo n l
yu sedi ng eneralengineeri
nga ppli
cati
onsa ndi ndi
ca t
e
l
owf iel
ds trengt
h s.The s i
lverfini
shs tr
ipswi l
lshowh i
g herfiel
d
st
rengthsa ndareu sedinaer ospaceindust
riesora r
east hatrequir
e
amo recri
ticalexaminati
on.

Fi
gur
e21.Bur
moh–Cast
rol
Str
ip
Withreferencet othebr assfi
nishs tri
p(type1)),if
-no indicati
ons a r
e
apparentthef i
eldistoowe akf orinspecti
onandi tisbelow 3a mpsa .c.
r.
m.s/mm ( 240 Oe ).Threeindicati
onss how t
ha tthef i
elds tr
engthis
great
ertha n5a mpsa .
c.r.
m.s/mm ( 400Oe ).Wi
thr efer
encet othes i
lver
fi
nishs t
ri
p( type2),ifnoi ndi
cationsa reappar
e nttheFi el
di sbelow 5
ampsa .
c.r .
m. s/
mm ( 400 Oe ). Thr eeindi
cat
ionss how t hatthefiel
d
str
engthisgr eatert
ha n15a mpsa .c.r.
m.s/mm (1200Oe )a ndthefiel
dis
sui
tableforcri
ticali
nspecti
on.

Per
for
mancecheckst
oBS6072
Perf
orma ncechecksa reusedtoe nsurea n MPItestsyst
em is
funct
ioni
ngc orr
ecti.e.a magnet
icf i
eldisc apabl
e o f b ei
ng
produceda ndreproducedsot
hattestresul
tscanbema i
ntai
neda t
aconsist
entlevel
.

Cur
rentnow(headshots)
Whencurr
entf
lowtechni
quesareusedonbenchunit
sthefoll
owi
ng
t
estshoul
dbec ar
ri
edoutforeachwavef
ormavai
labl
eforuse:
a.Ensurethetestpi
eceisthoroughl
ys at
isf
actor
il
y.
b.Posit
ionthetestpi
ece(seed i
agramb el
ow)b et
weentheheadand
tai
lst
ockofth ebenchequipme nt
.
C.Slowlyi
ntroduceacurrentandapplyi
n kunt
ilt
hefi
rsthol
e(cl
osestt
o

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
t
heext
ernalsur
face)i
svi
sibl
e.
d.Notethea ppl
iedamperageandcont
inuet
oappl
ythecur
rent

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
pr
ogr
essi
vel
yunt
ilt
hesecondandt
hir
dhol
esar
enot
ed.

Fi
gur
e22.TestPi
ecef
orcur
rentf
lowt
echni
que

Magneti
cfl
ow
I
fma gneti
cflowisb ei
ngu sed,asimi
larpr
ocedur
et otheabov
ewould
st
il
la ppl
ye xceptthatdialreadi
ngs/
s wi
tchsett
ingswouldb et
aken
i
nsteadofamp erageval
uesa ndbefol
lowi
n gt
estpiecewoul
dbeused.

Vi
ewi
ngCondi
ti
ons

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
AsrequiredbytheInt
ernat
ional
StandardBSENI SO3059:
2001Non-
dest
ruct
ive
test
ing
–Penetranttest
ingandMagneticpar
ticl
etest
ing–Viewi
ngcondi
ti
ons

Col
our cont
rast

techniquesLi
ghtsources
Inspecti
onshallbecarri
edoutindayli
ghtorwit
harti
fi
ciall
ight
.Monochr
omati
c
sourcessuchassodi um bul
bsshallnotbeused.Thet estsur
faceshal
lbe
i
lluminatedev
enly.Gl
areandrefl
ect
ionsshal
lbeavoi
ded.

Measurements
The il
l
uminance atthe testsur
face shal
lbe det
ermined by means ofan
i
ll
uminancemeterunderworki
ngcondi
ti
ons.Thenomi
nalspect
ralr
esponseoft
he
metershal
lbeinaccor
dancewithI
EC60050-845.

Requi
rements
Theil
l
uminanceatt
het
estsur
faceshal
lbe500l
xorgr
eat
er
Fl
uor
escentt
echni
ques

Ult
raviol
etradi
ati
on
Testi
ngshal lbecarri
edoutwit
hUV- Ar adi
ati
on(315nm t
o400nm)usi
nga
sourcewithanomi nalmaxi
mum i
ntensi
tyat365nm.

Measur
ement
s
TheUV- Ai r
radi
anceshal lbemeasur edunderwor kingcondi t i
onsont het est
surfacebymeansofaUV- Ai rr
adiationmet erhav ingasensi tivi
tyr esponseas
definedi nFigure1.
Measur ement sshallbecar ri
edoutwhent hel ampout puthasst abil
ized( notless
than10mi nutesafterswitchingon) .Ther eadi ngf rom thei l
luminancemet ershall
notbeaf fectedbyUV- Airradiance.
Requi rement s
TheUV- Ai rr
adi
anceshal lbegr eatert han10W/ m2( 1000µW/ cm2)andt he
i
llumi nancel esst han20l xont het estsur face.Themeasur ement sshal lbe
carried outunderwor king condi tions wi tht he UV- A sour ce t urned on and
stabilized.Forpenetranttest i
ngt heUV-Ai rr
adi anceshal lnotbegr eatert han50
W/ m2( 5000µW/ cm2).
Ther eshal lbenogl areorot hersour ceofv isi
blel ightorUV- Ar adiationwi thint he
oper ator'
sf i
eldofv i
sion.Ambi entv i
siblelightl evelsshal lbelesst han20l x.At
penet rantwashi ngstati
onsaUV- Ai rradianceofatl east3W/ m2( 300µW/ cm2)
shall bepr ovi
dedont hepar ts,andt hei l
luminanceshal l belesst han150l x.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Ver
if
icat
ion

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Thecal i
brati
on ofi rr
adiation and i ll
umi nancemet er sshallbev eri
fied att he
frequencyr ecommendedbyt hemanuf acturerusingast andardwhichi st raceable
tonat ionalorEur opeanSt andar ds.Thisper i
odshal lnotexceed24mont hs.The
calibrati
onoft heUV- Ai r
radiationmet ershal lbecarriedoutwi thmonochr omatic
radiationatawav elengthof 365nm.Mai ntenanceofordamaget ot hemet er
shal l
necessitatever i
ficati
on.
Whendet achablesensor sandr eadoutuni t
sar eused, v
erif
icati
onshal lbecar ri
ed
outont heent ir
esy stem ( readoutuni tandsensor s).Thev er
ifi
cati
onshal l be
document edbyat estcer t
ificate,adecl arati
onofconf or
mi t
yorat estr eportas
appl i
cable.

Gener
alPr
ocedur
esf
orMagnet
icPar
ti
cleI
nspect
ion

In magnet
ic par
ti
cleinspecti
on,there are manyv ar
iat
ions i
n procedurethat
cri
ti
cal
lyaff
ecttheresultsobtai
ned.Thesev ar
iat
ionsarenecessarybecauseof
the many ty
pes ofdi scont
inui
ti
es thatare soughtand t he many types of
fer
romagneti
cmat er
ial
sinwhichthesedisconti
nui
tiesmustbedetected.

