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MrI
saboke0705525657

FORM THREEPHYSI
CS
HANDBOOK
Tabl
eofCont
ent
s
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Page2

BRI
EFPERSONALPROFI
LE Page2

GUI
DELI
NESI
NMYLI
FE Page2

Chapt
er1 LI
NEARMOTI
ON Page3

Chapt
er2 NEWTON’
SLAWSOFMOTI
ON Page12

Chapt
er3 WORK,
ENERGY,
POWERAND Page19
MACHI
NES

Chapt
er4 REFRACTI
ONOFLI
GHT Page28

Chapt
er5 GASLAWS Page37

Chapt
er6 WAVESI
I Page43

Chapt
er7 CURRENTELECTRI
CITYI
I Page51

Chapt
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ELECTRI
CCURRENT

Chapt
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CSI
I Page64

Chapt
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TYOFHEAT Page71
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Speci
fi
cobj
ect
ives Cont
ent

Byt
heendoft
hist
opi
cthel
eanershoul
dbeabl
eto: 1. Dist
ance,di
splacement
,speed,vel
oci
ty,
accel
erat
ion(experi
mental
treat
mentrequi
red)
a) Defi
nedistance,
displ
acement
,speed,
vel
oci
tyand
accel
erat
ion 2. Accel
erat
ionduet
ogr
avi
ty

b) Descr
ibeexper
iment
stodet
ermi
nev
eloci
tyand  f
reef
all
,
accel
erat
ion
 Si
mpl
ependul
um met
hod
c) Det
ermi
neaccel
erat
ionduet
ogr
avi
ty
3. Mot
ion-t
imegr
aphs
d) Pl
otandexpl
ainmot
ion-t
imegr
aphs
 Di
spl
acement
-t
imegr
aphs
e) Appl
ytheequat
ionofuni
for
mlyaccel
erat
edmot
ion
 Vel
oci
ty-t
imegr
aphs
f
) Sol
venumer
ical
quest
ions.
4. Equat
ionsofuni
for
mlyaccel
erat
edmot
ion

5. Pr
obl
emsonuni
for
mlyaccel
erat
edmot
ion

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I
ntr
oduct
ion i
i
i.Speed

 Thi
stopi
cdeal
swi
thst
udymot
ionofbodi
esi
na Thi
sistherat
eofchangeofdi
stancecover
edbya
st
rai
ghtl
i
ne. movingbodywit
hti
me.Speedisascalarquant
it
y.
di
stancecover
ed
speed=
Ter
msAssoci
atedwi
thLi
nearMot
ion t
imetaken

i
.Di
stance Forabodymov
ingwi
thanon-
uni
for
m speed,

 Dist
ancei stheact uall
engthcoveredbyamov i
ng aver tot
aldist
ancecov er
ed
agespeed=
t
otalt
imet aken
body.Ithasnospeci f
icdi
rect
ionanditi
sther
eforea
scal
arquant i
ty.TheSIuni
tofdist
anceismeter(m)  I nstant
aneous speed r eferstot he rat
e of
changeofdi stanceofamov i
ng bodyata
point(aninstant).TheSIuni tofspeedisthe
-1
ii
.Displacement,s met repersecond( ms )

 Thi sist hedistancecover

edbyamov i
ngbodyi na
specifi
ed directi
on.Displacement istheref
orea
i
v.Velocit
y
vectorquanti
ty.TheSIunitofdispl
acementis metr
e
(m)  Thi si st herateofchangeofdi spl
acement
withtime.Itcanal sobedef i
nedasthespeed
Il
l
ustr
atingdist
anceanddi spl
acement
inaspeci fi
eddi rection.Vel
oci
tyi
sther
ef ea
or
Consi
dert he diagram below showing moti
on ofa vectorqu ant
ity
.
bodystarti
ngfrom pointAandmov i
nginthedi
recti
on
shown. changeindisplacement
v
eloci
ty=
t
imet
aken

Fora body mov

ing wi
thav
ary
ing
v
eloci
ty,

totaldi
spl
acement
av
eragev
eloci
ty= .
t
otalt
imetaken
a) AtpointB,dist
ance cov
ered i
s AB whil
et he  TheSIuni
tofv
eloci
t st
yi hemet
repersecond
di
spl
acementoft
hebodyisABinthedi
rect
ionAB
(ms-1)
.
b) Atpoi
ntC,di
stancecover
edisAB+BCwhi
l
ethe
di
spl
acementi
sACi nthedir
ect
ionAC

c) Whenbackatst
arti
ngpoi
ntA,di
stancecover
edi
s v
)Accel
erat
ion
AB+BC+CAwhi lethedi
spl
acementiszer
o.
 Thi
sisthechangeofv
eloci
typeruni
tti
me.I
t
sav
i ect
orquant
it
y.

changei
nv el
oci
ty
Accel
erat
ion=
ti
metaken

fi
nal
vel
oci
ty-
ini
ti
alvel
oci
ty
Accel
erat
ion=
ti
met aken

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Sol
uti
on

v-
u 0×105kmh-1=5.
u=2. 55556×104ms-1, v= 0ms-1
a= ,wher
e,visthefi
nalvel
oci
ty,ui
sthei
nit
ial
t
v
-u (0-
5.55556×104)ms-1
vel
oci
tyandti
stheti
metaken. a= ;a= =-
2.777778×106ms-2
t 2.0×10-2s

Inst
antaneousaccelerat
ion i
st heacceler
ationofa Ther
efor
eret
ardat
ioni
s-(- 777778×106ms-2)
2.
bodyatapoi . Decel
nt erat
ionorr etar
dati
on isthe =2.777778×106ms-2

negativ
eaccelerat
ioninwhichabodymov eswi t
ha
Exerci
se
decreasing vel
oci
ty with time. The SI uni t of
acceler
at i smet
oni repersquaresecond(ms-2). 1) Av
anonast r
aightroadmov eswi thaspeedof180
kmh-1 f
0r45mi
nut
es,andthencl
i
mbsanescarpment
Exampl
es wihaspeedof72kmh-1f
t or30minut
es.Cal
cul
ate:

1.Abodymov es30m dueeasti

n4seconds,
then40 I
. Theav
eragespeedoft
hev
an
m duenor
thi
n8seconds.Det
ermi
ne:
I
I. Theav
erageaccel
erat
ionpr
oduced
a) Thet
otaldi
stancemov
edbyt
hebody
.
2) Agi r
lruns40m duesouthin40secondsandt
hen20
b) Thedi
spl
acementoft
hebody
. m duenorthi
n10seconds.Cal
cul
ate:

c) Theav
eragespeedoft
hebody
. I
. herav
eragespeed

d) Theav
eragev
eloci
tyoft
hebody
. I
I. herav
eragev
eloci
ty

Sol
uti
on I
II
. herchange i
nvel
oci
tyf
ort
he whol
e
j
ourney

I
V. Theaccel
erat
ionpr
oducedbyt
hegi
rl
.

Measuri
ng Speed,Vel
oci
tyand Accel
erat
ion Usi
ng
Ti
ckerTi
mer

 Atickertimerhasanarm whichvibr
atesregularl
y
a) Tot
aldi
stance=t
otal
lengt
hcov
ered
due t o changi
ng curr
entint he mains supply
30m + 40m =70m (al
ternati
ng current
).As the arm v i
brates,it
makesdot sont hepapertapewhichi smov ing
undert hear m.Successi
vedot saremar kedat
b) Tot
aldi
spl s(302+402)m
acementi thesamei nt
erv
alofti
me

2500m =50m onbear

ing36.
87
o  Mostt i
ckerti
meroperatesataf requencyof50
hert
z( 50Hz)i.e.50cycl
espersecondi .
e.they
t
otaldist
ancecover
ed make 50 dot s persecond.The t i
me interval
c) Aver
agespeed=
totalt
imetaken 1
betweent woconsecut
ivedot
sis: =0. 02sfora
70
50
833ms-1
= =5.
12 50Hzt ickert
imer.Thi
st i
meintervaliscaleda
l
ti
ck.
totaldi
spl
acement
d) v
eragev
eloci
ty=
t
otalt
imetaken

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50
167ms-1onbear
= =4. ing36.
87
o Sampl
esecti
onsoft apesar
easshownbelow.The
12
arr
owshowsthedi
recti
oninwhi
cht
hetapei
spull
ed.

2. Thespeedofaofbodyr ol
li
ngonanincl
inedpl
aneis10
ms-1 whent i
mei s0satti
met=10st hespeedoft he
bodyi sfoundtobe25ms-1.Ift
hebodyi
smov i
ngi nthe
same di r
ecti
on thr
oughout,cal
cul
atet he average
accelerat
ionofthebody

Sol
uti
on

v-
u
a=
t

(
25-10)ms-1
a=
(10-0)s

15ms-1
a= 5ms-2
=1.
10s

3. Aparti
clemovingwi
thaveloci
tyof2.0X105kmh-1i
s
-
2
broughttor
estin2.
0X10 s.cal cul
atet
heaccel
erat
ion
ofthebody,hencet
heret
ardati
on.

Exampl
es I
. Cal
cul
atet
heav
eragev
eloci
tyf
ort
hemot
ion

1. Atapeispulledthr
oughatickert
imerwhichmakesone I
I. What does t
he ar
ea under t
he st
rai
ght l
i
ne
dotev er
y second.Ifitmakes t hr
ee dots and t
he r
epresent
?
di
stancebetweent hefi
rstandt hethi
rddotis16cm,
fi
ndthevelocit
yofthet
ape. I
II
. What is the diff
erence bet
ween successi
ve
sect
ionsoftape?
Sol
uti
on
I
V. Cal
cul
atet
heaccel
erat
ionoft
het
rol
l nms-1
eyi

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Mot
ionGr
aphs

 Gr
aphscan beused t orepr
esentvari
ati
on of
f=1Hz
di
stance,speed,vel
oci
tyoraccel
erat
ion ofa
Ti
mebet
weenconsecut
ivedot
s=1s,t
otal
time mov i
ngbodywi t
hti
me.Whenusedthi
swayt hey
=1sX2=2s ar
ecal l
edmotiongr
aphs

Di
stancebet
ween1st
and3r
ddot
s=16cm = 0.
16
m
Di
spl
acement–Ti
meGr
aphs
t
otaldi
spl
acement 0.
16m
av
eragev
eloci
ty= = 08ms-1
=0.
t
otalt
imetaken 2s

3. Thetapeinthefigur
ebelow wasproducedbyat icker
1. St
ati
onar
ybody
ti
merwithafrequencyof100Hz.Findtheaccel
eration
ofthet
rol
leyt
hatwaspull
ingthetape. Sol
uti
on
 Displ
acementdoesnotchangewithti
me,since
displ
acementi
sav ect
orquant
it
ytheposit
ionof
thebodymaybenegat iv
eorposit
iver
elat
iveto
beobserver
.

Sol
uti
on

1
t
imebet
weenconsecut
ivedot
s= =0.
01s
100

0.005m
i
nit
ial
vel
oci
ty,
v= 5ms-1
=0.
0.01s

0.025m
f
inal
vel
oci
ty= 5ms-1
=2.
0.01s

t
imet
aken=4×0.
01=0.
04s

vu (
- 2.
5-0. ms-1 200
5)
accel
erat
ion= = = =50ms-2
t 0.04s 0.
04
2. Abodymov
ingwi
thuni
for
mvel
oci
ty
Exer
cise

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1. Thef i
gur
ebelowshowsapi eceoft
apepull
edt ough  For a body mov
hr i
ng with uni
form v el
ocit
y,
atickert
imerbyat rol
l
eydownanincl
inedplane.The di
spl
acementchangesuni
forml
yov erequalt
ime
fr
equencyofthet
ickert
imeri
s50Hz i
nter
val
s.The graph ofdispl
acementagai nst
ti
mei sastr
aightl
inewhosesl
opeorgr adient
I
. Whattypeofel
ect
ri
ccur
renti
susedt
ooper
atet
he
t
ickert
imer
? repr
esentst
he vel
oci
ty oft
he body which is
constant
.
I
I. Cal
cul
atethe av
erage v
eloci
tyf
or t
he t
rol
l
ey
bet
weenAandB

2. Thefigurebel
ow showsat apechar tfr
om t
hepaper
tapeobtai
ned(
frequencyoft
ickert
imer50Hz)

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3. Abodymov
ingwi
thv
ari
abl
evel
oci
ty

 a.Forabodymov i
ngwi hav
t eloci
tyi ncr
easing
unif
ormlywi t
ht ime,thedisplacement -t
imegr aph
i
sacur veofincr easi
ngslopesi ncet hedistance
thebodycov er
si ncreasesforequal t
imei nt
ervals.
Theslopeoft hegr aphatanygi venpoi ntgives
i
nstantaneousv eloci
tyofthebodyi .
e.

∆s
i
nst
ant
aneousv
eloci
ty=
∆t

2. A body mov
ing wi
th i
ts v
eloci
ty changi
ng
uni
for
mly

 The gradi
entoft hi
s graph i
s a strai
ghtli
ne;
meaning t
hatv el
ocit
ychanges uniformlyover
equaltimeint
erval
s.Thisgradientgraphgiv
es
∆V
const
antaccel
erati
oni.
e.accel
erati
on=
∆t

 b.Forabodymov ingwi hav

t eloci
tydecreasing
unif
ormlywi
thti
me,t hedispl
acement -t
imegr aph
i
scur veofdecr
easingslopesi ncet hedistance
thebodycov
ersdecreasesforequalti
mei nterval
s
asshownbelow.
3. Abodymovi
ngwi
thi
tsv
eloci
tychangi
ngnon-
uni
for
mly

 a) For a body mov ing with an i ncreasi

ng
accelerati
on, meani ng that its v elocit
y i s
i
ncr easi
ngatani ncreasi
ngrate,t
hev elocit
y-t
ime
graph is curve ofincreasi
ng slope as shown
al
ongsi de.Thesl opeoft hegraphatanypoi nt
gi
v esthei nst
ant
aneousaccel er
ationoft hebody
atthatpoint.

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Vel
oci
ty–Ti
meGr
aphs

1. Bodymov
ingwi
thuni
for
mvel
oci
ty

 The slope/
gradientoft he gr
aph i
s zero and
ther
eforeaccelerat
ionofthebodymov ingwith
unif
ormv el
oci
tyiszero.

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 b. For a body mov i

ng wi h a decr
t easi
ng
accelerat
ion, meaning that its v eloci
ty is
i
ncr easi
ngatadecr easi
ngrate,thevelocit
y-t
ime Sol
uti
on
graph is curv
e ofdecreasi
ng slope as shown
 ab-t
hev el
ocit
yoft hecarincreasesuni
for
mly
below. fr
om r
est(i
.e.i
taccel
erat
esuni
formly)

 bc-thev eloci
tyofthecardecr
easesuni
for
mlyt
o
rest(i
.e.itdecel
erat
esunif
ormly
)

 cd-vel
oci
tyofthecarincreasesuni
for
mlybuti
n
opposi
te dir
ecti
on (acceler
ates uni
for
mly i
n
opposi
tedi
rect
ion)

 de-v
eloci
tyofthecardecreasesuniforml
ybutsti
l
l
i
nsameopposi tedir
ecti
on( decel
eratesuni
for
mly
i
nopposit
edirecti
on)

2,A carst art

ing fr
om r estacceleratesuniformlyfor5
minutestoreach30ms-1.I tcont
inuesatt hisspeedforthe
next20mi nut
esandt hendeceleratesuniformlytocomet o
stopin10mi nutes.Ontheaxespr ovided,sketchthegraph
ofv el
ocit
yagai nstti
mef orthemot ion oft hecarand
Ar
eaunderv
eloci
ty–t
imegr
aph
hence,f
indthet ot
aldi
stancecoveredbyt hecar .Sol
uti
on
 Considerabodyst ar
ti
ngfrom r
estmov ingwi t
h
constantaccel
erat
ionfort
ime,t
.Thevelocit
y-t
ime
graphforthebodyisasshownalongsi
de.

Tot
aldi
stance=t
otal
areaundert
hegr
aph

1
Tot
aldi
stance= ( 60×30(
35+20) i.
e.ar
eaofat
rapez
ium)
2

Tot
aldi
stance=49500m

Exer
cise

1. Thefi
gurebel
ow showsthedi
spl
acementt
imegr
aph
ofmoti
onofaparti
cle.

di
stancet
rav
ell
ed=av
eragev
eloci
ty×t
ime

= (O2+V)×t=12vt
 Theref
ore,areaAundertheveloci
ty–ti
megr aph
repr
esentsthedi
stancecover
edbyt hebodyaft
er
ti
metseconds.
St
atet
henat
ureoft
hemot
ionbet
ween:(
i)AandB(
ii
)B

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Exampl
es andC(
ii
i)CandD

1. I
nter
prett
hegraphbel
owr
epr
esent
ingmot
ionofacar
f
rom poi
ntat
oe.
2. Thefi
gurebelow showsav el
oci
tyti
megraphfort
he
moti
onofacer t
ainbody
.Descri
bethemotionoft
he
bodyi
ntheregion:(i
)OA(i
i)AB(i
i
i)BC.

3. Thef i
gurebel
ow showst heaccel
erat
iontimegraph
foracertai
nmotion.Ontheaxesprovi
ded,sket
chthe
displ
acement-
ti
megr aphf
orthesamemot i
on.

Therefore, for a body moving with uni

for
m
accelerati
on,anyoftheset
hreeequat
ionsmaybe
used.

1.v=u+at

1 2
2.s=ut+ at
2
2
3.v =u2+2as

Exampl
es

1. A carstar
tsfrom r
estwi
thuni
for
m accel
erat
ionof
5ms-2.How l
ongdoesitt
aketocoveradi
stanceof
400m?

Sol
uti
on

a=5ms-
2

S=400m

Equat
ionsofUni
for
mlyAccel
erat
edMot
ion t=?

 Consi
derabodymov inginastr
aightl
inewit
h
uni
for
m accel
erat
iona, so t
hat its vel
oci
ty

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i
ncr
easesf
rom anini
ti
alval
ueutoaf
inalv
aluev U=0ms-
1

i
nti
metanditi
sdispl
acedbys; 1 2
Bestequat
ionf
orusei
s;s=ut+ at
2

1 2
400=0×t+ ×5×t
Der
ivat
i he1stequat
onoft ion 2

52
changei
nv el
oci
ty ∆v 400= t
accer
ati
on,
a= = 2
ti
metaken ∆t

v-
u 400×2
a= t= =12.
65seconds.
t 5

at=v-
u

v=u+at 2. A bodyi sunif

ormlyaccel
erat
edf r
om r
esttoafi
nal
velociy of 100ms-1 i
t n 10seconds.Cal
cul
atet
he
distancecov
ered.

Der
ivat
ionof2ndequat
ion Sol
uti
on

di
spl
acement
,s=av
erangev
eloci
ty×t
ime u=0

v=100ms-1
u+v
s=( )×t
2
t=10s

butf
rom equat
ion1,
v=u+at s=?

s=(u+u2+at)t r
ightequat
ioni
sv2=u2+2as

1002=02+2as
1 2
2ut+at
( )
2 Buta=
v-
u
t
1 2
s=ut+ at 100-
0
2 =10ms-2
10

10000m2s-2
s= =500m
2×10
Der
ivat
ionof3rdequat
ion
3. Abodywhosei ni
ti
alv
eloci
tyis30ms-1 mov
eswit
ha
di
spl
acement=av
eragev
eloci
ty×t const
antr
etar
datonof3ms-2.
i Cal
cul
atet het
imet
aken
fort
hebodytocometorest
.
u+v
s=( )×t
2 Sol
uti
on

butf
rom equat
ion1,
v=u+at u=30ms-1

v-
u
t= 3ms-1
a= -
a
t=?

v=0ms-1

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v+u v-
u Ri
ghtequat
ioni
sv=u+at
s=( )×( )
2 a
0=30-
3t
2
v -uv
+uvu2
-
s=
2a -
30=-
3t

2 2
2as=v-u t=10s

2
v =u2+2as

4. Abodymov i
ngwi t
hauniform acceler
ationof10ms-2
cover
sadi stanceof320m.I fit
si nit
ialvel
oci
tywas
60ms-1,
cal
culatei
tsfi
nalv
eloci
ty.

a=10ms-2

s=320m

u=60ms-1

v=?

Ri
ghtequat
i sv
oni 2
=u2+2as (
b)Ri
ghtequat
ioni
s

2
2
v =602+2×10×320 v =u2+2gs

v= 3600+6400 202=02+2×10×s

= 10000 400
s= =20m
20
=100ms-1

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Mot
ionunderGr
avi
ty 2. Abulletshotver
ti
call
yupwardsr
isest
oamaxi
mum
hei
ghtof1000m.Deter
mine:
Acceler
ati
on (In Free Fal
l
) and Decel
erat
ion (
In
Vert
icalPr
oject
ion)DueToGr av
ity a) Thei
nit
ialv
eloci
tyoft
hebul
l
et

b) Thetimeoff
li
ghtofthebul
let
 Whenabodyi spr oject
edv erti
call
yupwar ds,it
decel
eratesuni
formly(negati
veaccelerat
ion)due Soluti
on
gravi
tat
ionalpull.When t hi
s body f al
lsf rom
maximum hei ght,i t accelerat
es uni for
mly (a)Atmaximum vel
oci
ty,
veloci
tyi
szero
downwar dsandthisi
scalledfreefal
l. -1
v=0ms
 Consi derabal lthrownv er
tical
lyupwar dsf rom
ms-1
u=?
the gr ound.The gr aph bel ow shows how t he
velocityoft heballchangeswi thti
mef rom when 10ms-1
g=-
i
tleav est hegr oundunt ilithitsthegroundagai n.
becauset
hebul
l
etdecel
erat
esupwar
ds
Airr esistance i s assumed t o be negl igi
bl e.
Downwar dv el
ocityist akent obeposi tiv
e.The s=1000m
gradientoft hi
sgr aphi saconst antwhosev alue
2
sgr
i av i
tationalacceleration,g. Usi
ngt
heequat
ion v =u2+2gs

0=u2+2×(
-10)
×1000

0=u2-
20000

42ms-1
u= 20000=141.

(
b)Tot
alt
imet
hebul
l
eti
sinai
r

1 2
usi
ngt
heexpr ons=ut+ gt
essi ,
2

di
spl
acementi
s0m

1 2
 Equat
ionsofuni
for
mlyacceler
atedbodi
esal
so 42×t+ (
0=141. -10)
t
2
appl
yinmoti
onundergr
avi
ty.
141.
42=5t
1.v=u+gt
141.
42
t= =28.
28s
5

Exer
cise

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1 2 1. Ast
onei
srel
easedf
rom acl
i
ffof180m hi
ghcal
cul
ate
2.s=ut+ gt
2
a) Thet
imei
ttakest
ohi
tthegr
ound
2 2
3.v =u +2gs
b) Thevel
ocit
ywi
thwhi
chi
thi
tst
hewat
er(
take
g=10ms-1)

2. A bodyisproject
edver
tical
l
yupwar
dwi t
hani ni
tial
vel
ocit
yu.itretur
nst
ot hesamepointofpr
oject
ion
aft
er8s.Pl
ot:
Exampl
es
a) Thespeedt
imegr
aph
1. Astoneisreleasedv
ert
ical
l
ydownwar
dsf
rom ahi
gh
cl
i
ff.Det
ermine b) Thev
eloci
tyt
imegr
aphf
ort
hebody

a) i
tsv
eloci
tyaf
tert
woseconds 3. A bodyisthrown v
ert
ical
l
yupwar
dswi
th an i
nit
ial
v
eloci
tyofu.showt
hat:
b) Howf
ari
thast
rav
ell
edaf
tert
woseconds.
u
I
. Ti
met
akent
oreachmaxi
mum hei
ghti
st=
Sol
uti
on g

a)u=0
( I
I. Timefli
ght(t
imetakenf
ort hebody(
project
il
e)
2u
t=2seconds tofal
lbackt
opointofpr
ojecti
on)ist=
g

g=10ms-1 u2
I
II
. Maxi
mum hei
ghtr
eachedi
sHmax=
2g
Ri
ghtexpr
essi
oni
s
I
V. Vel
oci
tyofr etur
ni sequali
n magni
tude t
o
v=u+gt
vel
oci
tyofpr
ojecti
on
v=0+10×2
4. Astonei sproj
ectedverti
cal
lyupwardwi
thav
eloci
ty
v=20ms -
1 of30ms-1fr
om theground.Cal
cul
ate:

I
. Thet
imei
ttakest
oreachmaxi
mum hei
ght
.

I
I. Thet
imeoff
li
ght
.

I
II
. Themaxi
mum hei
ghtr
eached.

I
V. Thev
eloci
tywi
thr
eachi
tlandst
hegr
ound.

Hor
izont
alpr
oject
ion Exampl
e

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Someexampl
esofhor
izont
alpr
oject
ioni
ncl
ude: 1. Anar row isshothor izont
all
yfrom thet op ofthe
bui
lding and itlands200 m f r
om thef ootoft he
1. Aj
etf
rom awat
erpi
pehel
dhor
izont
all
y bui
ldingafter10s.Assumingthattheai
rresist
anceis
negli
gibl
e,calcul
ate:
2. Abul
l
etf
rom agunhel
dhor
izont
all
y
a. Thei
nit
ialv
eloci
tyoft
hear
row.
3. A t
ennisbal
lwheni
trol
l
sfr
om t
het
enni
s
t
able. b. t
hehei
ghtoft
hebui
l
ding

Sol
uti
on
4. Ast
onet
hrownhor
izont
all
y.
a. i
nit
ial
hor
izont
alv
eloci
ty,
u=?
5. Anar
rowr
eleasedhor
izont
all
yfr
om bow.
R=200m

t=10s
 Considerabodypr oj
ectedhorizontall
ywithan
i
niti
alhori
zontalvel
ocit
yu.Thebodymai ntai
ns Fr
om t
heexpr
essi
onR=ut
;
thatini
ti
alhorizont
alv el
ocit
ybutsi ncei
talso
200m =u×10
experi
encesfr
eef al
lduet ograv
ity,i
tdescr
ibesa
curvedpathasshownbel ow. 200
u= =20ms-1
10

1 2
b. f
rom t
heexpr
essi h= gt
on;
2

1
h= ×10×102
2

=5×100=500m

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Exer
cise

1. Abal
listhrownfr
om thet
opofaclif
f20m hi
ghwi
th
ahor
izont
alvel
oci
tyof10ms-1,
cal
cul
ate:

a. Thet
imet
akenbyt
hebal
ltost
ri
ket
hegr
ound

b. Thedist
ancefr
om t
hef
ootoft
hecl
i
fft
owher
e
thebal
ll
ands.

c. Thev er
ti
calv
eloci
tyatt
het
imei
tst
ri
kest
he
ground.

2. Ast oneisthr
ownhor izontal
lyfr
om t hebui
ldingthat
i
s45m,hi ghaboveahor izont
algr ound.I
thi t
st he
 Thepat hfol
lowedt hebodypr oj
ectedhor izontall
y groundatapoi ntwhichis60m f rom thefootoft he
(projecti
le)is cal led t
raj
ectory.The maxi mum buil
ding.Cal
cul
atetheiniti
alvel
ocityofthestone.
horizontal di stance cov ered by t he body
3. Abal
listhrownf r
om thetopofacliff20m highwit
h
projected horizont al
lyiscalled the range.The ahor
izont
alveloci
tyof10ms-1,cal
culat
e:
verti
calaccel erationisduet ogr avit
ywhi l
et he
horizontalaccel erati
on iszer o sincet hebody I. Thet i
met akenbyt heballt
ostr
iketheground
mai ntai
nsi t
sinitialhori
zontalvel
oci t
ythroughout I
I. Thedi stancefrom thefootofthecli
fftowhere
themot i
on. t
heballlands.

 Thedi
spl
acementoft
hepr
oject
il
eatanygi
ven I
II
. Thev er
ti
calv
eloci
tyatt
het
imei
tst
ri
kest
he
ground.
1 2
ti
meti
sgivenbys=ut+ at
2 4. Ast oneisthr
ownhor i
zontal
lyforthebuil
dingthatis
45m,hi gh above a hor
izontalground.Ithitst he
groundatapoi ntwhichis60m f r
om thefootoft he
buil
ding.Cal
culat
etheini
ti
alveloci
tyofthebuil
ding.
Hor
izont
aldi
spl
acement
,R

 Si
ncehor
izont
alaccel
erat
ion,
a,i
szer
o,R=ut

NB:
REMEMBERTHESI
MPLEPENDULUM
Thev
ert
ical
displ
acement
,h
EXPERI
MENT.
 I
nit
ialv
eloci
tyforvert
icaldi
spl
acementi
szer
o.
Thi
smeanst hatv
ert
icaldi
spl
acementi
s;

1 2
s=0×+ gt Apendulum i
sasmallheavybody
2
suspendedbyal
ighti
nextensi
blest
ri
ng.
1 2
s= gt
2

1 2
h= gt
2

Note:Theti
mef orhorizont
aldispl
acementi
sequal
to t
imeforvert
icaldispl
acementatanygiv
en
point
.

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Rev
isi
onExer
cise

1. Abodymov ingatanini
tialveloci
tyu( ms-1)accel
erat
esata(ms-2)f
ort i
. Stat
ethe direct
ion i
n which
secondsandatt
ainsafi
nalvelocit
yv( ms-1).Repr
esentthi
smot
iononthe thepar
celmov edimmediat
ely
vel
ocit
yagai
nstti
meaxesshownbel ow. i
twasreleased.

i
i
. Calcul
atethe ti
me taken by
theparcelt
oreacht
hegr ound
2. Thedataint
het
abl
ebel
ow r
epr
esent
sthemot
ionov
eraper
iodof7 from t
hemaximum height.
seconds
i
i
i. Calcul
atet
heveloci
tyofthe
Ti
mei
n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 parcelwhen i
t str
ikes t
he
s ground.
Di
nm 0 20 40 60 80 95 105 110 i
v. Cal
culate t he maximum
hei
ghtabov ethegr
oundthe
a) Pl
otongr
aphpaperagr
aphofdi
spl
acement(
y-axi
s)agai
nstt
ime. par
celreached.
b) Descr
ibet
hemot
ionoft
hev
ehi
clef
ort
hef
ir
st4seconds. v
. Whatwast hehei ghtoft
he
hel
i
copteratthei nst
antt
he
c) Deter
mine t
he veloci
ti
es at4.5s and 6.
5 s. Hence orother
wise
par
celwasdropped.
deter
mine t
he average accel
erat
ion oft
he vehi
cle ov
erthisti
me
i
nterval
.

5. A st one ist hrown hor izont

all
y
fr
om abui l
dingt hati s50m hi gh
3. Aball-
bearingXisdroppedv er
ticall
ydownwards,f r
om theedgeofatabl
e
above a hor izont alground.The
andittakes0.5stohitthefl
oorbel ow.Anotherbear i
ngYleavest
heedge
stonehi t
st hegr oundatapoi nt,
oft
het ablehori
zont
all
ywithav elocit
yof5m/s.find:
whichi s65m f rom t hefootofthe
buil
ding.Calculatet heini
ti
alofthe
i
. Thet imetakenforbear
ingYt oreacht
hefloor.
stone.
i
i
. Thehor
izont
aldi
stancet
rav
eledbyYbef
orehi
tt
ingt
hef
loor
.

i
i
i. Thehei
ghtoft
het
abl
e-t
opabov
ethef
loorl
evel
.
6. Thefigurerepresent
sdotsmade
byat icker
-t
imer.Thedot swer
e
madeataf r
equencyof50dots
4. Ahelicopt
er,whichwasascendi
ngv er
ti
call
yatast
eadyveloci
tyof20m/
s, persecond.(Di
ag r
am notdr
awnt
o
r
eleasedapar celt
hatt
ook20secondtoreacht
heground. scal
e)

i
. Whati
stimeinter
valbet
ween
t
woconsecut
ivedots?

i
i
. Thef ir
stdotf
rom t
helef
twas
madeatt i
met=0.Copyt he
diagram and indi
cat
e usi
ng
arrows point
ing downwar
ds
thedot smadeatt=0.
1s,0.
2s,
0.3s.

i
i
i. Deter
mi ne the aver
age
vel
ocit
iesoft hetapeov ert
ime
i
nterv
als-0.02st o0.
02s,0.08s
to0.12s,0. 18st o0.22sand

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0.
28st
o0.
32s

i
v. Draw a suitabl
e graph and
fr
om i
t det er
mine t he
accel
erat
ionofthetape.

Chapt
erTwo NEWTON’
SLAWSOFMOTI
ON

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Speci
fi
cObj
ect
ives Cont
ent

Byt
heendoft
hist
opi
c,t
hel
eanershoul
dbeabl
eto: 1. Newton’
s laws of mot i
on (
exper
iment
al
t
reat
mentofi
ner
ti
arequi
red)
a) St
ateNewt
on’
slawsofmot
ion
2. Conservati
onal of l
inear momentum: el
ast
ic
b) Descr
ibesi
mpl
eexper
iment
stoi
l
lust
rat
einer
ti
a col
li
sion, inel
ast
ic colli
si
ons, r
ecoilvel
oci
ty,
i
mpulse( obli
quecol
l
isionsnotr
equir
ed)
c) St
atet
hel
awofconser
vat
ionofl
i
nearmoment
um
3. F=ma
d) Def
ine el
ast
ic col
l
isi
on, i
nel
ast
ic col
l
isi
on and
i
mpulse 4. Fri
cti
onal
for
ce

e) Der
ivet
heequat
ionF=ma  Adv
ant
agesanddi
sadv
ant
ages
f
) Descr
ibet
heappl
i
cat
ionoff
ract
ional
for
ce
 Vi
scosi
ty
g) Def
inev
iscosi
ty
 Ter
minal
vel
oci
ty(
qual
i
tat
ivet
reat
ment
)
h) Expl
aint
ermi
nal
vel
oci
ty
5. Problem on Newton’slaw ofconser
vat
ion of
l
inearmoment um (excl
udeprobl
emsonel ast
ic
i
) Sol
venumeri
calprobl
emsinvolv
ingNewton’
slaws
coll
i
sions)
andthel
awofconserv
ati
onofli
nearmomentum.

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I
ntr
oduct
ion 2. Thebot t om woodenbl ockcaneasi l
ybepul l
ed
outoft hestackwithoutdistur
bingothersplaced
 Ef
fectsofforceonmoti
onofabodyar ebasedon on i t
. The ot her blocks remai n i
n a pi l
e
Newton’
sthreelawsmot
ion.I
nthi
stopi
c,t
hesel
aws undisturbedexceptthattheirposit
ionislowered
ar
elookedinto. becauseofdownwar dpul loft hegravit
ati
onal
for
ce.

Newt
on’
sFi
r TheLawofI
stLaw( ner
ti
a)

 I
tstatesthat“abodyr emainsi
nit
sstat
eofrestor
ofunifor
m mot ioni nast rai
ghtl
ineunl
essacted
uponbyanext ernalforce”
.Thisl
aw i
salsocal
led
thel
awofi ner
ti
a

3. Whenamov i
ngt rai
noracarst opssuddenl y
,
Def
init
ionofIner
ti
a passengersaret hr
ow nf or
w ar
d.T hepassenger
i
namov ingvehicleisalsoinast ateofmotion.
 I sthetendencyofabodyt oremaini
nitsstateof Hence,when t he vehicl
e stops suddenl
y,t he
resti
fitwasatrestori
nit
sstateofmoti
onifitwas upperpartofhi
sbodycont i
nuestomov e.Thi
si s
i
nmot ion. whyiti
snecessar ytowearseatbelt.

4. Acycl
i
stonalev
elgroundcont
inuest
omov
efor
someti
mewit
houtpedali
ng.
Exampl
esofIner
ti
a(i
.e.Exampl
esofNewt
on’
sFi
rstLaw
i
nPract
ice)

1. Whenacar dsuppor t
ingacoinonagl asst
umbl eris Def
ini
ti
on ofForce asperNewton’
sFi rstLaw of
suddenlyfl
icked,i
tisobservedthatt
hecardf l
i
esof f Moti
on
butthecoinf al
lsi
nt hetumbler
.Thisisbecauset he
cointendst omai ntainit
sstateofr est(
itfall
si n  Forceisdefi
nedasthatwhichproducesmotion
glassbecauseanot herfor
ceactsonit.Whichisthat i
nbodyatrestorwhi
chal
ter
sitsexist
ingst
ateof
otherf
orce?) moti
on.

Moment
um Rel
ati
onshi
pbet
weenFor
ce,
MassandAccel
erat
ion

 Momentum ofabodyisdef
inedast
hepr
oductofi
ts Consi
deraforceFactingonabodyofmassm f
ora
massandveloci
ty.Forabodyofmassm i
nkgand t i
met.ifi
tsv
eloci
tychangesf
rom ut
ov,t
hen;
vel
oci
t nms-1,
yvi
changei
nmoment
um =f
inal
moment
um-
ini
ti
almoment
um
-
1
moment
um =mass(
kg)
×vel
oci
tyms)
(
∆p=mv-
mu
P=mv

 SIuni
tofmoment st
um i he ki
l
ogr
am met
re per

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second (kgms-1)
.Momentum is av ectorquant
it
y Rat
eofchangeofmoment
um =
changei
nmoment
um
;
ti
me
since ithas both magni
tude and di
recti
on.The
direct
ion ofmoment um i
s same as t hatofthe ∆p mv-
mu
=
veloci
tyofthebody. t t

mv
-mu
Fr
om Newt
on’
ssecondl
aw,F∝
t

F∝ m (v-tu); butv-tu=a
Exampl
es
t
her
efor
e,F∝ ma
1. Whatisthemomentum ofar
aci
ngcarofmass500kg
dr
ivenat270km/
h? so,
F=kma.wher
eki
saconst
ant
ofpr
oti
onal
i
ty.

Sol
uti
on N,a=1ms-2,m =1kg,
WhenF=I then.k=1

v=270kmh-1=75ms-1;m =500kg hence,

F=ma,

um =mass(
moment kg)
×vel
oci
ty(
ms-1) Thi
sisanexpr
essi
onf on'ssecondl
orNewt aw

-
1
um =500kg×75ms
moment

=37500 kgms -
1 Def
ini
ti
onofanewt
onasperNewt s2nd l
on’ aw of
moti
on
2. Fi
ndt
hemoment
um of:
 A newt on i
st he for
ce whi
ch pr
oduces an
a. Anobj
ectofamass100gmov
ingat20ms-1 accel
erati -2
onof1ms wheni tact
sonabodyof
mass1kg.
Sol
uti
on

um =mass(
moment kg)
×vel
oci
ty(
ms-1)

-
1 Exampl
es
100kg×20 ms
= 0.
1. Whatforceisneededt
ost
opa500kgcarmov
ingat
=2kgms-1
180kmh-1i
n12.
5m?
b. Anobjectofmass2.
0kgwhi
chf
all
sfr
om r
estf
or10s
(
Moment
um aft
er10s).
Sol
uti
on
Sol
uti
on
m =500kg,v=0ms-1,
u=0ms-1,t=10s,g=10ms-2,v=?
u=180kmh-1=50ms-1,s=12.
5m,F=?
usi
ngt
heexpr
essi
onv=u+gt
,
2 2
2 v u
-
v=0+10×10 Fr
om t
heequat
i v
on, =u2+2as,a=
2s
=100 ms-1
02-
502
1x100=100k
mom=o. gms-
1 a= ,
2×12.5

Exer
cise

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1. Whatisthemoment um ofar aci

ngcarofmass500kg a=-100ms-2
dr
ivenat270km/
h?
Fr
om Newton's2ndl
aw,F=ma,F=500×-
100
2. Anappleofmass100gf al
lsadistanceof2.
5m t
othe
gr
oundfrom abr
anchofat r
ee. F=-50000N.

a) Calculat
ethespeedatwhi chithi
tsthegroundand whatdoesthenegativ
emean?
thet i
metakenforitt
ofal
l
.(I
gnor
eairr
esi
stance)
.
2.An externalforce appl
ied to a ballofmass 160g
-
1
b) Calculat
et hemoment um oftheapplejustbefor
e i
ncreasesitsvel
o ci
tyfrom 2.
5cms t
o2 75cms-1 i
n10
hit
tingtheground seconds.Cal
cul
atethe f
orceap pl
ied.