Establishi
ngasetofpr oceduresf orthemagneti
cparticl
einspect
ionofaspeci f
ic
partrequi r
esthatthepar tbecar ef
ull
yanaly
zedtodet erminehow it
ssi zeand
shapewi l
laff
ectthetestresults.Themagnet i
ccharacter
ist
icsofthemat er
ialand
thesi ze,shape,l
ocation,anddi rectionoftheexpecteddisconti
nui
tyalsoaf fect
thepossi blevari
ati
onsi nt hepr ocedure.Theit
emst hatmustbeconsi deredi n
establishi
ngasetofpr oceduresf orthemagneti
cparticl
einspect
ionofaspeci f
ic
partinclude:

 Typeofcurrent
 Typeofmagnet i
cpart
icl
es
 Methodofmagnet i
zati
on
 Dir
ecti
onofmagnet i
zati
on
 Magnitudeofappli
edcurr
ent
 Equipment

Ty
peofCur
rent

Theelectr
iccurr
entusedcanbeei t
heral
ternati
ngcurr
entorsomef orm ofdi
rect
curr
ent.This choi
ce depends on whet
hert he di
scont
inuit
ies ar
e surf
ace or
subsurf
aceand,ifsubsur
face,
onthedist
ancebelowthesurface.

Al
ter
nat
ingCur
rent
:

Theskineff
ectofal
ternat
ingcur
rentat50or60Hzlimi
tsi
tsusetot
hedet ect
ion
ofdi
scont
inui
ti
esthatareopentothesurfaceort
hatar
eonlyafewthousandths
Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
ofani
nchbelow thesurface.Wit
halter
nati
ngcurrentatlowerfr
equenci
es,the
ski
nef
fecti
slesspronounced,r
esul
ti
ngindeeperpenet
rat
ionoftheli
nesoffor
ce.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Therapidrever
salofthemagnet i
cf i
eldsetupbyalter
nat
ingcurr
enti
mpar
ts
mobil
it
ytodr ypart
icl
es.Agitat
ionoft hepowderhel
psitmov etothear
eaof
l
eakagefi
eldsandtoform st
rongerindi
cati
ons.

Thest rengthofmagnet i
zat
ion,whichi sdeter
minedbyt hev alueoft hepeak
currentatt hetopofthesinewav eoft hecycl
e,is1.41timest hatoft hecurr
ent
i
ndicat ed on the meter
.Alternat
ing curr
entmet er
si ndicate more nearl
yt he
averagecur rentf
orthecycl
ethanthe
peakv alue.Obtai
ninganequi val
entmagnet i
zi
ngef fectf r
om st r
aightdir
ect
current
requiresmor epowerandheav i
erequipment.

Di
rectcur
rent
:

Ontheotherhand,magnet i
zestheenti
recrosssecti
onmor eorlessunif
ormlyi
na
l
ongit
udi
naldi rect
ion,and with a st
rai
ght-l
ine gr
adientof st rengt
hf r
om a
maximum att hesur f
acetozer oatthecent erofabari nt hecaseofcircul
ar
magneti
zati
on.Thiseffectisdemonstrat
edinFig.8(a)and8(b).

Al
ter
nat
ingCur
rentv
ersusDi
rectCur
rent
:

Inanexperi
mentdesi
gnedtocompar etheef
fect
ivenessof60-Hzal ter
nating
cur
rentandt
hreet
ypesofdi
rectcur
rent
,12hol
esrepr esent
ingar
ti
fi
cialdefects
weredr
il
ledi
na127mm (5in.
)ODby32mm ( 1 i n.
)IDby22mm ( in.)thi
ck
r
ingmadeofunhar
denedO1toolst
eel(
0.40%C)
.The12holes,
1.8mm (
0.07in.
)
i
ndi amet erandspaced19mm ( i n.)apar t,weredri
ll
edt hrought heringparallel
tot hecy li
ndri
calsurfaceati ncreasingdi stancesfrom thatsur f
ace.Thecent erl
ine
distancesr angedf r
om 1.8t o21. 3mm ( 0.07to
0.84i n.),inincrementsof1. 8mm ( 0.07i n.).Acentralconduct or,drymagnet i
c
par t
icles,andcont i
nuousmagnet izationwer eusedf ort hi
st est.Thet hr
eet y
pes
ofdi rectcurrentwer estraightdirectcur rentf r
om batt
eries,three-phaser ecti
fi
ed
alternating cur r
entwi t
h sur ge,and hal f
-wav erectif
ied si ngle-phase 60-Hz
alternatingcur rent
.Thet hresholdv aluesofcur r
entnecessar yt ogi v
er eadable
i
ndi cationsoft heholesint heringar epl ottedinFig.17.

Cur
rentl
evel
sasr
ead t
heusual
met
erswer
evar
iedf
rom mi
nimum neededt
o
on t
he

i
ndicat
ehol e1(1.
8mm, or0.07in.,
bel owthesurface)foreachtypeofcur r
ent,up
toamaxi mum ofover1000A.Topr oduceani ndi
cationathole1usingalternat
ing
curr
ent,about475Awasr equired,andathol e 2( 3.56mm,or0. 14 in.,bel
ow
thesur
face),ov
er
1000A.Hol e3(5.
33mm, or0.21in.,belowthesurface)couldnotberevealedwith
Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
alt
ernati
ngcurrentatanycurrentlevel
avail
able.Indicati
onsathol e2wereproduced
using450-Ast rai
ghtdirectcurr
ent,320-Adirectcur rentprecededbyasur geof
twicethatamper age,and250-Ahal f-
wavecur rent.Indicat
ionswereproducedat
hole12( 21.
3mm,or0. 84in.
,below thesurf
ace)usi ng750- Ahalf
-wav
ecur rent
,
while975-Astraightdi
rectcurr
entwasr equir
edf orhole10( 17.8mm,or0.70i n.
,
belowthesurface).

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
The curr
entl evels needed t
o produce indi
cat
ions using wetpar ti
cles were
somewhathi gher.Forexample,anindicat
ionforhol
e1usi ngdir
ectcur rentand
wetparti
clesrequiredapproxi
mately440A,andf orhole3,approximately910A.
Over625A wasr equiredtodetecthol e1usi ngalter
natingcurrentandwet
part
icl
es.

Thehar dnessoft hetest

pieceal sohadanef f
ectont hecurrentlevelneededt o
produceindicati
ons.Atahardnessof63HRC,t oproduceani ndicati
onathol e1,
approxi
mat ely200Aofhal f-
wav ecurr
ent,300Aofdi r
ectcurrentwi t
hsur ge,and
450Aofdi r
ectcur r
entwereneeded.Forhol e3,thecurrentl
evel
sneededf orthe
threety
pesofcur r
entwereappr oximatel
y1300,1875,and2700A,r especti
vely
.
Testssimil
art otheonedescribedabovehav ebeenperformedonr ingspecimens
madeof1020and4130st eel
s( Ref1).