Sol
uti
on

m =160g=0. 5cms-1=0.
160kg,u=2. 025ms-1,
Newt
on’
sSecondLawofMot
ion
v=275cms-1=2.
75 ms-1,F=?
N
 I
tstat
esthat“therateofchangeofmoment um ofa
bodyi
for
sdi
cepr
rect
oduci
l
ypr
ngt
oporti
onalt
other
hechangeandt
esul
t
akespl
antext
acei
er
nt
he
nal
F=ma,F=m
v
-
t
u
()
dir
ect
ionoftheforce”.

Resul
tantf
orceact
ing ∝ r
ateofchangeofmoment
um
F=0.
160
2.
(
75-0.
10
025
=0.)
0436N

Exer
cise

1. Whatisthemassofanobj
ectwhi
chi
saccel
erat
edat5
ms-1byafor
ceof200N?

2. Agunfir
esabulletofmass10.0ghori alat50ms-1at
zont
afi
xedtargetofsoftwood.Thebull
etpenet
rat
es50cm
i
ntoatar
get.Cal
culat
e

a) Timetakenbyt
hebul
l
ett
ocomet
oresti
n
thewood

b) Theaver
ageret
ardi
ngf
orceexer
tedbyt
he
woodonthebul
l
et.

3. At r
oll
eyofmass1.5kgispull
edalongbyanelasti
ccord
giv
enanacceler
ationof2ms-2.Findthefri
cti
onalfor
ce  Not
e:Impul
seoccur
swhenbodiescoll
ideand
acti
ngonthet
rol
leyift
hetensi
oninthecor
dis5N. t
he i
mpulsi
vefor
ce i
sthe one whi
ch causes
4. St
ateNewt
on’
ssecondl
awofmot
ion.Hence,showt
hatF
destr
uct
ionduringcolli
sion.Theti
mef orwhi ch
=ma. thi
simpulsi
vefor ceactsdetermi
nest heext ent
ofdamagecaused.I ft i
meofi mpacti sl ong,
5. Def
inet
henewt
on(
uni
toff
orce) damage isless than when time ofimpacti s
short
.The f ol
l
owi ng are some exampl es of
6. Acarofmass1500kgi sbroughtt
orestfr
om avel
oci
tyof
desi
gnsmade t o pr
olong ti
me ofi mpactand
25ms-1 bya constantfor
ce of3000N.Deter
mine the
changeinmoment um pr
oducedbythefor
ceandtheti
me ther
efor
ereducedamagebyi mpul
siveforce.
thati
ttakest
ocomet orest
.

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7. Ahammerofmass800gpr oducesaforceof400Nwhen 1. Eggsar

epackedi
nspongycr
ates
i
tst
rikest
heheadofanail
.Descri
behowitispossi
blef
or
t
hehammert odri
vesthenai
lint
oapi eceofwood,yeta 2. Smar
tphonesar
eputi
nsof
thol
der
s
wei
ghtof400Nresti
ngontheheadofthenai
lwouldnot
3. v
ehi
clesar
efi
tt
edwi
thsaf
etyai
rbags
8. Aresult
antfor
ceFactsonabodyofmassm causi ngan
accel
erat
iona1ont
hebody .Whent
hesamef orceactson 4. some vehi
cles hav
e col
l
apsi
ble bumper
s
abodyofmass2m,i tcausesanaccel
erat
iona2.Expr
ess andst
eeri
ng
a2int
ermsofa1.
5. Hi
ghjumper
susual
l
ylandonsof
tgr
ound
et
c.

I
mpul
se

 I
mpulseisdefinedast heproductofforceacti
ngon Exampl
es
a body and the time in which the f or
ce act
s. 1. Determi
nethechangeinmoment
um pr
oducedwhena
I
mpulsivefor
cer ef
erst otheforcewhi chactsona forceof4000N actsonabodywhichisatrestfor
bodyforaver
yshor tti
medur i
ngacol l
ision. 0.003minut
es

 I
faforceFact
sonabodyofmassm fort
ime,t
,
t
hent
heimpul
seoft
hef
orcei
sgi
venby
:
Sol
uti
on

F=4000N, t
ime,
t=0.
003mi
nut
es=0.
18s
I
mpul
se=f
orce×t
ime
I
mpul
se=changei
nmoment
um =Ft
I
mpul
se=Ft
changei
nmomentum =4000×0.18
(
SIuni
tofi
mpul
sei
sthenewt
onsecond(
Ns)
) =720kgms-1or720Ns

mv
-mu
Butf
rom Newt
on’
ssecondl
awofmot
ion, F= 2. Acarofmass400kgst ar
tsfr
om r
estonahor
izont
al
t
t
rack.Fi
ndthespeed4saf t
erst
art
ingi
fthet
racti
ve
Ft=mv-
mu,
butFt=i
mpul
seandmv-
mu f
orcebytheengi
neis500N.

i
sthechangei
nmoment
um oft
hebody

Sol
uti
on

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 Thisimpl
iesthatt
heimpul
seoff orceacti
ngona I
mpul
se=changei
nmoment
um,Ft=m(
v-u)
body dur
ing some t
ime i
nter
valis equaltothe
500×4=400(
v-0)
changeinmomentum pr
oducedinthatbodyint
hat
ti
me. 500×4
v= =5ms-1
400
 Thear eaundert
heplotoffor
ceFagai
nstt
ime( t
)
repr
esent si
mpul
seorchangeinmoment
um dur
ing
acoll
ision. Exer
cise

1.Anappleofmass100gfal
lsadist
anceof2.
5m t
othe
groundfr
om abr
anchofat
ree.

I
.Cal
cul
atethespeedatwhichithit
st hegroundandt
he
ti
metakenfori
ttof
all
.(I
gnoreairresi
stance)
.

I
I. Assumingtheappl
etakes100mil
l
isecondstocometo C. Li
ftmov
ingdownwardswi
thaccel
erat
ion
restCalcul
atet
heav er
agefor
ceexper i
enced byt
he
apple.  Thedownwardaccel
erat
ioni
snegati
veandt hi
s
i
s why t he one feel
s li
ghter when l
iftis
2. Thetablebelowshowsthev
aluesoft
heresult
antf
orce,
F, accel
erat
ing downwards.Ther
eforereadi
ng on
andthet i
metf orabull
ett
ravel
ingi
nsi
det hegunbarr
el
themachine(appar
entweightofthebodyinli
ft
)
aft
erthetri
ggeri
spull
ed.
i
s:
For
ce,
F(N) 36 34 300 240 17 11
0 0 0 0 P’=mg-
ma
Not
es:
Time,(t
) 3 4 8 1 17 22
(mil
l
isecond 2 I
. Ifthe li
ftmoves wit
h const
antv el
oci
ty,the
s)
machine wil
lread wei
ghtoft he bodysince
I
. Pl
otagr
aphofFor
ce,
F,agai
nstt
imet
. accel
erati
onwil
lbezer
o.

I
I. Det
ermi
nef
rom t
hegr
aph: I
I. I
fa = g( f
ree fal
l)the body wil
lexperi
ence
wei
ght
lessnesssincethereact
ionfrom t
helif
t
a) The t
ime requir
ed forthe bul
lettotravelt
he ont
hebodywi l
lbezero.
l
ength ofthe barrelassuming t
hatthe for
ce
becomeszerojustattheendofthebar
rel. Exer
cise

b) Thei
mpul
seoft
hef
orce. 1. Aladyofmass80kgst andsonweighi
ngmachi
neina
l
if
t.Deter
minethereadingont heweighi
ngmachi
ne
c) Gi
venthatt
hebull
etemergesf
rom t
hemuzzleof
whentheli
ftmoves:
t
hegunwi t
hav el
oci
tyof200m/s,cal
cul
atethe
massofthebul
l
et. a) downwardsataconstantv
eloci
t 0ms-1
yof2.

3. Abodyofmass5kgi sej
ect
edv ert
ical
lyfrom t
hegr
ound b) downwar
dswi
thanaccel
erat
ionof3ms-2
whenafor
ceof600Nactsonitfor0.1s.Calcul
ate the
vel
oci
tywi
thwhi
chthebodyl
eavesthegr ound. c) upwar
dswi
thanaccel
erat
ionof3ms-2

4. A hi
ghj
umperusual
l
ylandsonat
hicksof
tmat
tress. 2. A man ofmass 80 kg st
ands on a l
i
ftwhi
ch i
s
Expl
ainhow t
hemat
tresshel
psi
nreduci
ngt
hef
orceof accel
erat
ing upwar 5 ms-2.i
ds at 0. f g=10N/kg
i
mpact. deter
minethereact
ion onthemanbythef
looroft
he

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l
i
ft.

Newt
on’
sThi
rdLawofMot
ion

Itstatest hat“forev eryacti

on,ther
eisanequalbut
oppositer eacti
onforce”. Thi
smeanst hatifabodyP TheLawofConser vat
ionofLi nearMoment um
exertsaf orceonanot herbodyQ,Qexertsanequaland
oppositef orceonP.I ti
sclearthatiti
sduet oacton  Thi
i slaw st atesthat ,“
forasy stem ofcol l
i
ding
(for
ceexer t
edbyf ootongr ound)andreacti
on(for
ce bo di
es, the i
r tot
a l l
inear mo me nt
u m i
s a
exerted byear th on foot)thatwe are abl
et o wal
k constant,providednoext ernalforcesareacti
ng”.
forward.
 IfabodyAofmassmA i nit
ial
lymov ingwi t
ha
veloci
tyofuA col l
idesli
neal l
ywi thabodyBof
massmB i nit
iall
ymov i
ngwi t
hav el
ocityuB and
theirvelociti
es af tercol l
isi
on ar ev A and vB

respecti
vely,then:

Tot
all
i
nearmoment
um bef
orei
mpact

Wei
ghti
nal
i
ft =Tot
all
i
nearmoment
um af
tercol
l
isi
on

a. Li
ftatr
est mAuA +mBuB =mAv
A
+mBv
B

 Li
ftmachinereadstheweightofthebodyinlift Not
e:v
eloci
tyi
sav
ect
orquant
it
yandmustbe
si
nceact
ionandreact
ionar
eequalandopposi
tei
.e.
t
reat
edappr
opr
iat
elyi
ncal
cul
ati
ons
R=mg.

b. Li
ftmov
ingupwar
dswi
thaccel
erat
iona
TypesofCol
li
sions
Theresul
tantupwardforceFproducesthe
accel
erat
ion(F=ma)result
antupwardforceF=t
otal I
. El ast
icCol
lision
upwardforceP-downwadf ce(
or weight)W
 Thi sacol
si li
sioninwhi chbothki
net
icenergy
F=P-W ⇒ P=F+w and∴ andmoment um ar econserv
ed.Ift
hebodiesA
andBabovecol lideel
asti
cal
ly;
P=mg+ma
mAuA +mBuB =mAv +mBv
 Thi
siswhatthel
if
tmachi
newi
l
lread(
ther
eact
ion A B

oft
heli
ftont
hebody)
. 1 1 1 1
m u2+ m u2= m v2+ m v2
2 A A 2 BB 2 AA 2 BB

 Not
e:I
nthi
scoll
isi
on,bodi
esseparat
eandmove
i
nsameordif
fer
entdir
ecti
onsaf
tercol
li
si
on.

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I
I. I
nel
ast
icCol
l
isi
on I
. mbub+mwuw =(
mb+mw)
v

 Thi
sisacoll
isioninwhichmomentum i
sconserved 980×0=(
0.020×50+1. 0. 980)
020+1. v
butki
neti
cener gyisnot.I
nt hi
scol
l
isi
on,col
li
ding
1
esf
bodi useandmov et
ogetheri
nonedi
rect
ionwith v= 5ms-1
=0.
2
acommonv elocit
y.
I
I. atmaxi
mum hei
ght
,al
lK.
Eisconv
ert
edt
oP.
E
 I
fthe col
li
sion ofbodi
es A and B abov
e col
l
ide
i
nel
ast
ical
l
y,then; 1 2
mv =mgh,m cancel
sout
2
mAuA +mBuB =mAv
A
+mBv
B
1
1 1 1 1 52=10×h
×0.
m u2+ m u2 ≠ m v2
+ m v2 2
2 AA 2 BB 2 AA 2 BB
0.
125
h= =0.
0125m
 Note:thet otalkinet
icenergyaftert
heimpactis 10
al
way slesst hanthetotalki
net
icener
gybef
orethe
i
mpactandt helossisdueto: Exer
cise

I
. Ener
gyusedi
ndef
ormat
ionofbodi
es 1. A lorr
yofmass 3000 kg t r
avell
ing ata constant
vel
ociyof72kmh-1 col
t li
deswi t
hast ati
onarycarof
I
I. Ener
gyt
ransf
ormedt
oheat
,soundandev
en mass600kg.Thei mpacttakes1.5secondsbeforethe
two mov etogetherata const antv el
oci
tyf or15
l
ight
seconds.Cal
cul
ate:

Exampl
es i
. Thecommonv
eloci
ty

1. Two tr
oll
eysofmasses2kgand1. 5kgaretrav
eling i
i
. Thedi
stancemov
edaf
tert
hei
mpact
towar
dseachotherat0.
25m/sand0.
40m/
srespect
ively
.
Thetr
oll
eyscombineoncol
li
sion. i
i
i. Thei
mpul
siv
efor
ce

I
. Cal
cul
atet
hev
eloci
tyoft
hecombi
nedt
rol
l
eys. i
v. Thechangei
nki
net
icener
gy
I
I. In what di
rect
ion do t
he t
rol
l
eys mov
e af
ter 2. Abull
etofmass15gi sshortfrom agun15kgwi
tha
col
l
isi
on? muzzl
ev el
oci
tyof200ms-1.I
fthebull
eti
s20cm l
ong,
cal
cul
ate:
Sol
uti
on
I
. t
heaccel
erat
ionoft
hebul
l
et

I
I. t
her
ecoi
lvel
oci
tyoft
hegun

3. Expl
ainhow:

Tot
all
i
nearmoment
um bef
oreimpact i
. Rocketpr
opul
siont
akespl
ace
=Totall
inearmoment
um af
tercol
l
isi
on
i
i
. Gar
denspr
inkl
erwor
ks

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mAuA +mBuB =(
mA+mB)
v.

⇒2.
5×0. 5×(
25+1. - 40)=(
0. 2. 5)
5+1. v Fr
ict
ional
For
ce
0.25
v= 00625ms-1
=0.  Fri
cti
onalf
orcereferst otheforcethatopposes
4.0
ortendstoopposer elati
vemotionbetweentwo
surf
acesincontact.Fr i
cti
onalfor
ceact sinthe
dir
ecti
onopposi
tetot hatofthepull
i
ngf or
ce.
I
II
. Theymov
eint
hedi
rect
iontowhichtr
oll
eyofmass
2.
5kgwasmov
ingt
obeforecol
l
isi
on Ty
pesofFr
ict
ional
For
ce

I
. St
ati
c/Li
mit
ingFr
ict
ionalFor
ce

2. Abullet0fmass20gt ravel
l
inghorizont
alyataspeedof  Thi
l sistheforcerequi
redtojuststartthebody
50ms-1 embedsi tselfi
nabl ockofwoodofmass1980g sli
ding.Theforceisdi
rectl
ypr oport
ionaltot he
suspendedfrom al i
ghtinext
ensibl
estri
ng.Find: reacti
onforceont hebodybyt hesur f
ace.FS =µsR
,
I
. Thev elocityofthebulletandblockimmedi
atel
y
af
tercoll
isi
on whereµsi
sthecoeff
ici
entofstat
icorli
miti
ng

I
I. Thehei
ghtt
hroughwhi
cht
hebl
ockr
ises f
ri
cti
onalf
orce

Sol
uti
on

I
I. Ki
net
ic/Sl
i
dingFr
ict
ionalFor
ce

 Thisisthef
orcerequi
redt okeept hebodyslidi
ng
ormov i
ng ata const antspeed.I topposes
mot i
onbetweentwosur facest hatar
ei nrel
ativ
e
mot i
on.Sli
ding f
ri
cti
on is directl
ypr oport
ional
react
ionfor
ce. FK =µkR,

wher
eµki
sthecoef
fi
cientofki
net
icor

sl
i
dingf
ri
cti
onal
for
ce

Not
e:Consi
derabl
ockofwoodbei
ngpul
l
edusi
nga Exer
cise

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r
ubberbandonahor
izont
alsur
faceasshownbel
ow. 1. A bul
letofmass 10g t rav
eli
ng hori
zont
all
ywitha
vel
oci
tyof300m/ sstri
kesabl ockofwoodofmass
290gwhich rests on rough hori
zont
alfloor.Af
ter
i
mpactt heymov etogetherandcomet orestaf
ter
tr
avel
ingadistanceof15m.

I
. Calcul
atethecommonv
eloci
tyoft
hebul
l
etand
theblock.

I
I. Cal
cul
atet
heaccel
erat
ionoft
hebul
l
etandt
he
bl
ock.

I
II
. Cal
cul
ate the coef
fi
cient of sl
i
ding f
ri
cti
on
bet
weenthebl
ockandthefloor
.

2. Underadri
vi
ngforceof4000N,acarofmass1250kg
hasanacceler
ati
onof2. 5m/ s2. Fi
ndt
hefri
cti
onal
for
ceact
ingonthecar.

3. A bull
etofmass 22g t ravell
ing wi
th a hor i
zontal
vel
ociyof300ms-1 st
t ri
kesabl ockofwoodofmass
378gwhichr est
sonar oughhor i
zont
alsurface.Aft
er
theimpact,
thebull
etandt heblockmov etogetherand
comet orestwhent heblockhast rav
ell
edadi st
ance
of5m.Cal cul
atethe coeffici
entofsl i
ding fri
cti
on
betweentheblockandthef l
oor.
 Ther ubberbandst r
etchesf orsomet imebeforethe
block starts mov i
ng ( st
retch is due tolimit
ing 4. Ablockofamet alAhavingamassof40kgr equi
resa
hor
izont
alfor
ceof100Ndr agitwi
thunifor
mv el
ocit
ya
fri
cti
onal).Thestretchingincreasestoapointwhen
l
onghorizont
alsurf
ace.
the blockst ar
tssl i
ding steadil
y( sl
idi
ng f
ri
cti
onal
forceli
mitsmot i
onatt hispoint).
µs>µk I. Cal culat
ethecoeff
icientoffr
ict
ion

 Fr
ict
ionalfor
cei susef
ul/adv
antageousinwal
ki
ng, I
I. Det
erminethef or
cer equi
redt
odr agasi
milar
movingv ehi
cles,br
aki
ng,wri
ti
ng,li
ghti
ngamat ch bl
ockhav i
ngamassof30kgal ongthesame
st
icketc. hor
izont
alsur
face,cal
culat
e.

 Fri
cti
onalforcecanbedisadvant
ageousasitcauses I
II
. I
fthetwobl
ocksAandBar econnect
edwi
tha
wearandt earinmovi
ngpar tsofmachineandleads t
wobarandafor
ceof200Nisappl
iedt
opul
lthe
t
wolongt
hesamesur
face,
cal
cul
ate.
togenerat
ionofunnecessarynoi
se.
a) Thet
ensi
oni
nthet
owbar

b) Theaccel
erat
ion
Exampl
e

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Asmoot hwoodenblocki
spl
acedonasmoot hwoodentabl
e. I
V. I
ft hetowbari sremovedandthe40kgblocksof
Af or
ceof14Nshouldbeexer
tedont he4kgwoodenblockt
o met almov esaround asmoot h pat
h ofradius
keepthebl
ockmovingwit
haconstantveloci
ty. 10m ataconst antspeedof24ms-1cal
culate
thecentr
ipetalf
orce.
a) Whati
sthecoef
fi
cientofki
net
icf
ri
cti
on,
µk
V. Att heendoft hecir
cularpath,the40kgmass
dropsv ert
ical
l
yi nat r
ench10m highandf all
s
fr
eelydeterminethet imeittakestolandatthe
Sol
uti
on bottom ofthetr
ench.̀

FK =µkR, FK =µkmg Fact

ors Aff
ecti
ng Fri
cti
onalFor
ce bet
ween Two
Sur
facesinCont
act
14=µk×4×10
I
. Normalreact
ion– f
ri
cti
onalfor
cei
sdi
rect
ly
14 pr
oport
ionalt
onormalreact
ion.
µk= =0.
35
40
I
I. Natur
eoft hesurf
aces-themor erougha
sur
facei
s,t
helar
gerthefr
ict
ional
for
ce.
b) I
fa20Nbr i
ckispl
acedont hebl
ock,whatf
orcewi
ll
ber equir
edtokeeptheblockandbrickmovi
ngwih Me
t t
hodsofmi
nimi
zi
ngf
ri
cti
on
requiredconst
antspeed?
a) Usi
ngr ol
l
ers-Theroll
ersarelai
ddownont
he
sur
faceandtheobj
ectpushedovert
hem

Solut
ioncoef
fici
ent of ki
net
icf
ri
cti µk r
on, ns b) L
emai ubr
icat
ion-Appl
i
cat
ionofoi
lorgr
easet
othe
constant movingpart
s
FK =µkR⇒ FK =0.35×(
40+20)

=20N

c) Useofbal lbeari
ng-Thisisappl
iedonr ot
ati
ngaxl es. Fact
orsAff
ect
ingViscosit
yInFlui
ds
Thebear ingal l
owst hemov ementoft hesur face
overtheot her
. I. Densit
y-Thehi gherthedensi
tyoft
heflui
d,
t
hegreaterthev iscousdragandther
efor
e
d) Aircushioning-Thisisdonebybl owingairint
ot he t
helowertheterminalvel
oci
ty.
space bet ween sur
faces.This prev
ents surfaces
fr
om comi ngintocontactsinceairismat terand
occupiesspace.

Vi
scosi
ty

 Thi
sisthe for
ce thatopposes r
elat
ive mot
ion
bet
weenl
ayer
softhefl
uid.

 Consi
derasmallbal
lbeari
ngintr
oducedgent
lyi
nto
gl
yceri
nei
nal ongcyl
indr
icalj
ar.Thefor
cesact
ing
onthebal
lar
easshownbel ow.
I
I. Temper at
ure -I n liquids, v
iscous drug
decreases(ter
mi nalvelocit
yincreases)wit
h
temperatur
e,whi lein gases v iscous dr
ug
i
ncreases( t
erminalvelocitydecreases)wit
h
temperatur
e.

Exer
cise

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1. The di agram shows a t al

l measur i
ng cy l
i
nder
containi
ngav i
scousliquid.Av erysmal lst
eelballis
rel
eased f r
om r estatt he surf
ace oft he l
iqui
d as
shown.Sket chthev el
ocity-ti
megr aphforthemot ion
ofthebal lfr
om thetimei tisrel
easedt otheti
mej ust
beforeitr
eachest hebottom ofthecy l
i
nder.

 The r esul
tant downward f or
ce ( (
mg-u+Fr)
)
accel
erat
esthebal
ldownwards.

 Thev i
scousdragincr
easeswithvel
oci
tyunti
lthe 2. Two smallspher
icali
dent
icalst
ones A and B ar
e
sum ofupwar
df or
cesequal
thedownwar
dforces, rel
easedf
rom thesameheightabov
ethegr ound.B
fal
lsthroughairwhi
leAf allsthr
oughwat
er. Sket
ch
u+Fr=mg thegraphsofv el
oci
tyagainstti
me(t)f
oreachstone.
Labelthegraphappr
opri
ately.
 Atthispoi
ntther esult
antfor
ceiszer
oandt hebal
l
at
tainsaconstantvelocit
ycal
ledt
ermi
nalv
elocit
y.

 Ter
minalv
eloci
tyi
sdef
inedast
heconst
antv
eloci
ty
att
ainedbyabodyfall
ingi
naf l
uidwhenthesum of
upwardf orcesi
sequaltotheweightofthebody.
Graphical
ly
:

Chapt
erThr
ee ENERGY,
WORK,
POWERANDMACHI
NES

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Speci
fi
cobj
ect
ives Cont
ent

Byt
heendoft
hist
opi
c,t
hel
eanershoul
dbeabl
eto: 1. For
msofener
gyandener
gyt
ransf
ormat
ions

a) Descr
ibeener
gyt
ransf
ormat
ions 2. Sour
cesofener
gy

b) St
atet
hel
awofconser
vat
ionofener
gy  Renewabl
e

c) Def
inewor
k,ener
gy,powerandst
atet
hei
rSI  Non-r
enewabl
e
uni
ts
3. Lawconser vat
ionofener
gy
d) Definemechanicaladvantagev
eloci
tyrat
ioand
eff
iciencyofmachines 4. Wor k,ener
gyandpower( wor
kdonebyr
esol
ved
forcenotrequi
red)
e) Solve numer i
cal problems invol
vi
ng wor k,
energy,powerandmachines. 5. Kineti
candpot ent
ial
ener
gy

6. Si
mpl
emachi
nes

7. Pr
obl
emsonwor
k,ener
gy,
powerandmachi
nes

Ener
gy  Not e:pot entialenergyist heener gypossessed
byabodyduet oi t
sr elati
veposi t
ionorstate
 Ener gyi sthecapacitytodowor k.TheSIuni tof whileki net
icener gyist heonepossessedbya
energyi sthe j
oule( J)afert
t hephy si
cistJames bodyduet oitsmot i
on.
PrescottJoul
ewhowasal soabr ewer.
ConservationandTr ansformationofEner gy
Sour
cesofEner gy
TheLawofConser vat
ionofEner gy
 They ar e cl assi
fi
ed i nt
o r enewable and
nonrenewablesources.  Thi sl aw st ates that“ Energy can neit
herbe
created nor dest r
oyed but can onl y be
i
. Renewabl esources tr
ansf ormedf rom oneformt oanot her.
”
 Thesear esour ceswhosesupplycanber enewed Ener
gyTransformation
againandagai nforuse.Exampl
esare;wat
er,sol
ar,
wind,geother
malet c.  Anydevicet hatfacili
tatest
het r
ansf
ormationof
ener
gyf rom one f orm to anot
heris cal
led a
i
i
. Non- renewabl
esour ces tr
ansducer.Thef ol
lowi ngar
esomeexampl es:

 Thesear esour
cesofener gywhosesuppl ycannot I
nit
ial f
orm Fi
nal f or
m Tr
ansducer
ber enewedagai
nandagai nf oruse.Exampl
esare; ofener
gy ofener
gy
fossil
s,f
ir
ewood,nucl
earsourceetc.
Sol
ar Heat Sol
arpanel
For
msofEner
gy

 Thev
ari
ousf
ormsofener
gyi
ncl
ude: El
ect
ri
cal Ki
net
ic Mot
or

o Mechani
cal(
pot
ent
ialandki
net
ic) Ki
net
ic El
ect
ri
cal Dy
namo

o Chemi
cal–st
oredi
nbat
ter
iesandf
oods Sol
ar El
ect
ri
cal Sol
arcel
l

o El
ect
ri
cal Heat El
ect
ri
cal Ther
mocoupl
e
o Li
ght
el
ect
ri
cal Sound Loudspeaker

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o Nucl
ear chemi
cal El
ect
ri
cal Bat
ter
y

o Wav
e  Note:Ener
gyt
ransf
ormat
ionsar
erepr
esent
edby
chart
s.

Exampl
es Exampl
es

Descri
betheenergytransf
ormat
ionthatt
akespl
acei
neach 1. Cal
cul
atetheamountofwor kdoneby:
ofthefol
l
owing:
a) Amachi nelif
tingaloadofmass50kgt
hrougha
a) Acarbatter
yisusedtol
ightabul
b vert
icaldi
stanceof2.4m

Sol
uti
on

b) Coali
susedt
ogener
ateel
ect
ri
cit
y wor
kdone,
W =f
orce,
F×di
stance

wor
kdone=mg×di
stance

=(
50×10)
N×2.
4m = 1200J

c) Apendul
um bobswi
ngt
oandf
ro
b) Al
abor
erwhocar
ri
esal
oadofmass42kgt
oa

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hei
ghtof4.
0m

d) Wat
eratt he t
op ofa waterf
all fal
l
s and i
ts
t
emper
atur
eri
sesonreachi
ngt
hebott
om Sol
uti
on

wor
kdone,
W =f
orce,
F×di
stance

wor
kdone=mg×di
stance

=(
42×10)
N×4.
0m = 1680J

2. Amanofmass70kgwal ksupatrackincl
i
nedatan
Wor
kandEner
gy eof300 t
angl othehor
izont
al.I
fhewalks20m,how
muchworkdoeshedo?
 Wor
kisdef
inedasthepr
oductofforceanddist
ance
mov
edinthedirect
ionofappl
icati
onoft heforce.
Sol
uti
on

wor
kdone,
W =f
orce,
F×di
stancemov
edi
n

t
hedi
rect
ionof

t
heappl
i
edf
orce,
d

W =F×d

 Wor kisther
eforesaidtobedonewhenanappl i
ed wor
kdone,
W =f
orce,
F×di
stance
forcemakest hepoi ntofappl
icat
ionofthefor
ce
wor
kdone=mg×di
stance,
h
mov ei nt
hedirect
ionofthefor
ce.Nowor ki
sdone
whenaper sonpushesawal lunti
lhesweatsor =(
70×10)
N×(
20si
n30)
m = 7000J
carry
ingabagofcementonhi sheadforhour
swhil
e
standing. Exer
cise

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 TheSIuni
tofwor st
ki hejoul
e(J)
. 1 1. Agir
lofmass40kgwalksupafli
ght10steps.I
feach
j
oul
e(J)=1newtonmetr
e(Nm) st
epis40cm hi
gh,
cal
culat
etheworkdonebythegir
l.

N/B:Joulei
stheworkdonewhenthepointof 2. A bodyisacted uponbyav ar
ying f
orceFov era
appl
icati
onofaforceof1newt
onmov esthrough1 di
stance of35 m as shown i
nt he fi
gur
e below.
metreinthedi
rect
ionoft
hefor
ce.

Not
es:

I
. Wor
k done i
s equi
val
entt
oe gy c
ner onv
ert
ed
whi
l
edoingwor k.
Cal
cul
atet
het
otalwor
kdonebyf
orce
I
I. Thear
eaunderf
orce-
dist
ancegr
aphr
epr
esent
s
wor
kdonebyt
hef
orceorener
gyconv
ert
ed. 3. Sometimesworkisnotdoneevenift
hereisanappl
i
ed
for
ce.Descr
ibesomesituat
ionswhenthi
scanhappen.

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Var
iat
ion ofK.
E and P.
EforA Body Pr
oject
ed
Upwards
Gr
avi
tat
ionalPot
ent
ialEner
gy
 Considerabodyofmassm pr ojectedv erticall
y
 Thisistheenergypossessedbyabodyduet oit
s upwards.Gr avi
t ati
onalf or
ce i st he onlyf orce
heightabovesomesur face.Considerabl
ockof acti
ngoni t,assumi ngnegl i
gibl
eai rr
esi stance.
massm r ai
sedthroughtheheighththegr
ound.At Asi traiseskinet i
cenergydecr easessi ncet he
thatheighttheblockhasgravi
tati
onalpot
enti
al vel
ocity decr eases ( t
he body decel erates
energy. upwards) .Atthesamet i
me,t hepot entialener gy
ofthebodyi ncr easesandbecomesmaxi mum at
thehighestpoi nt ,whereK.Ei szer o.Ast hebody
fal
lsfrom thehi ghestpoi nt,P.Edecr easeswhi l
e
K.Eincreases.Thecur vesforv ari
at i
onofK. Eand
P.Eoft hebodywi t
htimeareshownbel ow.

Pot
ent
ialener
gy,
P.Egai
ned=wor
kdonei
nrai
singt
hebl
ockP.
E

=wei
ghtoft
hebl
ockXhei
ght
P.
E =mgh

El
ast
icPot
ent
ialEner
gy

 Thi
si st he energy st
ored in a str
etched or
compr
essedspring. Theenergyisequaltowor k
 Ther
efor
e,at any giv
en poi
nts;
tot
al ener
gy,
donei
nstr
etchi
ngorcompr essi
ngthespr
ing.
E=P.E+K.E=Constant
.
wor
kdone=For
ce×di
stancemov
edi
ndi
rect
ionoff
orce

wor
kdone=Av
erageFor
ce×changei
nlengt
hofspr
ing
Exampl
es
o+F
(
compr
essi
onorext on)wor
ensi kdone= ×e;
2 Astoneofmass2.5kgi
srel
easedf
rom ahei
ghtof5.
0m
abovethegr
ound:
F
wor
kdone= ×e,
2
a) Cal
cul
atet
heveloci
tyoft
hest
onej
ustbef
orei
tst
ri
kes
butF=ke,
wher
eki
sthespr
ingconst
ant∴ t
heground.

wor
1
( )
kdone= kee,
2
b) Atwhatv
const
el
antai
rr
oci
t
esi
ywi
st
llt
ancef
hest
or
onehi
ceof1.
tthegr
0Nact
oundi
soni
fa
tasit
fall
s?
1
kdone= ke2
wor
2
Sol
uti
on
Ki
net
icEner
gy,
K.E
1 2
a)mgh= mv
2
 Consi derabodyofmassm bei ngact
eduponbya
steadyf orceF.thebodyaccel
erat
esunif
ormlyfr
om 1 2
2.
5×10×5. 5×v
0= ×2.
resttof i
nalvel
ocit
yvinti
metseconds.Ifi
tcover
sa 2
distances;
100
v= =10ms-1
wor
kdonei
naccel
erat
ingt
hebody 1

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=t
heK.
Egai
nedbyt
hebody 1 2
b)Resul
tantf
orce×h= mv ;
2
=For
ce,
F×di
stance,
s
1 2
Met
hod1 (
mg-
resi
stance)
h= mv
2

K.
E=F×s; 1 2
(
2.5×10-
1.0) 5×v
×5= ×2.
2
E=ma×(
K. aver
agev
eloci
ty×t
ime)
240
K.
E=m ()
v
-
t
u u+v
×( ×t
2
)
v=
2.5
798ms-1
=9.

K.
E=m (v-t0)(
×
2 ) t 2
0+v mv v
×t= ×
t

1 2
E= mv
K.
2

Met
hod2 Exer
cise

K.
E=F×s;K.
1 2
+ at
E=ma×ut
2 ( ) 1. A st
di
st
oneofmass5kgmov
ance10m from rest
.I
est
ft
hr
hef
oughahor
orceact
i
i
zont
ngont
al
he
st
onei s8N,
cal
culat
e:
K.
E=m (v-tu)×(0×t+12(v-tu))
2
t
a) t
hewor
kdonebyt
hef
orce

K.
E=m (v-t0)(
×(0×t
2 t ) t 2
1v-
0
+ ( ))
mv v
2 t
t = × K.
1
E= mv
2
2
b) t
heki
net
icener
gygai
nedbyt
hest
one

c) t
hev
eloci
tyoft
hest
one

2. Calcul
atetheamountofener
gyneededbyacat apultt
o Power
thr
owast oneofmass500gwit
haveloci
tyof10ms-1
 Poweri sdefnedast
i herateofdoingwor k(i
.e.
3. Atenni
sballi
sdroppedf
rom ahei
ghtof1.
8m.i
trebounds workdoneperuni ttime).Si
ncewor kdonei s
t
oaheightof1.25m.
equi
valenttoenergyused,andenergycannotbe
a) Descr
ibet
heener
gychangeswhi
cht
akepl
ace destr
oyed orcreated butconvert
ed fr
om one
for
mt oanother,
b) Wi
thwhatv
eloci
tydoest
hebal
lhi
tthegr
ound?
 Powercanal
sobedefnedast
i herateofener
gy
c) Wi
thwhatv
eloci
tydoest
hebal
ll
eav
ethegr
ound? conv
ersi
onORther
ateoft
ransf
erofener
gy.
4. Aballrol
l
sonat abl
einast rai
ghtl
ine.Apartfrom the workdone ener
gyconv er
ted
tr
ansi
ti
onalki
neti
cenergy,st
atetheotherf
orm ofkineti
c Power= orPower=
ti
metaken t
imetaken
ener
gypossessedbytheball
.
 TheSIuni st
tofpoweri hewatt;
namedaf terthe
5. Abodyhas16Joulesofkinet
icener
gy.Whatwoul
dbei
ts physi
cistJamesWatt
.1wat
t(W)=1j
oul
epersecond
ki
net
icener
gyi
fit
sv el
oci
tywasdouble? Js-1)
(

6. Aforceof8N st
ret
chesaspri
ngby10cm. How much Rel
ati
onshi
pbet
weenpowerandv
eloci
ty
wor
ki sdonei
nst
ret
chi
ngt
hisspr
ingby13cm?