Forthei
nspecti
onoff ini
shedpart
ssuchasmachi nedandgr oundshafts,cams,
andgearsofpr eci
sionmachinery
,directcurr
entisf requent
lyused.Al t
ernat
ing
cur
renti
susedf ordetect
ingfi
necracksthatactual
lybreakthesur f
ace,butdir
ect
cur
renti
sbetterforlocati
ngveryfi
nenonmet al
licstri
ngersly
ingjustbeneaththe
sur
face.

Met
hodofMagnet
izat
ion

Themet hodofmagnet i
zat
ionref
erstowhet
herr esi
dualmagnetism inthepar
t
provi
desal eakagefi
eldstrongenought
opr oducer eadabl
eindicat
ionswhen
part
icl
esareappl i
edorifthepartmustbecontinuouslymagnetizedwhil
ethe
part
icl
esareappli
ed.

Resi
dualMagnet
ism:

Thepr oceduref ormagnet icparticl

ei nspect
ionwithresi
dualmagnet i
sm,usi ng
eitherwetordr ypart
icles,basical
l
yconsi stsoftwosteps:establishingamagnet i
c
fi
eldi nt hepartandsubsequent l
yappl yi
ngthemagnet i
cpar ticles.Themet hod
canbeusedonl yonpar tsmadeofmet al
shav i
ngsuf f
icientr etent
ivi
ty.The
residualmagnet icfield mustbest r
ong enought o producel eakagef i
eldsat
discontinui
tiesthati
nt ur
npr oducer eadableindi
cati
ons.Thismet hodisreli
able
onlyfordet ect
ingsurfacediscontinui
ties.

Eit
hert hedr yorthewetmet hodofapplyi
ngpar t
icl
escanbeusedwi t
hr esidual
magnet izat
ion.Wi tht he wetmet hod,the magnet i
zed parts can eitherbe
i
mmer sedinagent lyagit
atedbathofsuspendedmet al
l
icpart
iclesorfl
oodedbya
curtai
nspr ay.The t imeofi mmersi
onoft hepar tinthebat hcanaf f
ectt he
str
engt hoftheindicati
ons.Byleavi
ngthemagnet i
zedparti
nthebat horundert he
sprayforaconsi derableti
me,t hel
eakagefields,evenatfi
nedi scont
inuit
ies,can
havetimet oat t
ractandhol dthe maximum numberofpar t
icles.Thelocationof
Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
thediscont
inui
tyont hepar
tasitisimmer sedhasaneffectonpart
icl
ebui
l
dup.
Buil
dupwi l
lbegreatestonhori
zontaluppersur
facesandwillbel
essonvert
ical
surf
acesandhor i
zontall
owersur
faces.Part
sshould

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
beremov
edfr
om thebathslowl
ybecauser
api
dremov
alcanwashof
findi
cat
ions
hel
dbyweakl
eakagefi
elds.

Cont
inuousMagnet
ism:

Inthecont i
nuousmet hod,part
sar econt i
nuouslymagnetizedwhi lemagnet i
c
part
icl
es ar e appl
ied tothe surfaces bei
ng inspect
ed.I nt he dr
y-par
ti
cle
conti
nuousmet hod,caremustbet akennott oblow awayi ndicat
ionsheldby
weakleakagefiel
ds.Forthi
sreason,themagnet i
zi
ngcur r
entisleftonduringthe
removalofexcesspart
icl
es.

Int he wet -
part
icle cont
inuous met hod,the liquid suspension containi
ng t
he
magnet icparti
clesisappl i
edt othepar t
,andt hemagnet i
zingcurrenti sappl
i
ed
si
mul taneouslywi t
hcompl et
ionofpar t
icl
eappl icat
ion.Thi spreventswashing
awayofi ndi
cati
onshel dbyweakl eakagefields.Forreli
abil
ityofresults,t
hewet
continuousmet hodr equi
resmor eattenti
ontot imingandgr eateraler
tnessonthe
partoftheoper atorthanthewetresidualmet hod.

Thecont i
nuousmet hod can beused on anymet althatcan bemagnet ized
becausei nthi
smet hodr esidualmagnet i
sm andr etenti
v i
tyarenotasimpor t
anti n
produci ng a leakage f ield ata di scontinuit
y .Thi s met hod i
s mandat oryf or
i
nspect ion ofl ow-carbon st eels ori ron hav ing litt
le orno r et
enti
vit
y .Iti s
fr
equent l
yusedwi thal ter
natingcur rentonsuchmet alsbecauset heacf ield
producesexcel l
entmobi li
tyofdr ymagnet icpar ti
cles.Maxi mum sensit
ivi
tyforthe
detectionofv eryti
nedi scont i
nuiti
esi sachi evedbyi mmer singthepartinawet -
particl
ebat h,passingt hemagnet i
zing cur r
entt hrough t hepartforashor tti
me
duringi mmer sion,andl eavingt hecurrentonast hepar tisremovedandwhi lethe
bathdr ainsfrom thesur face.

Di
rect
ionofMagnet
izat
ion

Theshapeandor ientationoft hesuspect eddi scontinuit

yi nrel
ationtotheshape
andpr i
ncipalaxi soft hepar thav eabear ingonwhet hert hepar tshouldbe
magnet izedi naci rcularoral ongitudinaldirect i
onori nbot hdirecti
ons.Therule
oft humb i st hatt he cur rentmustbe passed i n a directi
on parall
eltot he
discontinuity.I
fthepr i
nci paldi r
ectionoft hedi scontinui
ti
esi sunknown, t
odetect
alldiscontinuit
ies,bothci rcularandl ongitudinalmagnet i
zati
onmustbeused; with
thepr odandy okemet hods,t hepr odsory okemustber epositi
onedat90°f rom
thef i
rstmagnet i
zi
ngposi t
ion.Themagnet i
cpar t
icl
ebackgr oundhel donapartby
extraneous l eakage f ields is mi nimized when usi ng t he cir
cularmet hod of
magnet izingbecauset hef i
eldgener al
lyissel f
-containedwi thi
nt hepart.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Magni
tudeofAppl
iedCur
rent

Theamountofmagnet i
zedcurrentorthenumberofampere-
tur
nsneededf or
optimum result
si sgov
erned bythe t
y pesand mi
nimum di
mensionsoft he
discont
inui
ti
esthatmustbelocatedorbyt het
ypesandsi
zesofdiscont
inui
ti
es
thatcanbetoler
ated.

Theamountofcur rentf orl ongi

tudinalmagnet izat
ion wi t
h acoi li s i nit
iall
y
determinedbyEquat ion1and2.Forci r
cul armagnet i
zation,whenmagnet izingby
passingcur rentdi r
ectlyt hroughapar t,thecur rentshoul drangef rom 12t o31
A/mm ( 300t o800A/ in.)oft hedi amet eroft hepar t
.Thedi amet eri sdefinedas
thelargestdistancebet weenanyt wopoi ntsont heout sidecircumf erenceoft he
part.Normal l
y,thecur rentusedshoul dbe20A/ mm ( 500A/ i
n. )orlower ,witht he
highercurrentv aluesofupt o31A/ mm ( 800A/ in.)usedt oinspectf orinclusions
ort oinspectal loyssuchaspr ecipi
tati
on- har
denedst eels.Thepr odmet hodof
magnet i
zationusual lyr equires4t o4.92A/ mm (100t o125A/ in.)ofprodspaci ng.
Prodspacingshoul dnotbel essthan50mm ( 2in.)normor ethan203mm ( 8in.).