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7. A si
mplependulum isreleasedfrom restanditswings Power=
workdone
;
towar
dsitslowestposition.Ift
hespeedatt helowest t
ime t
aken
posi
ti
onis1.
0m/ s,cal
culatethevert
icalhei
ghtoft
hebob
Force×di
spl
acementofpoi
ntofappl
i
cat
ionoff
orce
wheniti
srel
eased. Power=
t
imetaken

8. Amet albal
lsuspendedv
ert
ical
l
ywithawir
eisdi
spl
aced di
spl
acement
Power=For
ce×
thr
oughanangl eθasshowni nthedi
agr
am bel
ow.The t
imetaken
bal
lisrel
easedfr
om Aandswingbackt
oB.
Power=For
ce×v
eloci
ty

Gi
vent hatt
hemaxi mum vel
oci
tyatthelowestpointB i
s
5ms-1.Fi
2. ndthehei
ghthfr
om whi
chthebal
lisr
eleased

9. A 30gbul letstr
ikesat r
eetrunkofdiameter40cm at
200ms-1 andleavesitf
rom t
heopposi
tesideat100ms-1. Exampl
es
Fi
nd:
1. Anelectr
icmotorrai
sesa50kgmassataconst ant
I
. Thekinet
icener
gyoft
hebul
l
etj
ustbef
orei
tst
ri
kes vel
ocit
y.Cal
cul
atethepoweroft
hemotori
fitt
akes 30
thet
ree. secondstor
aisethemassthr
oughahei
ghtof15m

I
I. Theki
net
icener
gyoft
hebul
l
etj
ustbef
orei
tl ees Sol
eav uti
on
fr
om t
hetr
ee.
di
spl
acement
Power=For
ce×v
eloci
ty;
Power=mg×
t
imetaken
I
II
. Theaver
agefor
ceact
ingont
hebul
l
etasi
tpasses
thr
ought
hetr
ee. 15m
power=50N× =25W
30s
10.Theini
tialvel
oci
tyofabodyofmass20kgi s4ms-1.How
l
ongwoul daconstantfor
ceof5. 0N actonthebodyin 2.
A soldi
ercli
mbstot hetopoft hewat chtowerin15
ordert
odoubleitski
neti
cenergy? minut
es.Ift
heworkdonebyt hesoldi
eragainstgr
avi
tyi
s
60kJ,whati
shisav
eragepowerincli
mbing?
11.Acompr essedspri
ngwithaloadattachedtooneendand
fi
xedattheotherandisrel
easedasshownbelow. Solut
ion

workdone
Power=
ti
metaken

60×1000
Sketchonthesameaxisthevar
iat
ionofpot
ent
ialener
gy, power= =66.
67W
15×60
ki
net
icener
gyandtot
alener
gywit
hti
me
Exer
cise
12.Thef
igur
ebel
owshowshowt
hepot
ent
ialener
gy(
P.E)of

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abal
lthr
ownv
ert
ical
l
yupwar
dsv
ari
eswi
thhei
ght 1. A crane l
i
ftsaload of200 kg t
hrough a v
ert
ical
di
stanceof3.
0m i
n6seconds.Det
erminet
he;

I
. Wor
kdone

I
I. Powerdev
elopedbyt
hecr
ane

2. Al
oadof100Ni
srai
sed20m i
n50s.Cal
cul
ate;

I
. Thegai
ninpot
ent
ialener
gy
Ont
hesameaxespl
otagr
aphoft
heki
net
icener
gyoft
heba
I
I. Thepowerdev
eloped
l
l
3. Wat erf
all
sthroughaheightof60m atarateoff
lowof
10×105 l
it
respermi nut
e.Assumingthatthereareno
energy losses, cal
cul
ate the amount of power
generat
edatt hebaseofthewaterfall
.(t
hemassof1
l
iterofwateris1kg)

4. I
f50li
tr
esofwateri
spumpedthroughahei
ghtof15m
i
n30seconds,whati
sit
spowerr at
ingoft
hepumpis
80%ef
fici
ent
?(t
hemassof1li
terofwateri
s1kg)

5. Asmallwi
ndpumpdev el
opsanav er
agepowerof50N.
I
trai
seswaterfr
om abor ehol
etoapoint12Nabov e
t
hewaterl
evel
.Deter
minet hemassofwaterdel
i
vered
i
nonehour.

Si
mpl
eMachi
nes  N/
B Ef
fi
ciency
, j
ustlike M.
A ofa machi ne
dependsonfr
icti
onbetweenmov i
ngpart
sofa
 Amachi neisadevicet
hatmakeswor
keasierORIs machineandweightofthepart
sthathavetobe
anydevicebymeansofwhichafor
ceappl
iedatone l
ift
ed.Thesereasonsexplai
nwhyt heef
fi
ciency
pointofitcanbeusedtoover
comeafor
ceatsome ofamachinei
salwayslessthan100%.
otherpointofi
t.
Exampl
es
Ter
msAssoci
atedwi
thMachi
nes
1. Acertai
nmachineusesanef f
ortof400N t
orai
sea
1.Ef
for
t,E l
oadof600N.Iftheeff
ici
encyofthemachi
neis75%,
det
erminei
tsv
eloci
tyr
ati
on.
 Thi
sisthef
orceappl
iedt
othemachi
ne.TheSIuni
t
ofef
for
tist
henewton(N)
. Sol
uti
on

2.Load,
L l
oad
M.
A=
eff
ort
 Thi
sist
hefor
ceexer
tedbyt
hemachi
ne.TheSIuni
t 600
M.
A= =1.
5
ofl st
oadi henewt
on(N). 400

3.Mechani
caladv
ant
age,
M.A M.A 1.
5
η= ×100%⇒75= ×100%
V.
R V.
R

 Thi
sistherat
iooftheloadt
ot heeff
ort
.Ithasno 1.
5
V.
R= ×100%=2
uni
tssi
ncei
tisarat
iooftwof
orces. 75

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l
oad 2. A crane l
i
ftsaload of200 kg t
hrough a v
ert
ical
M.
A=
eff
ort di
stanceof3.
0m i
n6seconds.Det
erminet
he;

 Formostmachines,M.Aisgreaterthanonesince I
. Wor
kdone
l
oadisgreat
ert
haneffort
.InafewmachinesM.A.is
l
essthanone(i
.eefforti
sgreaterthanl
oad)e.
g.a I
I. Powerdev
elopedbyt
hecr
ane
bi
cycl
e. I
II
. Eff
iciencyoft
hecr
anegiv
enthati
tis
operatedbyanelect
ri
cmotorrat
ed
Fact
orsAf
fect
ingM.
AofaMachi
ne
1.
25kW.
I
. Fri
cti
onbet weenmov i
ngpart
softhemachi
ne-The Solut
ion
great
er the f r
ict
ion,the l
ess t
he mechanical
advantage I
.workdone=mgh

I
I. Part
soft hemachi
nethathavet
obel i
ft
ed– The workdone=200×10×3.
0=6000J
heavi
er the wei
ght,the l
ess the mechani
cal wor
kdone
advant
age. I
I.Power=
t
imetaken

4.Vel
oci
tyRat
io,
V.R 6000
Power= =1000W or
1kW
6
 I
tist
her
ati
ooft
hedi
stancemov
edbyt
heef
f tDE
or
poweroutput
t
othedi
stancemov
edbyt oadDL i
hel nthesame I
II
.η= ×100%
poweri
nput
t
ime.
1000
di
stancemov
edbytheeffor
t,
DE
η= ×100%=80%
1250
Vel
oci
tyr
ati
o,V.
R=
di
stancemovedbyt
heload,DL
Exer
cise
D
R= E
V.
DL 1. Whenanel ect
ri
cpumpwhoseeffi
ciencyis70%rai
ses
watert
oahei ghtof15m,wat
eri
sdeliver
edatther
ate
 Not
e:I
ftwomachi
nesAandBwi
thv
eloci
tyr
ati RA
osV.
of350li
tr
espermi nut
e.
RB r
andV. espect
ivel
yar
ecombi
ned,t
her
esul
tantv
eloci
ty
r
ati
oV.
Rwi
l
lbegi
venby
: I
. Whati
sthepowerr
ati
ngoft
hepump?

V.
R=VRA×VRB I
I. Whati
stheener
gyl
ostbyt
hepumppersecond?

5.Ef
fi
ciency
,η 2. Anel ectri
cpumpcanr aisewat erf r
om alower-l
evel
reservoi
rt othehighlevelreservoirtot
hehi ghlevel
 I
tist
her ati
ooftheusef
ulwor
kdonebyt hemachi
ne reservoi
ratt herateof3. 0x105 kgperhour .The
(
workout put
)tothetot
alwor
kputi nt
othemachi
ne verti
calheightofthewaterisraised360m.I ftherate
(
workinput)expr
essedasapercent
age. of energylossinf
orm ofheatis20 0kW,det
ermi nethe
effi
ciencyofthepump.
workdonebythemachi
ne(wor
koutput
)
η= ×100% 3. Def
inetheeff
ici
encyofamachi
neandgi
vear
eason
tot
alworki
ntothemachi
ne(worki
nput
)
whyitcannev
erbe100%
Rel
ati
onship between Mechani
calAdvantage,Vel
oci
tyRat
io
andEff
ici
ency 4. Apumpuses1gofami xt
ureofpet
rolandal
coholi
n
t
herati
o4:1bymasst
orai
se1000kgofwaterfr
om a
workdoneonl
oad(wor
kout
put) wel
l200m deep.
η= ×100%
wor
kdonebyef
for
t(wor
kinput
)
I
. Howmuchener
gyi
sgi
venby1gofmi
xtur
e?

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L×DL I
I. I
ft hepumpi s40% ef
fi
cient,whatmassoft
his
η= ×100%
E×DE mixtur
eisneededtorai
set hewater?
(
1gofal cohol=7000J,
ofpet r
ol=48000J)
LD
η= × L×100%
E DE
5. I
namachi ne,thi
sl oadmoves2m whent heeffor
t
D
moves8m,ifanef
fortof20Nisusedt
or ai
sealoadof
L 1
Aand L =
but =M. 60N,whati
stheef
fici
encyoft
hemachine?
E DE V.R

1
η=M.
A× ×100%
V.
R

M.A
η= ×100%
V.
R

Ty
pesofSi
mpl
eMachi
nes Exer
cise

1.Lev
ers Thef
igur
ebel
owshowsal
ever

 Aleveri
sasi mpl
emachinewhoseoper at
ionrel
ies I
. Det
ermi
net
hef
orceFA i
neachcase
onthepr
inci
pleofmoments.I
tconsi
stsoftheeff
ort
I
I. Det
ermi
net
heM.
AandV.
Rineachcase
ar
m, l
oadarm and pi
votf
urcul
um.Theef f
ortar
mEA
i
stheperpendi
cul
ardi
stanceoft
heli
neofacti
onof I
II
. Cal
cul
ateef
fi
ciencyi
neachcase
t
heeffor
tf r
om thepi
vot.Theloadcan,LA i
sthe
per
pendi
culardi
stanceoft
hel
i
neofact
ionoft
he
l
oadfrom pi
vot
.

 Consi
dert
hef
igur
eofsi
mpl
elev
ersshownbel
ow

Cl
assesofLev
ers

A. Leverswi
thpi
votbet
weenl
oadandef
for
te.
g.
pl
iers,
hammeret
c.

B. Lever
swiththeloadbetweenpiv
otandef
for
t
e.
g.wheelbar
row,bot
tl
eopener
setc.

di
stancemovedbytheeffor
t,DE C. Lev
erswit
htheeff
ortbet
weent
heloadandt
he
V.
Rofl
aver=
di
stancemovedbyload,DL pi
vote.
g.sweepi
ngbrooms,afi
shi
ngrodand

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Usi
ngconceptofsi
mil
art
ri
angl
es;
DE EA
=
hammerar
m.
DL LA

eff
ortar
m,EA
Ther
efor
e,f
ort
hel
ever
,V.
R=
l
oadarm,LA 2.Wheelandaxl
e

 Consistsoflar
gewheelofr adiusRat tachedto
axl
eofr adi
usr,theeffor
tisappliedonthewheel
whil
et hel
oadisattachedtotheaxle.Anexample
ofthewheelandaxl eisthewi nchusedt odraw
waterfrom wel
l
Exampl
e

Thef
igur
ebel
owshowsal
ever

 I
nonecompl et
erevol
uti
onthewheelmovesthr
ougha
di
stance2πRwhil
etheloadmovesthr
ough2πr.
a) Det
ermi
net
hef
orceFA
2πR R Radiusofwheel
V.
Rofwheel
andaxl
e= = ,V.
R=
2πr r Radiusofaxl
e
b) Det
ermi
net
heM.
AandV.
R

c) Cal
cul
ateef
fi
ciency
Exampl
e
Sol
uti
on
Awheelandaxleisusedt orai
seal
oadof300Nbyaf orce
a)cl
ockwi
semoment=ant
icl
ockwi
semoment of50N appl
iedtother i
m ofthewheel.Ift
her adi
iofthe
wheelandaxlear
e85cm and10cm r espect
ivel
y,cal
cul
ate
theM.A,V.Randeffi
ciency.
F A×5=75×2
Sol
uti
on
150
⇒FA = =30N
5
l
oad
M.
A= ;
eff
ort

300
l
oad M.
A= =6
b)M.
A= ; 50
eff
ort
Radiusofwheel 0.
85m
75 V.
R= ; V.
R= =8.
5
M.
A= =2.
5 Radiusofaxl
e 0.
10m
30
M.A 6
eff
ortar
m,EA η= ×100%; η= ×100%=70.
59%
V.
R= ; V.
R 8.
5
l
oadarm,LA

5
V.
R= =2.
5
2

M.A
c)η= ×100%;
V.
R

2.
5
η= ×100%=100%
2.
5

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3.TheI
ncl
i
nedPl
ane V.
Rofscr
ew=
ci
rcumf
erenceofthescr
ewhead 2πR
=
pi
tch pi
tch

 Considertheplanebel
ow i
ncl
i
nedatanangl
eθt
o
thehorizont
al.
WhereRi stheradi
usoft hescr
ew head.A scr
ew
combinedwi t
hal everisusedasaj ackforli
ft
ing
heav
yl oadssuchascars.

Exampl
e

Thefigur
ebel owshowsacar-jackwit
hal ev
erar
m of40
eff
ortdistance L cm andapi tchof0.5cm.Iftheeffi
ciencyi
s60%,what
V.
Roft
hei
ncl
i
nedpl
ane= =
l
oaddistance h
eff
ortwouldberequi
redt
oli
ftaloadof300kg.
h
butsi
nθ= ⇒h=Lsi
nθ
L

L 1
V.
Roft
hei
ncl
i
nedpl
ane= ; V.
R=
Lsi
nθ si
nθ

Exampl
e

A manusest heincli
nedpl
anet oli
ft100kgloadthrougha
ver
ticalheightof8.0m.Theincli
nedplanemakesanangl eof Sol
uti
on
400 withthev er
ti
cal.Ift
heeff
ici
encyoft hei
ncl
inedplaneis
M.A M.A
85%, cal
culate η= ×100%⇒ η= ×100%
V.
R 2πR
pi
tch
I
. Theeff
ortneededto movethel
oadupt
hei
ncl
i
ned
pl
aneataconst
antv
eloci
ty. M.
A
60= ×100%
2π×0.
4
I
I. The wor
k done againstfr
ict
ion i
nrai
sing t
he l
oad 0.
005
thr
ought
heheightof8.0m
( 4)
2π×0.
60×
0.
005
⇒ M.
A= =301.
63
100

Sol
uti
on Load(mg) 300×10
M.
A= ⇒ 301.
63=
Ef
fort Ef
fort
M.A M.A
I
.η= ×100%; 85= ×100%;
V.
R 1 300×10
si
n50 Ef
for
t= =9.
46N
301.
63

1
85×
si
n50
Exer
cise
M.
A= =1.
110
100
Acarwei
ghi
ng200kgisli
ftedwit
haj ackof15mm pit
ch.I
f
t
hehandl
eis32cm f
rom t
hescrew,f
indtheappl
iedfor
ce.

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M.
A=
load(mg)
;1.
110=
1000
;
5.Gear
s
eff
ort effor
t
 A gearisawheelwhi chcanr otat
eabouti t
s
1000
ef
for
t= =900.
9N centr
e and has equal
lyspaced t
eeth orcogs
1.110
aroundit
.Twoormor egearsarear r
angedto
makeamachi newhichcanbeusedt ot r
ansmit
mot i
onfr
om onewheel t
oanother
.
I
I.15%ofwor
kinputi
susedt
oov
ercomef
ri
cti
on

i
.e.15%of(
eff
ort×di
stancemov
edbyef
for
t)

15
100(
×900.
9×
si
8
n50)=1411.
26j
oul
es

4.TheScr
ew

 I
fthedriv
erwheel hasPteet
handthedriven
wheelQteeth,
then,whenthedr
iverwheelmakes
P
onerevol
uti
on,thedri
venwheelmakes
Q
rev
olut
ion

revol
uti
onsmadebythedr
iverwheel 1 Q
V.
R= ; =
r
evol
uti
onmadebythedri
venwheel P P
 Thedi
stancebetweentwosuccessi
vet
hreadsofa Q

scr
ewiscall
edthepit
choft
hescrew. V.
Rofagearsyst
em
numberofteethindri
venwheel
=
 I
n one compl
eterev
oluti
on,t
he screw moves numberoftheethinthedri
verwheel
for
war
dorbackwar
dt hr
oughadist
anceequalto
onepi
tch.

Exer
cise

Acertai
ngearhas30t eet
handdr
ivesanotherwi
th75t
eeth.
How manyr ev
olut
ionswillt
hedr
ivergearwhenthedr
ivi
ng
gearmakes100revol
uti
ons?

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6.Pul
l
eys

 A pulley is a wheel wi t
h a gr oove for
accommodatingast r
ingorrope.V.Rf orapulley
syst
em isthe numberofr opes supporti
ng l
oad.
Therei
sthethreecommonpull
eysystems.

A)Si
ngl
eFi
xedPul
l
ey

NBForabl ockandtackl
ewithanoddnumberof
pull
eysi
tisconveni
enttohav
emorepull
eysfi
xed
thanmovabl
e.

Exampl
e

Ablockandtackl
esy
st em i
susedtol
if
tamassof400kg.
I
fthi
smachinehasav eloci
tyr
ati
oof5andanef
fi
ciencyof
75%

Thev
eloci
tyr
ati
oofsi
ngl
efi
xedpul
l s1.
eyi a) Sket
ch a possi
ble ar
rangementoft
he pul
l
eys
showinghowtheropei
swound

 Sol
uti
on
B)Si
ngl
eMov
abl
ePul
l
ey

b) Cal
cul
atet
heef
for
tappl
i
ed.

 Sol
uti
on

Theupperpul
l
eyi
n(b)makesitpossi
blef
oreff
ortt
obe η=
M.A
×100% ⇒ 75=
M.A
×100%
V.
R 5
appl
i
ed downwar
d.Theveloci
tyrati
o ofeach ofthe

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pull
eys(a)and(
b)i
s2si
ncet
wor
opesar
esuppor
ti
ng M.
A=
75×5
=3.
75
100
theload.
Load 400×10
M.
A= ;3.
75=
Effor
t Ef
fort

C)Bl
ockandt
ackl
e ⇒Ef
for
t=
4000
=1066.
7N
3.
75
Thi
ssy st
em consi
stsoftwo ormor
eset
sofpul
l
ey
bl
ocks.Bel
owareexampl
es.

Exer
cise

1. Aneff
ortof125Nisusedt
olif
taloadof500Nthrough
ahei
ghtof2.5m usi
ngapull
eysystem.I
fthedi
stance
movedbytheeff
orti
s15m,calcul
ate

a) Thewor
kdoneont
hel
oad

b) Thewor
kdonebyt
heef
for
t

c) Theef
fi
ciencyoft
hepul
l
eysy
stem.

2. Drawalockandt ackl
epul
l
eysyst
em ofV.
R6t oshow
how the pul
l
eycan be used torai
se a l
oad L by
appl
yi
nganef f
ortE

7.Pul
l
eyBel
ts Exampl
e

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Theradiusoftheeffor
tpist
onofahydr
auli
cli
ftis2.1cm
whi
lethatofthel
oadpistoni
s8.
4cm.Thi
smachineisused
torai
seal oadof180kgataconstantvel
oci
tythrougha
hei
ghtof5m.Gi ven t
hatthemachi
nei s75% effi
cient
,
cal
cul
ate:

a) Theef
for
tneeded

b)Theener
gywast
edi
nusi
ngt
hismachi
ne.