Equi
pment

Select
ionofequipmentformagneti
cparti
cleinspect
iondependsont
hesi
ze,
shape,number
,andvari
etyofpar
tst
obetested.

BenchUni
ts

Forthepr oduct
ioninspect
ionofnumerouspartst
hatar erelat
ivel
ysmallbutnot
necessari
lyidenti
calin shape,a bench uni
twith contactheads forcircul
ar
magnetizati
on,as wel las a buil
t-
in coilforl
ongitudinalmagnetizat
ion,is
commonl yusedFig.(11)

Portableuni
tsusingprods,yokes,orhand-
wrappedcoi
lsmaybemostconvenient
forl
ar gepart
s.Hal f
-wavecurrentanddryparti
clesar
eoftenusedwit
hportable
equipment.Wetpar ti
clescanbeusedwi t
hpor t
ableequi
pment,butt
hebathi s
usuall
ynotrecovered.

MassPr
oduct
ionMachi
ner
y:

Forlar
gel ot
sofident
icalorclosel
ysi
mil
arparts,si
ngl
e-pur
posemagnet
izat
ion-
and-i
nspecti
onuni
tsorfixt
uresonmult
ipl
e-pur
poseunit
scanbeused

Nomencl
atur
eUsedi
nMagnet
icPar
ti
cleI
nspect
ion

Ani ndi
cat
ioni
sanaccumulat
ionofmagnet
icpar
ti
clesont
hesur
faceoft
hepar
t
thatfor
msduri
ngi
nspect
ion.
Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Rel
evantindi
cati
ons ar
ethe resul
toferror
s made dur
ing oraf
termet
al
pr
ocessi
ng.Theymayormaynotbeconsi
der
eddef
ect
s.

A nonrel
evantindi
cati
onisonet hati
scausedbyf l
uxleakage.Thi
st y
peof
i
ndicat
ionisusual
lyweakandhasnorel
ati
ontoadi sconti
nui
tythati
sconsi
der
ed
tobeadef ect
.Examplesaremagneti
cwr i
ti
ng,changei nsecti
onduet opart
desi
gn,oraheataffect
edzonel
i
neinweldi
ng.

Fal
seindicat
ionsarethosei
nwhicht hepart
icl
epatt
ernsar
ehel
dbygr
avi
tyor
sur
faceroughness.Nomagnet
icat
tract
ioni
sinvol
ved.

A di
sconti
nui
tyi
s any i
nter
rupt
ion i
nt he nor
malphy
sicalconf
igur
ati
on or
composi
ti
onofapar
t.I
tmaynotbeadef ect
.

Adef
ecti
sanydi
scont
inui
tyt
hati
nter
fer
eswi
tht
heut
il
it
yorser
viceofapar
t.

Int
erpr
etat
ionconsist
sofdeter
mini
ngthepr
obabl
ecauseofani
ndi
cat
ion,and
assi
gningi
tadisconti
nui
tynameorl
abel
.

Evaluat
ioni
nvol
vesdeter
mini
ngwhet herani
ndi
cati
onwi l
lbedetri
mentaltothe
servi
ceofapart
.Iti
sajudgementbasedonawell
-def
inedaccept
/rej
ectst
andard
thatmaybeeit
herwri
tt
enorverbal
.

Nonr
elev
antI
ndi
cat
ions

Nonrelevantindi
cati
onsar etr
uepatter
nscausedbyl eakagef
iel
dst hatdonot
resul
tfrom thepresenceoff l
aws.Nonrel
evanti
ndi
cati
onshaveseveralpossi
ble
causesandt her
efor
er equi
reeval
uati
on,buttheyshouldnotbeinterpret
edas
fl
aws.

Sour
cesofNonr
elev
antI
ndi
cat
ions

Par ti
clepatternst haty i
eldnonrel
evanti ndi
cationscanbet her esultofdesign,
fabricati
on,orot hercausesand do noti mpl yacondi ti
ont hatr educesthe
strength orut il
it
yoft hepart.Becausenonr elev antindi
cat
ionsar etruepart
icl
e
buildups,theyaredi ff
icul
ttodist
inguishf r
om buildupscausedbyf laws.Theref
ore,
thei nvesti
gatormustbeawar eofdesi gnandf abr i
cati
onconditionsthatwould
cont r
ibutetoorcausenonr el
evantindicati
ons.

Par
ti
cleAdher
enceDuet
oExcessi
veMagnet
izi
ngFor
ce:

Onetypeofnonrel
evanti
ndicati
onisthatcausedbyparti
cleadherenceatleakage
f
iel
ds around sharp corner
s,r i
dges,or ot her surf
ace ir
regular
it
ies when
magneti
zedlongi
tudi
nall
ywi t
ht oostrongamagnet i
zi
ngf or
ce.Theuseoft oo

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
str
ongacurr
entwithcircul
armagnet
izat
ioncanpr
oducei
ndi
cat
ionsoft
hef
lux
l
inesoft
heext
ernal
fiel
d.Both

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
oftheabovephenomena(excessi
vemagneti
zi
ngfor
ceorexcessi
vecur
rent
)are
cl
earl
yrecogni
zedbyexper
iencedoper
ator
sandcanbeel
iminat
edbyareducti
on
i
ntheappli
edmagneti
zingfor
ce.

Mi
llScal
e:

Tightl
yadher ing millscale wil
lcause part
icle bui
l
dup,notonl ybecause of
mechanical adherence but al so because of t he di
ff
erence in magnet i
c
permeabili
tybetweent hesteelandthescal
e.Inmostcases,thiscanbedet ect
ed
vi
suall
y,andaddi t
ionalcleani
ngf ol
l
owedbyr etest
ingwil
lconfi
rmt heabsenceof
atruedisconti
nuit
y.

Confi
gurat
ionsthatresul
tinar estr
icti
onofthemagneti
cfi
eldareacauseof
nonr
elev
anti ndi
cati
ons.Typi
calrestri
cti
veconfi
gur
ati
onsar
ei nt
ernalnot
ches
suchasspl i
nes,thr
eads,
groovesforindexi
ng,
orkey
ways.

Abruptchangesi nmagnet icproperti

es,suchast hosebetweenwel dmet aland
basemet alorbetweendi ssimil
arbasemet als,r
esultinnonr el
evantindicat
ions.
Dependi
ngont hedegreeofchangei nthemagneticpr oper
ty,thepart
iclepatter
n
mayconsi stofl
ooselyadheringpart
iclesormaybest rongandwel ldefi
ned.Again,
i
tisnecessaryfortheinvest
igatort
obeawar eofsuchconditions.