Sol
uti
on

 Theyar ef ound in posh mil

ls,sewi ng machi
nes, (a)η=
M. A
×100% but,
V.
R
mot orenginesetc.Iftheradi
usoft hedri
verpull
eyis
Randt hatoft hedrivenpull
eyi sr,thebeltt
urnsa cross-sect
ionareaofl
oadpiston πR2
V.R= = L2
distanceof2πRwhent hedri
vingwheelmakest he cross-secti
onareaofeffor
tpiston πRE
revoluti
on.The l oad wheel( dri
ven wheel)att he
π×0.0842
samet i
memakes V.R=
π×0.0212
=16

2πR R M.A 75×16

= rev
olut
ions 75= ×100%⇒M.
A= =12
2πr r 16 100

numberofrevol
uti
onsmadebyeff
ort 1 r L 180×10
V.
R= = = E= ⇒E= =150N
numberofr
evol
uti
onsmadebyload R R M.A 12
r

radi
usofdr
ivenwheel
V.
R=
r
adi
usofdr
iverwheel
(
b)25%ofworkinputisequi
val
entt
oener
gywast
ed,
i.
e.15%of
(
(workout
put
)/Ef
fi
ciency×100)

8.Hy
draul
i
cmachi
nes 100(
25 1800×5
×
75 )
×100 =3000N

Exer
cise

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1. Thedi
agr
am bel
owshowshy
draul
i
cbr
akesy
stem.

a) St
atet
hreepr
oper
ti
esoft
hehy
draul
i
cbr
akeoi
l
.

b) A forceof20N isappli
edonafootpedaltoa
2
pistonofareas50cm andthi
scausesst
oppi
ng
forceof5000N.

I
. Pr
essur
eint
hemast
ercy
li
nder
Whentheef f
ortpi
stonmov
esdownwar
dst
he
l
oadpi
stoni
spushedupwar
ds. I
I. Ar
eaoft
hesl
avepi
ston

v
olumeofl
i
qui
dthatl
eav
esef
for
tcyl
inder I
II
. Vel
oci
tyr
ati
ooft
hesy
stem
=vol
umeofl
iqui
dthatent
ersl
oadcy
li
nder
2. Studythefi
gurebel
ow ofahy
draul
i
cli
ftandanswer
di
stancemov
edbyeff
ort×cross -
sectionofeff
ortpi
ston
thequest
ionbel
ow.
=distancemov edbyload×cr
oss
-
sectionareaofpiston

distancemovedbyeff
ort
distancemovedbyl
oad
cross-sect
ionareaofl
oadpiston
=
cross-secti
onareaofeffor
tpiston

Vel
oci
tyr
ati
o=

Theareasofcross-sect
ionsofthepist
onsandthelengt
h
ofthearm ar
easi ndi
cat
ed.FindFo,M.Aandeff
ici
encyof
themachine.

Rev
isi
onExer
cise

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1. The f i
gure below shows a sy stem of gear s for
transmi
tti
ngpower .GearAhas200t eet
handactast he
drivi
nggear.GearsBandCwi th40t eet
hand100t eeth
respect
ivel
yar e mounted on t
he same axl
e and they
transmi
tmot i
ontot hel
astgearDwhichhas50teet
h.

I
. I
nwhatdirect
ion(
s)wouldgearCandDr ot
ate?I
f
gearAi
srotat
edincl
ockwisedi
rect
ion.

I
I. Fi
ndt
hev
eloci
tyr
ati
ooft
hegearsy
stem

2. Thef i
gurebelow showstherearwheelofabicycl
eand
thecrankwheelA,connect
edtothespr
ocketBbyachain.
I
fwheelAhas40t eethwhi
leBhas25teethandther
adi
us
oftherearwheeli
s42cm, cal
culat
e:

a) t
hev
eloci
tyr
ati
ooft
hemachi
ne,

b) thedist
ancetr
avel
ledbyt
hebi
cycl
einoner
evol
uti
on
ofthecrankwheel
.

3. Thepul
l
eysy
stem abov
ehasaMAOF3cal
cul
ate: i
)the
tot
alworkdonewhenal oadof60N i
sraisedt
hrougha
hei
ghtof9m.i
i
)theef
fi
ciencyoft
hemachi
ne.

Chapt
erFour REFRACTI
ONOFLI
GHT

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Speci
fi
cObj
ect
ives Cont
ent

Bytheendoft
hist
opi
cthel
eanershoul
dbeabl
e 1. Refr
acti
onofli
ght–lawsofr
efr
act
ion(
exper
iment
al
t
o: tr
eatmentr
equi
red)

a) Descr i
be si mple exper i
ments t o ill
ust
rat
e 2. Determinat
ionofrefr
acti
veindex
refr
actionofl i
ght
 Snell’
slaw
b) Statethel awsofrefract
ionofl
ight
 Real/apparentdepth
c) VerifySnell’
slaw
 Criti
calangl
e
d) Definerefracti
veindex
3. Dispersi
onofwhi t
elight(Exper
iment
alt
reat
menti
s
e) Determi neexperi
ment al
lyther
efract
ivei
ndex requi
red)

f) Descri
beexper i
mentt oi ll
ustr
atedispersionof 4. Totali
nter
nalreflecti
onandi t
seffects:cr
it
icalangl
e
whit
elight
5. Appli
cati
onsoft otalint
ernalr
efl
ection
g) Expl
aintot
alinter
nal r
eflect
ionanditseffects
 Pr ism per i
scope
h) Stat
etheapplicat
ionsoft otal
inter
nalrefl
ecti
on
 Opt i
calfibre
) Sol
i v
e numericalpr oblems involv
ing refr
activ
e
i
ndexandcr i
ti
calangle. 6. Probl
emsonr ef
ract i
veindexandcriti
calangle

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Def
ini
ti
onofRef
ract
ionofLi
ght  Ref
ract
ionofl
i
ghti
sther
easonast
owhy
;

 Refracti
on ofl i
ghtr ef
erst othe change i n a) ast
ickappear
sbentwhenpar
tofi
tisi
nwat
er
dir
ectionoflightatt heinterf
ace asi ttrav
els
fr
om onemedi um toanot heratanangl e,for
exampl e,arayofl i
ghtf r
om airt owat er
.The
cause ofr ef
ract
ion oflightist he change in
vel
ocityofli
ghtasittrav
elsfrom onemedi um to
another.The change i nv el
oci
tyi s due t o
vari
ationofopti
caldensi
tyofmedi a.

b) acoininabeakerofwaterappear
sneart
he
sur
facet
hani
tact
ual
l
yis,

c) apoolofwaterappearsmoreshall
owwhen
vi
ewedmor eobli
quelyetc.(
Student
stoper
for
m
t
hispract
ical
l
y)

 Ar ay thattr
avel
s perpendicul
artoi nt
erf
ace
proceedsacr
ossthei
nterfacenotdevi
atedsi
nce
theangleofi
nci
dencetothenor mali
szero. Opti
caldensi
ty(
transmi
ssi
ondensi
ty)andr
efr
act
ionof
l
ight

 Arayoflighttr
av el
li
ngf r
om anopt icall
ylessdense
medi
um t o an opt i
call
y denser medi um bends
t
owardsthenormalaf terref
racti
one.g.ar ayfr
om ai
r
t
oglassblockasi n(a)below.Theangl eofinci
dence
i
nthi
scasei sgreaterthanangleofrefracti
on.

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 Ar ayofli
ghttr
avell
ingfrom anopt i
call
ydense si
ni
=constant.
medium to an optical
l
yl ess dense medium si
nr
bendsawayfrom thenormalafterrefr
acti
one.
g.
Theconst antiscall
edrefr
acti
veindex.
arayfrom gl
asstoairasin(b)below.Theangle
ofinci
denceinthiscasei slesst hanangleof  A graph ofsin iagai nstsinr i sa strai
ghtli
ne
ref
ract
ion. passi
ngt hrought heor i
ginandslopeoft hegraph
gi
vesther ef
racti
veindexofamat eri
al.

 NB:some medi a ar e physi

cal
l
y denserbut
opt
icall
ylessdenset hanother
se.g.ker
oseneis Ref
racti
veIndex,
n
phy
sicall
ylessdensebutopt i
cal
lydenserthan
 Ref r
activ
eindexisdef
inedas:therat
ioofthesineof
water.
theangleofinci
dence(i)tothesi
neoft heangleof
Exerci
se ref
racti
on(r)foraraypa ssi
ngfr
om o nemedium to
another
.
1. Def
inet
het
ermr
efr
act
ion
Considerarayofl
i
ghtt
rav
ell
i
ngf
rom medi
um 1t
o
2. Draw adiagr
am toshow refr
acti
onforarayofl
i
ght medium 2.
across t
he f
oll
owing boundar
ies i
nthe or
dert
hey
appear  Fort
het
womedi
a,

a) ai
r-wat
er si
ni
=r
efr
act
ivei 1n
ndex, 2
si
nr
b) wat
er-gl
ass
(
read as t
he r
efr
acti
vei
ndex ofmedi
um 2 wi
th
c) gl
ass-ai
r r
espectt
omedium 1)
d) gl
ass-ai
r-wat
er
 Bythepr i
nci
pleofrev
ersi
bil
i
tyofli
ght,
arayt
rav
ell
ing
3. Thef
igur
ebel
owshowshowr
efr
act
ionoccur
s. from medium 2tomedium 1alongthesamepathis
refr
actedmakingthesameangles.

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si
nr
=2n1.ri
stheangl
eofi
nci
dencei
nthi
scase.
Whi
choft
het
womedi
aisopt
ical
l
ydenser
? si
ni
Expl
ain.
si
ni 1
but
, =1n2=
4. Expl
ainwi
ththehelpofadi
agr
am whypenci
lpl
aced si
nr si
nr
part
lyi
nwaterappear
sbent
. si
ni

1
1n2=
.n
2 1

si
nr
=2n1.ri
stheangl
eofi
nci
dencei
nthi
scase.
si
ni
LawsofRef
ract
ion
si
ni 1
but
, =1n2=
Law1 si
nr si
nr
si
ni
 The i
nci
dentray
,the r
efr
acted r
ay and t
he
nor
malalll
iei
nthesameplaneatthepoi
ntof 1
1n2=
i
nci
dence. .n
2 1

Law2(
Snel
l
’sl
aw)

 I
tstatesthat;“
ther
ati
oofthesineoftheangle
ofincidence (
i)tothe si
ne ofthe angl
e of
ref
racti
on( r
)isaconstantforagivenpairof
media”.

Not
e: 3.Usetheinf
ormati
ongiveninthef i
gures(
a)and(
b)bel
owt
o
cal
cul
atetheref
ract
ivei
ndexanw andtheangl
eθ
Absoluteref
racti
veindexistheref
ract
ivei
ndexofa
materialwit
hr especttovacuum.Av acuum hasa
ref
ractiv
eindexof1.000.

Exampl
es

1.A r ay ofl i
ghtpasses t hrough airint
o a certai
n
transparentmat er
ial.I
ft he angl es ofinci
dence and
refract
ion are 600 and 350 respecti
vel
y,calcul
atethe
refract
iveindexofthemateri
al

Sol
uti
on

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4.St
atet
hepr
inci
pleofr
ever
sibi
l
ityofl
i
ght
.

si
ni
Ref
ract
iveI
ndexi
nTer
msofVel
oci
ty
Ref
ract
ivei
ndex=
si
nr
 Lightt
ravel
sfasterinanopti
call
ylessdensemedium
si
n60 thaninanopticall
ydensermedium.Considerar
ayof
Ref
ract
ivei
ndex= =1.
510
si
n35
l
ightcrossing the boundar
yf r
om medi um 1 wit
h
speed v1
t
o medi an 2 wih speedv
t 2
,wherev1
i
s
gr
eat hanv
ert 2
asshownbel
ow.

2.Gi
venthatr
efract
iveindexofgl
assis1.5,cal
cul
atethe
angl
eofinci
denceforar ayofli
ghttrav
ell
ingfr
om airto
gl
assift
heangleofrefr
acti
onis100.

Sol
uti
on

 Ref
ract
iveindex,1n2 ofmedi
um 2wi
thr
espectt
o
medium 1i
sgivenas:

ni v
si
1n2= =1
si
nr v
si
ni 2
Ref
ract
ivei
ndex=
si
nr
vel
oci
tyofl
igt
hinmedi
um1
1n2=
1.
5=
si
ni
o
v
eloci
tyofl
i
gthinmedi
um2
si
n10

o o  Absolut
erefr
acti
veindexni
st heref
ract
ivei
ndexof
Angl
eofi
nci n-1(
i= Si
dence, 1. n10)=15.
5×si 09
themedium whenli
ghtistr
avell
i
ngfrom t
hevacuum
tothemedium.

Absol
uter
efr
act
ivei
ndex
,

3.Cal
cul
atet
her
efr
act
ivei
ndexf
orl
i
ghtt
rav
ell
i
ngf
rom v
eloci
tyofl
igt
hinvacuum
n=
gl
asst
oai
rgi
vent
hatang=1.
572. veloci
tyofl
i
gthinmedium

Sol
uti
on  Consi
dert
hedi
agr
am bel
ow;

1
= =0.
6361
1.
572

Exer
cise fv
 I 1
i
sthev
eloci
tyofl
i
ghti
nmedi
um 1ofr
efr
act
ive

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1.Arayofl
ightst
ri
ki
ngat
ranspar
entmat
eri
ali
sref
ract
ed ndexn1 andv
i 2
t
hev
eloci
tyofl
i
ghti
nmedi
um 2of
asshownbelow. r
efr
act
iv ndexn2t
ei hen;

nθ1 n2 v
si
1n2= = = 1;
si
nθ2 n1 v
2

⇒n1si
nθ1=n2si
nθ2;

Cal
cul
atet
her
efr
act
ivei
ndi
ces: ⇒nsi
nθ=const
ant

a) 1n2  Ther
efor
e,t heproductoftheref
ract
ivei
ndexofa
medium andtheanglear aymakeswitht
henormal
b) 2n1
i
nthemedi um i
saconstant.

2.Cal culat
et he angl
e ofr ef
ract
ion f
ora r
ayoflight
str
ikinganai rglassinter
facemaki eof500wi
nganangl th
theinterf
ace( ang=1.
526)

Exampl
es 5. Thefigurebelow showsaglasspri
sm ofrefr
act
iveindex
1.
5wi thequi
later
altr
iangl
ecr
osssect
ion.Fi
ndtheangleof
1.Giv
ent hattherefr
act
ivei
ndexofdi amondi s2.
51and devi
ati
onD.
theveloci
tyoflightinai
ris3.0x108 ms-1,cal
cul
atet
he
vel
oci
tyoflighti
ndiamond.

Sol
uti
on

r
efr
act
ivei
ndexofdi
amond
v
eloci
tyofl
igthi
nai
r
=
vel
ocit
yofli
gthindi
amond

3.0×108ms-1 6. Thespeedofli
ghtinmedium m1 i
s2.0x108ms-1 andthe
2.
51= ; 8 -
1
vel
oci
tyofl
igt
hindiamond medi
um m21.5x10 ms .Calcul
atet
herefr
acti
vei ndexof
medi
um m2wit
hrespecttom1
0×108ms-1
3.
⇒v
eloci
tyofl
i
gthi
ndi
amond= 195×108ms-1
=1.
2.
51
7. Cal
culateangl
eθ bel
ow,gi
vent
hatrefr
acti
veindi
cesof
3 4
gl
assandwat erare and r espect
ivel
y.Rayisfr
om
2 3
2.Gi
venthatthevelocit
yofl i
ghtinwateri
s2.27x108ms-1 watertogl
ass
8 -
1
andi
nglassis2.1x10 ms , calcul
ateangl
eθbelow.

Sol
uti
on 8. Ar ayofl
i
ghtisi
nci
dentonapar af
fi
ngl
assi
nter
faceas
shownint
hefi
gur
ebelow.Cal
cul
ater
.
si
nθwater v
= water
si
nθglass vgl
ass

si
nθ 2.27×108
= ;
si 1×108
n22 2.

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(22.2.17××1100×sin22)
8
n-1
⇒ =si 8

o
=23.
89

3.Arayofli
ghti
sincidentonawat er
-gl
assint
erf
aceas
shownbel
ow.Cal
culat
er .(
taker
efr
acti
veindi
cesofgl
ass
3 4
andwat
er and r especti
vel
y)
2 3

Sol
uti
on

nwsi
nθw =ngsi
nθg

4 3
si
n40= si
nr
3 2

( )
4
si
n40×2
3
n-1
r=si
3 Ref
ract
iont
hroughsuccessi
vemedi
a
o
=34.
85
 Consi
derar ayofl i
ghttr
avel
l
ing t
hrough mult
ipl
e
l
ayersoftr
ansparentmediawhoseboundariesare
par
all
elt
oeachotherasshownbel
ow.

Exer
cise
si
ni si
nr1
1n2= ;2n3=
3 si
nr si
nr
9. I
ftherefr
acti
veindexofglassis ,calcul
atet
he 1 2
2
r
efr
act
ivei
ndexofthemedi
um int
hef
igur
ebelow
ni si
si nr si
ni
1n2x2n
1
3= × = …….
.(
1)
si
nr1
si
nr2
s i
n r
2

sinr si
ni
3n = ;⇒ 1n3= …………(
2)
2
1
si
ni sinr2

10.Expl
ainwhyt
hel
i
ghtbendswheni
ttr
avel
sfom one  The
r r
efor
e,f
rom equat
ions(
1)and(
2)1n
; 3=1n2x2n3

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medi
um t
oanot
her
. Forksuccessi
vemedi
aar
rangedwi
thboundar
ies
par
all
el1n
; k=1n2x2n3…………….
k–1nk

Exampl
es. Exer
cise

4 3 1.Ar
ayofl
i
ghtt
rav
elsf
rom ai
rint
omedi
um 1and2asshown.
1. Ther
efr
act
ivei
ndexofwat
eri
s andt
hatofgl
ass .
3 2
Cal
cul
atet
her
efr
act
ivei
ndexofgl
asswi
thr
espectt
o
wat
er.

Sol
uti
on

wng=wnaxang

1 3
wng= × ;
4 2
3
Cal
cul
ate;

I
. Ther
efr
act
ivei
ndexofmedi
um 1
33
wng= × =1.
125
42
I
I. Cr
it
icalangl
eofmedi
um 1

I
II
. Ther ef
ract
ivei
ndexofmedi
um 2r
elat
ivet
omedi
um
(1n2)
2. Ar
ayofl
i
ghtt
rav
elsf
rom ai
rthr
oughmul
ti
plel
ayer
s
oft
ranspar
entmedi
a1,2and3whoseboundar
iesar
e 2.Ar ayofl
ightfrom ai
rtravelssuccessi
vel
ythroughpar al
lel
par
all
elasshowni
nthefi
gur
ebel
ow. l
ayersofwater
,oil
,glassandt heni
ntoairagai
n.Therefracti
ve
46 3
i
ndicesofwater,oil
,andglassar e , and r espect
ivelythe
35 2
angleofi
nci
denceinairi
s60%

a) Draw adiagr
am toshow how t
her
aypassest
hrough
themult
iplel
ayer
s

b) Cal
cul
ate:

I
. Theangl
eofr
efr
act
ioni
nwat
er

I
I. The angl
e of i
nci
dence att
he oi
lgl
ass
Cal
cul
ate : i
nter
face

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a) Angl
eθ Ref
ract
iveI
ndexi
nTer
msofReal
andappar
entdept
h

b) Ther
efr
act
ivei
ndexofm2  Anobj ectunderwaterorglassblockappear
st obe
nearerthesurfacethanitactuall
yiswhenv iewed
c) Speed of l i
ght in m1( speed of l
i
ght i
n
normallyoral
mo stnor
ma l
l
y. Thi
s i
s duet
orefr
acti
on
ai
r=3.0×108ms-1)
ofli
ght.
d) Ther
efr
act
ivei
ndexofm3wi
thr
espectt
om1
 Realdepthist heactualdept
hoft heobjectinthe
medium whieappar
l entdepthisthevir
tualdepthof
theobjecti
nt hemedi um. Thedif
fer
encebet ween
Sol
uti
ons
realdepth and apparentdepthis cal
led vert
ical
a)nasi
nθa=n1si
nθ1 displ
acement.