Magnet izedwr iti

ngi sanotherform ofnonr elevantindi
cation.Magnet i
cwr i
tingis
usuall
yassoci ated with part
s displaying good r esi
dualchar acteri
stics int he
magnet izedst ate.I fsuchapar ti scont actedwi thashar pedgeofanot her
(pr
eferablymagnet ical
ly soft
)par t,theresidualfiel
disl ocall
yr eoriented,gi v
ing
ri
se toal eakage f i
eld and consequent l
ya magnet ic particl
ei ndication.For
exampl e,thepoi ntofacommonnai lcanbeusedt owr i
t eonapar tsuscept ibleto
magnet icwr it
ing.Magnet i
cwr i
ti
ngi snotal way seasyt ointerpret,becauset he
part
iclesar elooselyheldandar ef uzzyori ntermit
tenti
nappear ance.I fmagnet i
c
writ
ingi ssuspect ed,itisonlynecessar ytodemagnet izet hepar tsandr et
est .I
f
theindicationwasmagnet i
cwriti
ng, i
twill
notr eappear.

Addi
ti
onalSour
ces:

Someothercondi
ti
onst
hatcausenonr
elev
anti
ndi
cat
ionsar
ebr
azedj
oint
s,v
oids
i
nfi
tt
edparts,
andlar
gegrai
ns.

Di
sti
ngui
shi
ngRel
evantFr
om Nonr
elev
antI
ndi
cat
ions

Therearesever
alt
echni
quesf
ordi
ff
erent
iat
ingbet
weenr
elev
antandnonr
elev
ant
i
ndicat
ions:

 Wher
emi
l
lscal
eorsur
facer
oughnessi
sthepr
obabl
ecause,
closev
isual
Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
 i
nspect
ionofthesur
facei
nthear
eaoft
hedi
scont
inui
tyanduseof
magnif
icat
ion

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
 uptot endi amet ers
 Studyofasket chordr awingoft hepar tbeingtestedt oassistinl ocati
ng
welds, changesi nsection, orshapeconst r
ict
ions
 Demagnet i
zat i
onandr etesti
ng
 Carefulanal ysisoft he par ti
cle pat
tern.The par t
icle pat
ternt ypicalof
nonrelevanti ndicati
onsi susual lywide,loose,andl ight
lyadher i
ngandi s
easil
yr emov ableev endur i
ngcont i
nuousmagnet izati
on
 Useofanot hermet hodofnondest r
uctiv
ei nspecti
on,suchasul trasoni
c
test
ingorr adi ography,tov eri
fythepresenceofasubsur f
acedef ect

Sur
faceI
ndi
cat
ions

Surfacedi sconti
nuit
ies,asaclass,pr
oduceshar p,di
sti
nct,cleancut,andtightl
y
heldi ndicat i
onpat t
erns.Thi
si sparti
cular
lytrueoft hecl osedli
ppedsur face
di
scont inui t
ies,which are di
ffi
cultto see and ar e objecti
onabl
ef r
om t he
standpoi ntofser v
iceorsubsequentpr ocessi
ngr equir
ement s.A discont
inuit
y
opent ot hesur f
acei smoreli
kelytobehar mfultoanar ti
clethanasubsur face
di
scont inui t
y.

Subsur
faceI
ndi
cat
ions

Subsurfacediscont
inui
ti
est endt
opr oduceindicati
onswhicharel
essdi
sti
nct
,
di
ffused,orfuzzyratherthansharp-
outl
inesindicat
ionsobser
vedwit
hsur
face
di
scontinui
ti
es.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Pr
imar
yPr
ocessi
ngDi
scont
inui
ti
es

Process Disconti
nuit
yCausedBy Locati
on
Casti
ng Coldshut Lackoff usi
onbetweent wointer
cepting Surf
ace
surf
acesofmet alasitflowsintothe
cast.
HotTear s Dif
ferenceincool
ingr at
esbetweent hin Sur
face
secti
onsandt hi
cksect i
ons.
Shrinkag Lackofenoughmol tenmet altofi
llt
he Sub
eCav it
y spacecreatedbyshrinkage. Sur f
ac
e
Mi cro Impr oper l
y desi gned Mol d causi ng Sub
shr i
nkage premat urebl ockageatmol dgat e Sur f
ace
BlowHol es I nabili
tyofExt ernalgassest oescape Sur f
ace
from t hemol d
Por osity EntrappedI nt ernalGasses Sur f
aceor
subsur f
ace
Forging Lap FoldingofMet al i
nat hi nplateont he Sur f
ace
surfaceoft hef orging
Bur st ForgingatI mpr operTemper ature Sur f
aceor
subsur f
ace
Rolli
ng Lami nat
ion Fl att
eni ng and of Subsur face
s( Flat Lengt heningDi scont i
nui ti
esi n
Plate) parentmet al
Stringers Flatt
eni ng and Lengt hening of Subsur face
(Bar Discont i
nuiti
esFoundi npar ent
stock) met al
Seams ( Bar Lenget heningofsur f
acecr acksf oundi
n sur f
ace
stock) parentmet al
Wel de Lack of Incompl eteWel d Sur f
ac
dPi pe Fusi o e of
n (inner
Out er)
Lami nat
ions Presenti nthePar entMet al (Sheetof subsur f
ace
platemat erial)
Seaml ess Seams Presenti nthepar entmet al (
Roundbar Out er
pipesand stock) sur f
ac
tubes e
Slugs Met al Builduponpi ercingmandr el Inner
sur f
ac
e
Gouges Sizi
ngMandr el Draggi ng Inner
sur f
ace
ExtrusionsSeams Presenti npar entmet al sur f
ace
Por
osi
ty Pr
esenti
npar
entmet
al Surf
aceor
subsur
face
Gal
li
ng I
mpr
operMet
alf
lowt
hrought
heDi
e Surf
ace
(Cr
acks
)

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Fi
nishPr
ocessi
ngDi
scont
inui
ti
es

Pr
ocess Discont i
nuity CausedBy Locati
on
Gr
indi
ng Cracks Excess l ocalized Heat Surf
ace
createdbet weengr i
ndingwheel
andmat erial
Heat Stresscr acks Stressesbui lt up by Surf
ace
Treati
n Impr operpr ocessing –Unequal
g heating or
cool i
ng
Explosi
ve Cracks and Ext r
emedef ormat i
onov erst
resses surf
ace
forming Tear s the
mat eri
al
Welding Cr at er Impr operUseofHeatsour ce Surf
ace or
cracks( Star, subsurf
ace
Transv erse,
Longi t
udinal)
Stresscr acks Stressesbui ltupbywel d Surf
ace
cont r
action( i
fmat eri
al i
s
restrai
ned)
Por osi
t y Ent r
appedgasses Surf
ace or
subsurf
ace
Slag Incompl etecleaningofsl agfrom Surf
ace or
i
ncl usi
ons the subsurf
ace
wel dbetweenpasses
Tungst en Excessiv e cur r
ent usi ng Subsurf
ace
Inclusi
on directTungst en-Ar cwelding
s
Lack of Impr operwel dingtechnique Surf
ace or
Penet rati
on subsurf
ace
Lack of Impr operwel dingtechnique Subsurf
ace
Fusi on
Under cut Impr operwel dingtechnique surf
ace
Ov
erl
appi
ng Wel dover
lapspar
entmet –Not sur
al face
fused
Bendi
ng Cr
acks Ov er
str
essesofMater
ial Sur
face
Machi
ning Tear
s Workingwi
thDul
ltoolsorcut
ti
ng Sur
face
Toodeep
Pi
ckl
i
n Cr
acks Rel
iefofI
nter
nal
Stresses Sur
face
gand
Et
chi
ng
Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
El
ect
ro Cr
acks Rel
i
efofI
nter
nal
Str
esses Sur
face
Pl
ati
ng

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Accept
ancel
evel
s(AsperBSEN1291)

Gener
al

Thewidt
hofthet
estsur
faceshal
li
ncl
udet
heweldmetal
andt
headj
acent
par
entmetal
uptoadist
anceof10mm oneachsi
de.