1si
n35=1.
5si
nθ

n-1
θ=si (1s1in3
5 )
.
5
=22.
o
48

b)n1si
nθ1=n2si
nθ2

1.
5si
n22.
48= n2si
n27

1.
5si
n22.
48
 Refr
act
iveindicesofmater
ial
scanbeexpr
essedi
n
n2=
si
n27 ter
msofr ealandappar
entdepths.

=1.
263

realdepth
Ref
ract
ivei
ndex,
n=
apparentdepth
si
nθa v
c) =a
si
nθ1 v
1

si
n35 0×108
3.
=
si
n22.
48 v1
Condi
ti
onf
orUseoftheFormul
a:Thi
sfor
mul
aappl
i
es
onl
ywhentheobj
ecti
sviewednor
mall
y.
si
n22. 0×108
48×3.
v =
1 sin35

0×108
=2.

nsinθ2
d)n3= 2 ;
sinθ3

1.
263si
n27
⇒ n3= =1.
357
si
n25

1n3=1n2x2n3

si
n22.48 si
n27
1n3= × =0.
9040
sin27 sin25

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Exampl
es. bel
ow

1. Acoininaglassjarfi
l
ledwi
thwaterappearst
obe
24.
0cm f
rom t
hesurf
aceofwat
er.Cal
cul
ate:

I
. Theheightoft hewaterint
hej
ar,gi
ven t
hat
4
ref
ract
ivei
ndexofwat
eris.
3
Ift
hespeedofl
i
ghti
nthemat
eri
ali 25x108 ms-1
s1.
I
I. Ver
ti
caldi
spl
acement cal
cul
ate:

Sol
uti
on a) Theappar
entdept
hoft
hemar
k

realdepth b) The vert

ical di
spl
acement of t he mar
k
I
. Ref
ract
ivei
ndex,
n= (speedofli
ghtinai
r=3.0x108ms-1
apparentdepth

4 realdept
h 5) Api ni
spl acedatthebott
om ofatal
lparal
lelsidedglass
=
3 24 j
arcont ainingat r
anspar
entl
iqui
dwhenv i
ewednor mall
y
fr
om thet op,thepinappear
snearerthesur f
acet hanit
4 actual
l
yi s:
Realdept
h= ×24=32cm.
3
Wi
tht
heai
dofdi
agr
am,
expl
aint
hisobser
vat
ion
Thi
sist
hehei
ghtofwat
eri
njar
.
6) Thetabl
ebelowshowsther
esul
tsobtai
nedwhensuchan
I
I.Ver
ti
cal
displ
acement
exper
imentwascarri
edoutusi
ngv ar
iousdept
hsofthe
=realdept
h-appar
entdept
h
l
iqui
d
Ver
ti
cal
di acement=(
spl 24)
32- cm =8cm
Realdept
h 4.
0 6.
0 8.
0 10.
2 12.
8 14
(cm) .
0

2. Cal
culat
ethedisplacementandapparentdepthoft
he Apparent 2.
4 3.
6 4.
8 6.
10 7.
32 8.
obj
ectshowni nthef i
gurebelow assumingthatt
he depth(cm) 4 6 8 54
obj
ectisv iewed normall
y and boundaries oft
he
mediaareparal
lel
. a) Pl
otagr
aphofappar
entdept
hagai
nstr
ealdept
h

b) Usingthegr
aph,det
ermi
net
her
efr
act
ivei
ndexof
theli
quid

c) Whati
sthev er
ti
caldi
splacementoft
hepi
nwhen
t
heappar
entdepthi
s1.22cm?

7) How longdoesi ttakeapulseofl ighttopassthrougha

gl
assbl ock15cm i
nlengt
h?(Refract
iveindexofgl
assis1.
5
andvelocit
yofli
ghtinai
ris3.0x108ms- 1)
Sol
uti
on

realdepth
appar
entdept
h=
Ref
racti
veindex,
n
Tot
alI
nter
nal
Ref
lect
ion
12 8 9
Tot
alappar
entdept
h= + + =20cm
4 8 3  Totalinternalreflecti
on referstot he compl et
e
3 5 2 bounci
ngof fofli
ghtatt heboundarybet weent wo
mediai ntheopticallydensermedium.Thel awsof
Ver
ti
cal
displ
acement
=totalreal
depth ref
lect
ionareobey edintotali
nter
nalr
eflect
ion.
-
totalapparentdept
h

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Ver
ti
cal
displ
acement
=(12+8+20)
cm-20cm =20cm

Exer
cise

1) Atankfullofwaterappearst
obe0.5m deep.I
fthe
hei
ghtofwat eri
nthet anki
s1.0m,calcul
atethe Condi
ti
onsf
orTot
alI
nter
nalRef
lect
ion
ref
ract
iveindexofwater
.
 Fori
nter
nal
ref
lect
iont
ooccur
:
2) A gl assblockoft hicken12cm isplacedona
mark drawn on a plai
n paper.The mar kisv iewed a) Li
ghtmustbetravel
l
ingf
rom opt
ical
l
ydensert
o
normall
yt hr
ough the glass.Calcul
atethe appar ent opt
ical
l
ylessdensemedi
um.
depth ofthe mark hence t he v
ert
icaldi
splacement
3 b) Theangl
eofinci
denceintheopt
ical
lydenser
(r
efract
ivei
ndexofglass=
2 medi
um mustbegr
eatert
hant
hecr
iti
calangl
e

3) Abeakerpl acedov eracoi ncontainsablockof Cr

it
icalAngl
e
gl
assoft hi
ckeners12cm.ov erthi
sblocki swaterof
depth20cm.cal culatethev erti
caldi
spl
acementoft he Cr
it
icalanglei
st heangleofi
nci
denceinopt
ical
l
ydenser
coi
n and hence,i ts apparentdepthi fi tisviewed medium forwhi
cht heangleofr
efract
ioni
ntheopt
ical
ly
normally.Assume t he boundar i
es oft he media are l
essdensemedi um is900
paral
lelandtakerefracti
veindicesofwaterandglasst o
4 3
be and r especti
vely
3 2

4) Amar konapaperisviewednor
mal l
ythrougha
rect
angul
arbl
ockofat
ranspar
entmater
ialasshown

Sol
uti
on

n1si
nθ1=n2si
nθ2

2.
4si
nc=1.
467si
n90

(1.467s
n-1
c=si
2.
4
i
n90
)=37.66
o

Rel
ati
onshi
pbet
weenCr
it
icalAngl
eandRef
ract
ive
I
ndex Exer
cise

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 Consi
dera r ay of l
i
ghtst
ri
ki
ng a gl
ass-
air 1. What do you under
stand by t
he t
erm t
otali
nter
nal
i
nter
faceasshownbelow r
efl
ect
ion?

2. Statet he condi
ti
ons necessar
yfor t
otalunder
stand
refr
act
ion

3. Defi
ne cri
tical angl
e. Deriv
e an expr
essi
on for t
he
rel
ati
onshi
pbetweencr i
ti
calangl
eandr
efr
acti
vei
ndex

4. Thefi
gurebelowshowsapl anemirorat300 t
r ofaceofa
ri
ghtangled isoscel
es pr
ism ofr efr
acti
veindex 1.
50.
Complet
et hepathofli
ghtr
ayafterr
efl
ecti
on.
Fr
om Snel
l
’sl
aw,

sinc
 gna=
sin900

sin900
 Butang=1/gna=
si
nC
5. Cal
cul
atecr
it
icalangl
efordi
amond-
wat
eri
nter
face
 n900=1
si (
anw =1.
33,
and =2.
46)

1
 ang=
si
nC

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1 Ef
fect
sofTot
alI
nter
nalRef
ract
ion
Thus,
ref
ract
ivei
ndex,
n=
si
nC
1.Mi
rage

 Mir
agereferstoopti
cali
ll
usi
onofani nv
ert
edpoolof
watert
hatiscausedbytotal
int
ernal
refl
ect
ionl
i
ght.

 Duri
ngahotdayai rneart
hegroundiswarmerand
ther
efor
ephy sicall
ylessdensethanairawayf r
om
Examples theground.Ther efor
eonahotdayt heref
racti
ve
1.The f
igur
e bel
ow showsthe pat
h ofa r
ayofl
i
ght i
ndexincreasesgraduall
yfr
om t
hegroundupwards.
passi
ngt
hroughar
ect
angul
arbl
ockofPer
spexpl
acedi
n
ai
r  Ar
ayofl
i
ghtt
rav
ell
i
ngi
nai
rfr
om skyt
ogr
ound
undergoescont
inuousr
efr
act
ionandf
inal
l
yref
lect
ed
i
nternal
ly.

Cal
cul
atet
her
efr
act
ivei
ndexofPer
spex

Sol
uti
on

1
n=
si
nc

1
n= =1.
467
si
n43  Mir
agesar eal
sowi tnessedinver
ycoldregi
onsin
whichtheref
ract
iveindexincr
easesgr
aduall
yfr
om
t
hegr oundupwards.Imagesappeari
nver
tedinthe
2.Ar
ayofl
i
ghtt
rav
elsf
rom at
ranspar
entmedi
um i
nto sky
.
Per
spexasshowni
nthef
igur
e

i
. Whi
choft
het
womedi
aisopt
ical
l
ydenser
?

Tr
anspar
entmat
eri
al

i
i
. Cal
cul
atet
hecr
it
icalangl
eC

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2.At
mospher
icRef
ract
ion I
V. I
nver
sionwi
thoutdev
iat
ion

 Thisisaphenomenoni nwhichl
ightraysfrom
the sun ar e ref
ract
ed and then r efl
ected
i
nternal
l
yt owar
dst heeart
h.Asaresult
,thesun
i
sseenev enaft
erithassetorbef
oreitri
ses.

Appl
i
cat
ionsofTot
alI
nter
nalRef
lect
ion

1.Per
iscope

 Li
ghtisdevi
atedt ough900byf
hr ir
stpri
sm bef
oret
he
0
secondpri
smsdev iat
esi
tfurt
herthrough90 int
he
opposi
tedi
recti
on.Anupr
ightvi
rt
uali
magei sf
ormed

Tot
alI
nter
nalRef
lect
ionPr
isms

 Ri
ght
-angl
edi
soscel
esgl
assorPer
spexpr
isms
ar
eused.

I
. Tot
urnar
ayofl
i
ghtt
hrough900

Note:Pri
smsar eprefer
redtoplanemi r
rorsforusei
n
per
iscopesandotheropt
icali
nst
rumentbecause:

a) Mi
rr
orsabsor
bsomeoft
hei
nci
dentl
i
ght

b) Thesil
ver
ingonmi
rr
orscanbecomet
arni
shedand
peelof
f
I
I. Tot
urnar
ayt
hrough1800
c) Thi
ckmi
rr
orspr
oducemul
ti
plei
mages

2.Opt
icalFi
bre

 Anopt i
calfi
br ei
sat hi
nfl
exibl
eglassrodofsmal l
diameterintheorderof10-6m.Thecentr
alcaseof
theglassi scoatedwithglassoflowerr ef
ract
ive
i
ndex(cladding)
I
II
. I
nver
sionwi
thdev
iat
ion

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 Ar ayofl i
ghtenteri
ng the f
ibre undergoes t
otal
i
nternalrefl
ect
ionsont heboundaryoft hehighand
l
owr efracti
vei
ndexglass.Thelightther
eforetr
avel
s
thr
ought heenti
relengthoft hef i
brewi t
houtany
gett
inglost.

Adv
ant
agesofopt
icf
iber
sov
eror
dinar
ycabl
es.

-
theyhav
ehi
ghcar
ryi
ngcapaci
ty

-
theyar
ethi
nnerandl
i
ght
er

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UsesofOpt
icalFi
bre Rev
isi
onExer
cise

I
. Usedinmedi
cinet
ovi
ewi
nter
nalor
gansoft
he 1. Thedi
agr
am bel
owshowt
wopr
isms
body.

I
I. Used i ntelecommunicati
on wheret heyhave
higheradv antage t
han ordi
narycablessince
theyhav e highercarry
ing capaci
ty,theyare
thinnerandlight
er.

Gi
venthatthecri
ti
calangleoftheglassi
nbothpri
sms
Di
sper
sionofWhi
teLi
ght s 420 sket
i ch the paths of the two beams of
monochromati
cli
ghtuntiltheyl
eavethef
lasks.
 Di
spersi
onoflighti
st hespli
tt
ingofwhit
eli
ght
i
ntoits componentcol or
s..Whit
elightis a 2. Thefi
gurebel
owshowhowwhi
tel
i
ghtbehav
eswheni
tis
mixt
ureofsev
encolors. i
nci
dentonaglasspr
ism.

 Thecomponent sofwhit
el i
ghttr
av elwi
thsame
vel
oci
tyi
nv acuum butt
heirvel
oci
tiesarenott
he
sameinothermedia.

I
. Det
ermine t
he cr
it
icalangl
e oft
he gl
ass
mater
ial

I
I. Det
erminet
her
efr
act
ivei
ndexoft
hegl
ass
mater
ial

3. The di agram below shows a t ransparentwatert

ank
containingwater.Anel ectri
cdampcov eredwi
thashield
whichhasanar r
owsl itf
ixedatonenearoft het
ank.Al
ight
rayfrom theslitreachest hewatersurfaceatanangl
eof
420asshownbel ow.
 Cause of Disper
sion of White Light: The
separ
ati
onofwhiteli
ghti
ntoconsti
tuentcolours
i
s due tothei
rdiffer
entvel
ocit
ies in a given
tr
anspar
entmedium.

 Thevel
ocit
yofredishighestwhilethatofviol
et
i
stheleast.Redcolourhaslongestwav el
ength I
. Deter
minetheangleofr
efr
act
ionf
ort
her
ay
whi
levi
oletthel
eastwavelengt
h(v=λf ) showninthedi
agram

I
I. Deter
minetheangleofinci
denceforwhich
theangl
eofref
ract
i s900(
oni ref
ract
ivei
ndex
TheRai
nbow ofwater=1.
33)

 Rai
nbow i
sabow-
shapedcol he 4. Thedi
ourbandoft agr
am bel
ow showsar
ayofl
i
ghti
nci
dentont
he
gl
ass–ai
rint
erf
acef
rom t
hei
nsi
deoft
hegl
ass.Theangl
e

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vi
sibl
espectr
um seenint hesky.Itisf
ormed ofi
nci
denceI
,issl
i
ght
lysmal
l
ert
hant
hecr
it
icalangl
eof
when whit
el i
ghtfrom the sun isref
ract
ed, gl
ass.
di
spersedandtot
all
yint
ernal
lyref
lect
edbyrain
dr
ops.

St
ateandexplai
nwhatwoul
dbeobser
vedontherayi
f
adropofwaterwaspl
acedatt
hepoi
ntofi
nci
dence,o

Chapt
erFi
ve GASLAWS

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Speci
fi
cobj
ect
ives Cont
ent

Bytheendoft
hist
opi
c,t
hel
eanershoul
dbeabl
e 1. Boyl
e’
slaw,Char
les’l
aw,pr
essur
elaw,absol
ute
t
o: zer
o

a) st
atet
hegasl
awsf
orani
deal
gas 2. Kel
vi
nscal
eoft
emper
atur
e

b) v
eri
fyexper
iment
all
ythegasl
aws 3. Gasl
awsandki
net
ict
heor
yofgases

c) explai
nhow t
heabsolut
ezerotemper at
ure pv
4. Pr
obl
emsofgasl
aws(
incl
udi
ng =const
ant
)
may be obtai
ned fr
om t he pressure– T
temperat
ure and v ol
ume-t
emper at
ure
graphs

d) conver
tCel si
us scal
eto kel
vi
n scal
e of
temperat
ure

e) statethebasicassumpt
ionoft
heki
net
ic
theoryofgases

f
) expl
aint
hegasl
awsusi
ngt
heki
net
ict
heor
y
ofgases

g) sol
venumer
ical
probl
emsi
nvol
vi
nggasl
aws

I
ntr
oduct
ion Char
act
eri
sti
csofi
deal
gas

 To st udy the behav

iourofgases,pr essure, I
. I
dealgascont
ainsi
dent
icalpar
ti
cl
esofnegl
i
gibl
e
vol
ume and t emperat
ure of the gas ar e v
olume
considered.Achangei noneofthesevariabl
es
causest heother
stochange.Thegasl
awsdeal sI I
. Thereis no int
ermol
ecul
arf
orces ofat
tract
ion
wit
hr elati
onshi
pbetweenthi
sparameter
s. betweenpar
ti
cles

I
II
. Molecul
esunder
goperfect
lyel
ast
iccol
l
isi
onwi t
h
 NBGaslawsapplyforidealgasesonl
y.Ani
deal
ot
hermolecul
esandwi
ththewal
lsoft
hecont
ainer
.
gasi
sonethatobey
st hegaslaws.

Relati
onshi
pbetweenKel
vi
n(Absol
ute)andCel
sius
ScalesofTemperat
ure TheGasLaws
 Absolutezerotemperat
urerefer
stothel owest Charl
es’l
aw
0
temperatureagascanf al
lto.Iti
s-273cel cius
(0Kelvi
n).Thekel
vi
nscaleoftemperaturest arts  I
tstatesthat“
,thevolumeofaf i
xedmassofagasi s
0
at-273c( 0K). dir
ect
ly pr oporti
onal t o the absolut
e ( kel
vi
n)
o
temperat
u r
e atconsta ntpr
essur
e”.
 TheKelv i
n(K)scal
eisrel
atedtotheCelsius( C)
by:  Mathematicall
y,Charles’l
awcanbeexpressedas:

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Temper
atur
einkel
vi
n,TK(
K) V ∝ T(
atconst
antpr e)
essur ;

=Temper
atur
eincel
ci
us,
o
TC(.c)+273 ⇒V=kTwherki
saconst
antofpr
opor
ti
onal
i
ty

V
Note:Alltemperat
uresmustbeexpr
essedi
nkel
vi
n =const
ant
T
anycal
culati
on.
Wher
eVi
sthev
olumeandTi
sthekel
vi
ntemper
atur
e

V V
Ther
ef e, 1 = 2
or
T1 T2

Wher
e V1,V2 and T1,T2ar
ethe i
nit
ialand f
inal
v
aluesofv
olumeandt
emper
atur
erespect
ivel
y.

Exer
cise

1.Conv
ertt
hef
oll
owi
ngt
emper
atur
etokel
vi
n

I
. 400C
-

I
I. 550C

2.Conver
tthef
oll
owi
ngv
aluesoft
emper
atur
etodegr
ees
val
ues

I
. 45K

I
I. 300K

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Graphi
cal
l
y,Char
les’l
aw canbeexpr
essed I
II
. Descr
ibehowt
hesetupcanbeusedt
over
if
yChar
les’
asshownbel
ow; l
aw.

 Thei
nit
iall
engthoftheai
rcol
umnist
akenandr
ecor
ded
aswel
lastheini
ti
alt
hermomet
err
eadi
ng.

 Thewaterbat
hisheat
edandnewhei
ght(col
umn)ofairi
s
takenandrecor
dedwithit
scorr
espondi
ngt emper
atur
e
readi
ng

 Thisisrepeatedseveralti
mesatsuit
abl
etemper
atur
e
i
nterv
alstogetsev
eralpair
sofr
esul
ts

 A gr
aph ofvol
ume (
hei
ght
,h (
cm)
)agai
nstabsol
ute
t
emperat
urei
spl
ott
ed.

 I
tisast
rai
ghtl
i
newi
thposi
ti
vegr
adi
ent
.

 Thisshowsthatthevol
umei
sdi
rect
lypr
opor
ti
onalt
o
absolut
etemperatur
e.