Acceptancelevel
spr escri
bedf orl
i
nearindi
cat
ionsarethosecorrespondi
ngt o
theevaluati
onlevel
.Indicati
onslowerthanthi
sshallnotbetakenintoaccount.
Normally,accept
ableindicati
onsshal
lnotberecorded.

Local gr
indi
ngmaybeusedt oi
mprovetheclassi
ficat
ionofal
lorpar
tofat
est
surfacewheniti
srequi
redt oworktoahigherdetecti
onli
mitthant
hat
recommendedbyt heexist
ingweldsurf
aceconditioninTabl
ebelow.

GroupedI ndi
cations
Anyadj acentindicat
ionssepar
atedbylessthanthemajordi
mensi
onofthe
smallershallbeassessedasasi ngl
e,conti
nuousindi
cati
on.
Groupedi ndi
cationsshallbeeval
uat
edi naccor
dancewithappl
i
cabl
estandar
ds.

Accept
ancel
evel
sofi
ndi
cat
ions:

Typeof Acceptanc 2 3
i
ndicat
io elevel
1)
n
1
Linearindicati
on ≤1. 5 ≤3 ≤6
l=lengt h
of
i
ndication
Non- ≤2 ≤3 ≤4
l
inear
i
ndication
d=maj oraxis
dimensi on
1)Accept ancel evel
s2and3maybespeci fi
edwi t
ha
suffi
xª Xºwhi chdenot esthatall
li
nearindicati
ons
detectedshal lbeevaluatedtolevel1.Howev erthe
probabilit
yofdet ect
ionofi ndi
cati
onssmal lert
hant hose
denotedbyt heorigi
nal accept
ancelevelcanbel ow.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Recommendedt
est
ingpar
amet
ers
Therecommendedpar
amet
ersf
orr
eli
abl
edet
ect
ionofsmal
li
mper
fect
ionsar
e
gi
veninTabl
eA.1.

Accept
ancel
evel Sur
facecondi
ti
on Ty peofpenet rant
system
1 Finesur face1) Fluorescentorcol our
cont r
astwi thcont r
ast
aid
2 Smoot hsur face2) Fluorescentorcol our
cont r
astwi thcont r
ast
aid
3 Gener alsur face3) colourcont r
astwi th
cont r
astai d
or
Fluorescent
1)FineSur faceThewel dcapandpar entmat eri
al offeringsmoot hcl ean
surfaceswi thnegl i
gibleunder cut,ri
ppl ingandspat ter.Thesur facef i
nishis
typi
cal ofwel dsmadebyaut omat i
cTI Gwel ding,submer gedar cwel ding
(f
ullymechani zed)andmanual met al arcwel dingpr ocessusi ngi r
onpowder
el
ect r
odes.
2)Smoot hSur faceThewel dcapandpar entmat er i
al offeri
ngr easonabl y
smoot hsur faceswi thmi nimal undercut ,
rippli
ngandspat t
er.Thesur face
fi
nishist ypi
cal ofweldsmadebymanual met alarcwel dingv erti
cal
downwar dsandMAG-wel dingusi ngar gongasf ort hecappi ngr uns.
3)Gener alSur faceThewel dcapandpar entmat erial i
nt heaswel ded
conditi
on.Thesur f
acef i
nishi stypical ofwel dspr oducedbyt hemanual
met alarcandMAGwel dingpr ocessesi nanyposi ti
on.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
 Repor
ti
ng

Adequate report
ing ise ssenti
alf ort hetransmi
ssion of
rel
evantandc or
rectinf
orma ti
ona f
terthetest
.Anytestr
e por
t
shoul
d i ncl
ude the infor
ma ti
on required bythe rel
evant
speci
ficat
ionfort he wo kb
r eingp er
formed.T heBS 6072
requi
resthefol
lowingi
n f
orma t
iona sami ni
mu m
a)Wo rklo ca ti
o n .
b)De scri
p t
iona ndi d ent
it
yo fthec omp one nttested.
c)Dateoft est.
d)Stageoft es t,e.g.b ef
oreora fterh eattr
e atme nt
,b ef
ore
ora ft
e rf i
n al ma chini
ng .
e)Referenc et ot hewr it
tentestpr
oc edureandt hetechni
que
sheetsus ed.
f)Nameoft hec ompa ny.
g)Namea nds igna t
ur eofthepersonpe r
formingt hetest
s.
h)Thetes tresults .
I
fawri
tt
enprocedurei sa bs ent,theBS6072a lsorequir
e sthe
f
oll
owi
nginf
orma t
ionont her eport
:
a)De scri
pt i
onofe qui pme ntus ed.
b)Te chniqu eoff l
u xg e ne ration.
c)Indi
c atedc urrentv aluesa ndwa veformf ore achtechni
queus ed.
d)Distanc ebe t
we enc onta cta reasordi me nsionaldetai
lsofc oi
ls,
etc..
.
e)detectionmedi um used, andback ground;
f)Surfacepr eparation.
g)Viewingcondi ti
ons.
h)Me thodofr ecordi ngma rkingofi ndic at
ions .
Ac ommonme thodofr e cordi ngi n dica t
ionsi st ore produ cei
n di
ca t
ions
onas cal
edd i
ag ram. Ind i
c ation ss h ou ldb ed rawn wi threferencestoa
datum onthete stp iece.Th ed iag ram( s)sh ouldn otb eov erl
oa dedwi t
h
too muchin f
orma ti
on ;u set wo d iag r
a msi fn ec es sar
y.A s epa r
a t
e
diagr
ams howin gma gnet i
zin gt ech niqu ess houldi dea l
lybei ncluded
wh er
eiti
snotobv i
ou swh icht e ch n i
qu eh asb eena ppli
ed .
Othermet
hodsofr e cordingi ndic ati
onsa re:
a)Photogr aphs.
b)Clea rs tickyt ap et op eelt hed ried ma gne t
icp art
icl
e s
indicationf r
om t h et estpi e ce.
c)Prop ri
e tylacqu e r
ss p r
a ye donwe t:wh e nd r
yt heresult
an t
fil
mi st henp eeleda wa ywi t
ht hei ndication.
d)Magnet o-graph.
e)Magnet ics achetswi thlights ensiti
v epaperbac ki
ngs.
Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Priortothere cor
dingo findi
cations,iti
se ssent
ialtoensurethatthe
testconditi
on sandinp arti
cular
,thema gnet
izi
n glevel
sa r
ea sn ear
asp ossi
bletothelevelrecomme nde dfort
h etechnique.
Ifdryp owd erisused,n op repar
ati
oni sn ecessary.I
fa nyoi
lb ased
carr
ierf l
uidi sused,thes urfacesh oul
db edr ainedanda dequat
ely
dri
ed.An otherpossibi
li
tyist oretestthewor kpi
eceu si
ngama gnet
ic
i
n kma dewithav ol
atil
ec ar
ri
erflui
d.

Pr
eser
vat
ionofi
ndi
cat
ionst
oBS6072
Toobtai
naper manentr
ecor
d,ei
therphotographyoroneofthemethodsgi
ven
i
n
(a)t
o( f
)s houldb eused.Itise ssen t
ialthatac ommonda t
um be
establ
ished onboththeworkpiecea ndth er ecor
da ndt hatcarebe
takenn ottod i
sturbt
heindi
cations.

a)Coverthei nd i
cationwi that ranspa renta dhesivef il
m.Ca ref
ull
y
peeloffth efil
ma ndth ea dh er
ingi ndica t
ionsa n dr eapp l
yt o
ei
therp ape rorc ardofc on t
r asti
ngc ol
ou r.
b)Degreasethet ests urface,cov erwi thawhi lema ttadhe si
vef i
lm
andretest.Afterdr yi
ng,ifne cessa r
y ,cov ertheindi cat
ionswi tha
cl
earfil
m i nthema nne rdesc ri
bedi n( a)andt ransfertoge t
herthe
pai
roffil
mst other ecordc ar
d
c)Spraythet esteda rea wi th a qui ck dr ying s tr
ippablec oati
ng
and v i
ewt hef acepr eviouslyinc ontac twitht hewor kpl
a ceto
whichtheindicati
onswi l
lbet ransferred.
d)Heatt he wor kpla cet o a n a ppr oved t emp eratur
e a nd
wit
hou td el
a y.Slowlyi mme rsei nap owd eredp l
as t
icma ter
ial
ands l
owlywi t
hd r
a w.Al l
owi ttod raina n dc ur
titi na ccordance
wit
ht h e ma nufacturer’
si n structi
on s.St r
ip of ft hec oati
ng
comp l
etewi thind i
ca t
ionsf rom th ewor kpiecea ndv iewt heface
previ
ou sl
yinc on t
a ctwi t
hi t
.
e)Degreas et het e sts urfac ea ndc oatwi th a Pr oprietar
y
str
ippable ma g netic-
o xidep aint.Ma gneti
z et hep a r
tt o
saturat
iona ndp e elofft hec oa t
ing ,ifitisd ipp edina git
ated
ma gneticin k,i
twi l
lre v
e alt hefla wi nd i
ca t
ion so nt heo x i
de
fi
lm.
f)Degreas eth ete sta reaa ndc oatwi thp roprietarys elfc uri
ng
ma gneti
cs il
icon e-r
u bbe rc omp ou nd .Ma gnetizea nda l
low
thec omp oun dt oc ure.Th eo xid ei nt hec o mp ou nd will
migratetot hep o si
ti
o no fa n yflawa n dwh enr emo v
e df r
o m
the wo rkpiece,t her ub berp r
ev i
o us l
yi nc on tactwi tht he
surf
a cewi l
l showt h eflaw

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Li
mi t
ati
onsofpr eserv
a t
ionme thods
Me thods(a)to(c)abovea regeneral
lyrestri
ctedtos ur
faces ofsimple
geome tr
icform becauseofthediffi
cul
ti
esi nvolv
e dinremovingthefi
lms.
Me thod(d)doe snotpr oduces ati
sfact
oril
yr esult
s f rom f l
uor
escent
ma gneti
cinksascompa redwithblackma gnetici
nk s.

Phot
ogr
aphi
crecor
ds
Whe naphot ogr
aphi
cr ecor
disma detheresult
ingphotographofthe
test
eds urf
aceshoul
d,ifpossi
ble,beactualsi
ze.Ift
hes ur
faceofthe
workpi
ec ehighl
ypoli
shedc ar
es houl
dbet akent oavoidhighl
ights.
Theus eofamat t
-contrastmedium appl
iedpriort
otesti
ngma ybe
desi
rabl
e .

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
COSHHRegul
ati
ons

Scope
The Co nt
rolofS ubst
ances Hazar
doust o Heal
th Regul
ati
o ns
198 8 cameintoforce1st October1 989.Theser egul
ati
ons,
refer
redtoa s Th e COSHH Re gul
ati
ons,def
inea substance
hazardoustoheal
thas:

a)a s u b st anc e l i
s te d i n p artI A o fthe
ap pro ve dl ist a sd an ge rou sfo rsup plysee
cla ssifica tion p a ck ag ing a nd l abeli
ng
reg ula ti
o n s 1 98 4 (b) n a t
u r
e o f r i
sk
cla ssifieda sv er yt oxic,t ox i
c,h arm f ul
l,
co rros iveo r i
rr i
t an to n ewh ichh asa nME L
ins ch e du l
e1 o fC O S HH o rift heH & S
co mmi ss ionh a sa pp rov eda nO ES.
b)
Onewh i
c hha sanMELi nSc hedule1ofCOSHHoriftheH&S
Commi ssi
onh asa pproveda nOES.
c)Ami cr
o-organ i
sm wh ichc r
ea t
esah azar
dtoheal
th.
d)Dusti
nair(whensubstanti
al)
.
e)Asubstancecompa rablewiththeabove.

f)TheCOSHEr egulati
onsareno tappl
icabl
etothecont
rolof
l
ead,radi
oacti
vit
y.
g)Expl
o siveo rfl
amma blep roperti
eso fma ter
ial
s ,
h i
gh
orlowt emp eratures.high
h)Pr
essur
es,medi
calt
reat
mentorbel
owgroundwork(
mini
ng)
.

Respons i
bil
iti
es
Thee xposureofa ne mployeet os ubstanceshaz ardoustohe alt
hisunde r
thecont r
oloft hee mployer.A t rai
ningorga ni
zationisr esponsiblef or
exposurebyt r
ainee s.
Emp l
oy ersmu stp r
eventexp osuret os ubstancesh azardoust oh ea l
th,
or c on t
role xpos ure wh e n totalpr ev ent
ion i sn ot r easona bly
pract
icab l
e.Pe r
s onalprotecti
v ee quipmen t
, e.
g.ma sks,ar eas e con d
choiceforc ontr
ol.
Employ ees have a dut ytor eporta ny problems ine xpos ur
ec ontrol
procedures ora nyde f
ectsfoundi npr ot
ect
ivee quipment.
Employ
e r
smustkeepr
ecordsofexaminat
ions/
monitor
ingtest
sc ar
ri
ed
out
.Thesear
ekeptf
or5years30y
, e ar
sforident
if
iabl
eemployees.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Occupat ional ExposureLimi ts(EH40)
TheGu ida nceNot eEH4 O,e nt
itl
edOc cupati
onalExposu r
eL i
mi t
s ,isa
docu me n tpu bl
ishedb yt heHe al
than dSa f
etyExecuti
vewh i
chg iv
e s
occu pational exposurelimi tsforsubstanceshazar
d oustoh eal
th.
As olvent,whi chi sas ubst
a nce hazar
dous to heal
th,ha si t
s own
occupa t
iona le xposur
el imi ta sgiveninEH40.Thet oxici
tyv al
ueofa
solv
e ntise xpressedinpa r
tspe rmill
i
on( ppm),e.
g. the oc cupational
expos ur
el i
mi tf orxylene i s 100ppm, thi
sme anstos aythatifthea ir
containedx ylenee xceeding100ppm t hea i
rwouldbec onsider
edt obea
si
gnificantha zardtohe alth.
Ther
ear
etwot ypesofoc cupati
onalexposureli
mit:
a) Ma xi
mu m e xposure l imit ( MEL )
: i s t he ma xi
mu m
concen tr
ation ofa na irbornes u bst
ance,a veraged ov era
ref
eren ce pe ri
od,to wh iche mpl oyees ma yb ee xposedb y
i
nha l
ationu n deran ycir
cu ms t
ance sandi ssp eci
fi
edt ogether
wit
ht hea pp ropri
ateref
ere ncepe r
iodinSch edul
e1ofCOSHH.
b) Oc cup ati
o n ale xposu re s tan dard,( OE S):i s t
he
con cen t
ra ti
o no fa na i
r bornes u bstance,av er
a gedo ver
ar eferen cep eri
o d,at wh ich,a cco r
d i
ng t o c urrent
knowl e dge ,th er
ei sn oe viden cetha titisl i
ke l
yt ob e
i
n j
uriou stoe mp loyeesi ftheya r
ee xpos edtoi nhalation.
Da ya ft
e rd ayt ot ha tc onc entrat
ion,a nd wh i
chi s
spec i
fiedi nal i
sta pprovedb yHS E.
WhenaME Li sspec i
fi
ed,exposuresmu stb ekepta slowa sis
r
easonablypracti
cable,butal
wa ysbe l
owt hespecif
iedvalue.An
OESs houl
dn otbee xceeded,butane xposur
eo vert helimitis
accept
ablep r
o v
idi
ngt hatthereaso nforexceedi
ngtheOE Sh as
been identi
fi
ed a n d measuret akentor educethee xposure
bel
owt heOESa ss oonasisreasonab l
yp r
acti
cabl
e.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
EXAMI
NATI
ONSCHEMES
PCNExami
nat
ions
Gener
al

ThePCN( Per sonal

Cer
ti
fi
cati
oninNon-Dest
ructi
veTesti
ng)i
sanInt
ernat
ional
Scheme
forthecer
ti
ficati
onofNDTtechni
ciansandsupervi
sor
sandmeetsEN473andI SO9712
requir
ements.

Lev
elofQual
if
icat
ion

SeeEN473f
oraf
ull
descr
ipt
ionf
orl
evel
sofcompet
ence.

Lev
el1

Thelevel
qual
if
iesper
sonnelt
ocarr
youtNDToperat
ionsaccor
dingt
owrit
teninst
ruct
ionundert
he
superv
isi
onofaLevel2orLevel
3person.Al
evel
1personhasdemonst
ratedcompetenceto:

 Setupequi
pmentandcarr
youttests;
 Recor
dandclassi
fyt
heresul
tsi
nt ermsofwr
it
tencr
it
eri
a

Lev
el2

Thislev
elqual
ifi
espersonnel
toper
for
m anddi
rectNDTaccordi
ngt
oest
abl
i
shedor
recogni
zedprocedur
esandhasdemonstrat
edcompetencet
o:

 Chooset hetechniquef orthetestmethodused;

 Perfor
m andsuper vi
set hetest
 Int
erpret,
evaluateandr eportresul
tsaccor
dingt
oappl i
cabl
estandards,
codesor
specif
icati
ons;
 Defi
net heli
mi t
ati
onsoft hetesti
ngmethodforwhichthequal
i
f i
cat
ioncover
s;
 Understandandt ransform NDTst andar
dsandspecifi
cati
onsi
ntopracti
calt
est
ing
i
nstructi
onsadapt edtot heactualworki
ngcondi
tions.

Lev
el3

Thi
slev
elqual
i
fiesper
sonnel
todi
rectanyNDToper
ati
onf
orwhi
cht
heyar
ecer
ti
fi
cat
edand:

 Assumef ul
lresponsibi
l
ityforatestfacil
ityandstaff
;
 Establ
ishand/ orval
idateNDTi nst
ructionsorprocedures;
 I
nterpretcodes,standards,speci
fi
cationsandpr ocedures;
 Designatedthepar t
icul
artestmethods, techni
quesandpr ocedur
est
obeused.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion
Pr
e-exami
nat
ionRequi
rement
s

Level1andLevel2:Ther
earemandator
yminimum pr
e-appr
oval
trai
ningr
equi
rement
swhi
ch
aregiv
eninthePCNr equi
rement
sdocuments.

Pre-
examinat
iont
rai
ningcoursesmustbeval
i
datedbytheBri
ti
shI
nsti
tut
eofNon-Destr
uct
ive
Test
ingandneedtocoverthesyll
abusov
eradesignat
edmini
mum numberofhours.

Documentedi
n-housetrai
ningmayaccountforuptoonethi
rdofther
equir
edtrai
ninghour
s.The
candi
dat
ealsohast odemonstrat
epract
ical
experi
enceinli
newit
htherequi
rementsofPCN.

Level3:Thecandi
dat
eshavetwoaccessrout
esavail
ablewhichar
eshowninthePCN
requi
rementsdocument
s.Bot
htraini
ngandexper
iencerequi
rement
sdependuponacademi
c
background.Not
e:Amatur
ecandidater
outei
savail
able

Exami
nat
ions

Theexami
nati
onconsi
stsofgener
alt
heor
y,speci
fi
ctheor
yandpr
act
ical
par
tsdependanton
l
evelandt
ypeofexami
nati
on.

Byhol
dingot
herPCNqual
i
ficat
ionscandi
dat
esmaybeel
i
gibl
eforexempt
ions.

Fol
lowinganexami
nat
ion,
aresul
tsnoti
cewil
lbei
ssued:t
hiscount
sasevidenceofPCN
cer
tif
icat
ionf
oraperi
odof42days.Thecer
ti
fi
cat
ewillf
oll
owtheresul
tsnoti
cewithi
n21day
s.

Wheret
hecandidat
eisunsuccessful
,oner
etestmaybeal
l
owedpr
ovi
dingt
heper
cent
age
gr
adesarenotl
owerthanthegradesrequi
redbyPCN.

Magnet
icPar
ti
cle
I
nspect
ion