3.Thev ol
umeofagasencl osedwithamov abl
epi
stonis300
3 o
cm whent hetemper
aturei
s2o C.Det er
minethet
emperatur
e
atwhichthevolumeofthegasincr
easesto355cm3.(Assume
pressur
edoesnotchange)

Sol
uti
on
o
V1=300cm3, V2=355cm3, T1=20.C=(
20+273)
K
=293K,T2=?

Sampl
equest
ionsonChar
les’
law V1 V2
=
T1 T2

300cm3 355cm3
1.St
ateChar
les’
lawf
orani
deal
gas. =
293K T2

The v ol
ume of a f ixed mass of a gas is dir
ect
ly 355cm3×293K
proporti
onalt ot he absol
ute(kel
vi
n) temperat
ure at T2= =346.
72K
300cm3
constantpressur
e.
o
I
ncel
siusscal
e,T2=346.
72-
293=53.
72.C
2.Theset-
upbelow showsanar rangementt
hatcanbe
usedtodeter
minetherelat
ionshi
pbet weent
emperat
ure Exer
cise
andvol
umeofagasatconst antpr
essure.

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1.I
nanexperi
menttofi
ndtherel
ati
onshi
pbetweenthevolume
andtemper
atureofamassofai ratconst
antpressur
e,the
fol
l
owingr
esult
swereobtai
ned:

Volume 31 3 3 3 4 43
(cm) 3 5 8 0

Temper
atur 0 2 4 6 8 100
e0c 0 0 0 0
I
.St
ateanyt
wousesofsul
phur
icaci
d.
Draw agraphtoshow ther el
ati
onshi
pbetweenv
olumeand
 Usedasapoi
ntert
ovol
umeoft
hegasont
hescal
e temperat
ureanduset hegrapht ocalcul
atet
heincr
easei
n
volumeofthegasperuni
tri
seintemperat
ure
 Usedasadr
yingagentf
ort
heai
r
2.Some r esult
s ofan experimentto st
udy t
he ef
fectof
 Usedt
otr
apai
r
temperatur
eonv olumeofafixedmassofagasataconstant
I
I.Whati
stheuseoft
hest
ir
rer
? pressur
earedisplayedi
nthet
ablebel
ow.

Tost
irt
hewat
erbat
hforuni
for
m di
str
ibut
ionofheat Volume 2 2 4
3
(cm) 0 5 0
I
II
. St at
ethemeasur
ementt
hatusedt
obet
akeni
n
Temperat
ur 0 - 20
t
hisexper
iment
. 0
e( c) 136 5
 Temper
atur
e
Fi
l
lthemi
ssi
ngr
esul
ts
 Ai
rcol
umnhei
ghtwhi
chcor
respondst
ovol
ume
3.Thevolumeofagasenclosedwi
thamov ablepist
oni s0.
02
3 0
m whent hetemper
aturei
s42 c.Det
ermi
net hetemper at
ure
atwhichthevol
umeofthegasincr
easest
o0. 4cm3( assume
pressur
edoesnotchange)

4.Atubecontainsagasencl osedwit
hat hreadofmercury.The
tube was placed hor
izontall
yi n a waterbat h.The init
ial
temperat
ureoft hewaterwas200candt helengthofthegas
columnwas25cm.Det er
mi net hetemperatur
eatwhi cht he
l
engthofai rcolumnwoul dbe20cm ( Assumet hepressure
doesnotchange)

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Pr
essur
elaw I
I.Descr
ibehowt
heset
-upcanbeusedt
over
if
ypr
essur
elaw

 Pressur
elawstat
esthat,“
thepr
essureofafixed  Thei
nit
ialt
emper
atur
eandpr
essur
ereadi
ngar
etaken
massofagasi sdir
ect
lypropor
ti
onaltothe andr
ecorded
absolut
e(kel
vi
n)temperat
ureataconstant  Thewat erbat
hisheatedgent
lyandsomemor epai
rs
volume”. ofpressureandtemperat
urer
eadingsaret
akenand
recor
dedatsuitabl
etemperat
ureint
erv
als
 Mathemat
ical
l
y,pr
essur
elawcanbeexpr
essed
as:  Agr
aphofpr
essur
eagai
nstt
emper
atur
eispl
ott
ed.

P ∝ T(
K),atconst
antt
emper
atur
e  I
tisast
rai
ghtl
i
newi
thposi
ti
vegr
adi
ent
.

P  Thisshowsthatthepressur
eisdi
rect
lypr
opor
ti
onalt
o
=const
ant(atconst
antv
olume)
T(
k) absolut
etemperatur
e.

P P 3.Agasincontai
nerhaspressur
eof3. 0x105Pawhenthe
t
her
ef e, 1 = 2
or
T1 T2 temperat
urei 0
s20 c.Det
erminet
hepr essureoft
hegaswhen
thetemperat
urel
oweredto-50c(assumet her
eisnochangei
n
Wher eP1,P2andT1,
T2arei
niti
alandf
inal volume)
pressur
eandt emperat
urev
alues
o o
respect
ivel
y T1=20.C=293K, T2=-
5.C=268K, P1
0×105Pa,P2=?
=3.
 Gr
aphi
cal
l
y,pr
essur
elawcanbeexpr
essedas:
P1 P2
=
T1 T2

0×105Pa
3. P
= 2
293K 268K

0×105Pa×268K
3.
P2= 744×105Pa
=2.
293

Exer
cise

1.80cm3ofhydr
ogengaswascollectedatatemperat
ureof15
o
Candnormalat
mospheri
cpressure.Deter
minethepressur
e
ofagaswhenthetemper
atur
eislower edto0oCatconstant
vol
ume.

2.I
nanexper i
mentt odeter
mi netheabsolut
ezerotemperat
ure
(0K),t
hepressureofagasatconst antvolumewasmeasur ed
asthetemperaturewasv ar
iedgradual
ly.Thetabl
ebelow
showstheresultsobtai
ned.

Pressur
e 75 77 80 82 85 88 9
Sampl
equest
ionsonPr
essur
elaw
(mmHg) 0 6 2 8 4 0 0

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1.St
atepr
essur
elaw. Temper
at e0
ur 15 25 35 45 55 65 7
C 5
Thepr essur
eofafixedmassofagasisdi
rectl
y
proporti
onaltot
heabsolut
e(kel
vi
n)t
emperatur
eata I
. Pl
otagr
aphofpr
essur
eagai
nstt
emper
atur
e
constantvolume.
I
I. Det
ermi
net
hev
alueofabsol
utezer
ofr
om t
hegr
aph
2.Thesetupbel
owshowsanar r
angementusedto
determi
nether
elat
ionshi
pbetweentemperat
ureand I
II
. Giv
eareasonwhyt
hetemper
atur
einI
Iabov
ecoul
d
pressur
eofagasatconstantvol
ume. notbepr
acti
cal
l
yobtai
ned

Boy
le’
sLaw

 Boyl
e’
slawstatesthat
,“t
hepressureofafi
xedmass
ofagasisinv
ersel
yproport
ionalt
oitsvol
umeata
const
anttemperat
ure”
.

 Mat
hemat
ical
l
y,Boy
le’
slawcanbeexpr
essedas:
I.St
atethemeasur
ementt
hatneedt
obet
akeni
nthi
s
experi
ment 1
P∝ (atconst
antt
emper
atur
e)
V
a) Temper
atur
e
PV=const
ant(
atconst
antt
emper
atur
e)
b) Pr
essur
e
t
her
efor
e,P1V1= P2 V2

eP1,P2andV1,V2ar
wher eini
ti
alandf
inal
val
uesof
pr
essur
eandv
olumer
espect
ivel
y.

 Gr
aphi
cal
l
y,Boy
le’
slawcanbeexpr
essedas: Sampl
equest
ionsonPr
essur
elaw

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1.St
ateBoy
le’
slaw.

Thepr
essur
eofafi
xedmassofagasisi
nver
sel
ypr
opor
ti
onal
toi
tsv
olumeataconst
antt
emper
atur
e.

2.Theset -upbel
owshowsanarrangementusedt
odet
ermi
ne
therelat
ionshi
pbetweenpr
essur
eandv ol
umeofagasat
constanttemperat
ure.

Descr
ibehowt
hesetupcanbeusedt
over
if
yBoy
le’
slaw.

 Witht
hetapopen,
airi
spumpedunti
ltheoilr
aisesasmal
l
butmeasur
abl
eheight
.Thetapi
sthenclosed.

 Theval
ueofpressur
eandi
tscor
respondi
nghei
ghti
sread
andr
ecorded.

 Thi
sisrepeat
edtoobt
ainmorepai
rsofv
aluesofpr
essur
e
andcor
respondi
nghei
ghts.

 Agraphofpr
essur
ever
susv
olumei
spl
ott
edusi
ngt
he
r
esult
.
 I
ftheexper i
mentonBoy l
e’sl
awisrepeatedat
di
fferentfixedt
emperaturesandt
her esult
s  I
tisasmoot
hcur
vewi
thnegat
ivei
nst
ant
aneousgr
adi
ent
pl
otted,isother
malcurv
esar eobt
ained.
 Thi
sshowst
hatt
hepr
essur
eisi
nver
sel
ypr
opor
ti
onalt
o
v
olume.

3.Abubbl eofairofvol
ume1. 2cm3isr eleasedatthebottom of
awat erdam 15m deep.Thetemper atureoft hewat s200c.
eri
Determinethev ol
umeofthebubbl easi temer gesonthewat er
surfacewherethepressureisthenormal at
mospher i
cpressure
(t
akeρofwat er=1000kgm-3andnor mal atmosphericpr
essure
1.0x105pa)

Sol
uti
on

P1V1=P2 V2

P1 = Patm +ρgh

0×105pa+1000kgm-3×10Nkg-1×15m =2.
1. 5×105pa

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0×105pa
P2 =1.

2cm3
V1 =1.

P1V
V2=?
,V2= 1

P2

5×105pa×1.
2. 2cm3
= 5 0cm3
=3.
0×10pa
1.

3.Anarr
owuni f
orm gl
asstubecontai
nsairenclosedbya10cm
thr
eadofmercury.Whenthetubeisheldvert
ical
,theaircol
umn
i
s600mm l ong.Whentit
ledsl
ight
ly,t
heaircolumni s679mm
l
ong.Thetemperatur
eisthesamei nbothcases(i.e.
temper
atur
eisconstant)

I
.Gi
vet
hereasonforthedi
ff
erencesi
nlengt
hoft
heai
rcol
umn
f
ort
hetwoposit
ions.

Whenver
ti
cal
,themer
cur
yexer
tspr
essur
eont
heai
r,r
educi
ng
t
hevol
ume.

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I
I.Deter
minetheatmospher
icpr
essur
eatt
hepl
ace(
ρof P1V1 P2V2
=
mercur
y=13.6gcm-3) K) T2(
T1( K)

Sol
uti
on 06m3
0×105Pa×1m3 P2×0.
1.
=
100K 293K

0×105Pa×1m3×293K
1.
P2 = 883×106Pa
=4.
100K×0.06m3

Exer
cise

P1 V1=P2 V2 1. Acont ainercarr

ies3000cm3ofoxy genatapressureof
6
1.0x10paat emperatureof200cinacyl
inder
.Whati sthe
P1 volumeoft hegasi nthecy l
i
nderatthet
opoft hemount ai
n
=Patm +ρgh; P1=P wher epressureis0.8x106pa andtemperat
ureis-170c?
at
m
+13600kgm-3×10Nkg-1×0.
1m
36×104pa
=Patm +1.
Ki
net
icTheor
yofGases
P2=Patm
 Thekineti
ctheor
yofgasespr
oposesthatt
he
Lett
hecr
oss–sect
ional
areaoft
het
ubebeA
moleculesofagasar
einaconti
nuousrandom
V1=60Acm3, V2=67.
9Acm3 motion.

36×104pa)×60Acm3=Patm×67.
Patm +1.
( 9Acm3 Basi
cAssumpt
ionsoft
heKi
net
icTheor
yofGases

16×105pa
8. I
. Att
ract
ionbet
weent
hemol
ecul
esofagasi
s
Patm = 03×105pa.
=1.
7.
9 negl
igi
ble.

Exer
cise I
I. Thev
olumeoft
hemol
ecul
eoft
hegasi
szer
o.
1.Acolumnofair26cm longistr
appedbymer cur
y
I
II
. Col
l
isi
onsbet
weent hemol
eculesandwi
ththe
thr
ead5cm longwhenv ert
ical
.Wheniti
splaced
wal
lsoft
hecont
ainerandper
fectl
yel
ast
ic.
hori
zontal
l
y,theai
rcolumnis28cm.Findthe
atmospheri
cpressur
einmmHg.

2.Thetabl
ebelowshowst heresult
sobtai
nedi
nan
Ki
net
icTheor
yofGasesandGasLaws
exper
imenttostudythevar
iat
ionofthevol
umeofa
fi
xedmasswi t
hpr essur
eatconstantt
emperat
ure. Boy
le’
sLawandKi
net
icTheor
y
Pr
essur
e(cm Hg) 60 - 90 -
 Whent emperat
ureisconstant,achangeinvolumeof
Vol cm3)
ume( 36 80 - 40 gasresult
sinachangei nnumberofcol l
i
sionsper
uni
ttimebetweenmol ecul
esandbet weenmol ecul
es
Fi
l
lint
hemi
ssi
ngr
esul
ts. andwal l
sofcontai
ner.Asar esul
t,pr
essurechanges.

3. Explai
nwhyabubbleincreasesinsizeandf
inal
l
y Char
les’
LawandKi
net
icTheor
y
burstwheni
treachesthesurface.
 Whenpressur
eisconstantandt
emper
atur
eisraised,
t
hespeedofmoleculesri
sescausi
ngt
hem tooccupy

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Gener
alGasEquat
ion(
Equat
ionofSt
ate)f
orI
deal al
argerv
olumeoft
hecont
ainer
.
Gases
Pr
essur
eLawandKi
net
icTheor
y
 I
tisobt
ainedbycombi
ninganyt
wooft
het
hree
gasl
aw.  Achangei ntemper at
urechangest hekineticenergy
andhencet hespeedofmol eculesofagasand
PV ther
efor
eifv ol
umeofgasi sconstant,pressure
=const
ant
T(K) changesasar esultchangeintemper ature.Pressur
e
i
scausedbycol li
sionsbetweenmol eculesofthegas
P V PV
Ther
ef e, 1 1 = 2 2
or andwiththewal l
soft hecontai
ner.
T1(
K) T2(K)
Li
mit
ati
onofGasLaws
eP1,P2;
wher V1,V2 andT1T2ar
ethei
nit
ial
and
f
inal
val
uesofpr
essure,
volumeand  Gaslawsdonotappl
yinr
eal
gases.Realgases
t
emperat
urer
espect
ivel
y. l
iquef
ybefor
ethevol
umeofthegasreducestozer
o.

Exampl
e

I
nt hemanuf act
ureofoxygen1m3oft hegaspr oducedat-
0
173candnor malatmospheri
cpressureiscompr essed
i
nt oacy l
i
nderofvolume0.06m3andst oredata
temper at
ureof200c.Whatisthepressur
eoft hegasi n
thecy l
i
nder?(Normalat
mospher i
cpressure,Patm =
1.0x105pa)

Sol
uti
on

0×105Pa, P2=? ,
P1 =1. V1=1m3,V2=0.
06m3,

o o
T1=-
173.C=100K,,T2=20.C=293K,

Rev
isi
onExer
cise

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1. Abal
l
oonf
il
ledwi
thor
gangasav
olumeof200cm3at
theeart
h’ssurf
acewherethetemperatur
eis200C,
andthepressure760mm ofmercury
.I fi
tisal
lowed
toascendtoaheightwherethetemperatur
eis00C
andthepressure100mm ofmercury
, cal
cul
atethe
volumeoftheball
oon.

2. Af i
xedmassofOxy genoccupiesavol
umeof0. 01m3
atapr eof1x105Paandat
essur emper at
ure00C.I
f
6
the pr
essur
ei si ncreased t
o 5 x10 pa and t he
temperat
ureisincreasedto250C.Whatv olumewil
l
thegasoccupy?

3. Anempt ybarometertubeofl ength90cm islowered

vert
ical
lywit
hi t
smout hdownwar dsint
oat ankof
water.Whatwillbethedepthatt hetopoft hetube
whent hewaterhasri
sen15cm i nsidethetube,gi
ven
thattheat
mospheri
cpr essur
ei s10m ofwat er
?

4. A handpumpsui t
ablef ori
nfl
ati
ngaf ootbal
lhasa
cyli
nderwhichis0.
24m inlengt
handani nt
ernalcr
oss
-secti
onalar
eaof5. 0x10-4m2.Toi nfl
atethefoot
ball
thepump handl ei spushed in and airispumped
throughaone-wayv al
ve.Thev al
veopenst ol
etairi
n
tot heballwhent heairpressurei nthepumphas
reached150000pa.( Assumet heai rtemperatur
e
remainsconstant
}

I
. Ift
hepressur
einthepumpi sini
ti
all
y100000pa,
cal
cul
ate how f
art he pi
ston mustbe pushed
i
nwardsbefor
etheonewayv al
vesopens.

I
I. Whentheone-wayvalv
eopensthetotalpr
essur
e
i
nthecyli
nderwi
llbe150000pa.Whatf orcewi
ll
beexer
tedonthepist
onbytheai
rinthecyli
nder
?

5. Thegraphi nfigurebel
owshowstherelati
onship
betweenthepr essureandt
emperatur
ef oranideal
gas.Uset hisinformat
ioni
nthef
iguretoanswer
questi
onst hatfoll
ow.

I
. Stat
et he uni
toft
he hor
izont
alaxi
s
quanti
ty.

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I
I. Wri
teastatementoft
hegaslaw
r
epresent
edbytherel
ati
onshi
p.

6. Drawaxesandsket chagraphofpressur
e(p)against
reci
procalofv
olume( 1/
v)forafi
xedmassofani deal
gasataconstanttemperat
ure.

7. Abal
loonisfi
ll
edwit
hairtoavolumeof200mlata
t
emperat
ureof293k.Det
ermi
nethevol
umewhenthe
t
emperat
ureri
sest
o353katthesamepressur
e

8. Show thatthe densi

tyofa f
ixed massofgasi s
dir
ect
ly pr
oport
ionaltothe pressur
e atconst
ant
temper
ature.

9. The pr essur
e of heli
um gas of v olume 10cm3
decreases to one t
hir
d ofits or
igi
nalv al
ue ata
constanttemperat
ure.Deter
minethefinalvol
umeof
thegas.

Chapt
erSi
x WAVESI
I

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Speci
fi
cobj
ect
ives Cont
ent

Bytheendoft
hist
opi
cthel
ear
ner
sshoul
dbeabl
e 1. Propert
ies ofwav es incl
udi
ng sound waves:
to: Refract
ion,
dif
fracti
on,
inter
fer
ence(
exper
imental
tr
eatmentrequi
r ed)
a) Descr
ibeexper
iment
stoi
l
lust
rat
epr
oper
ti
es
ofwaves 2. Constr
uctiv
e i nt
erf
erence and destr
uct
ive
i
nter
ference(Qual
i
tat
ivetr
eat
mentonl
y)
b) Expl
ain const
ruct
ive and dest
ruct
ive
i
nter
ference 3. Stat
ionar
ywav es(qual
i
tat
iveand exper
iment
al
tr
eatmentrequi
red)
c) Descr
ibeexper
iment
stoi
l
lust
rat
est
ati
onar
y
waves

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TheRi
ppl
eTank

 Ar i
pplet ankisusedt odemonst r
atepropert
ies
ofwav esinthelaboratory.Itconsi
stsofat ray
containingwater,apoi ntsour ceofli
ghtabov e
thetray ,awhit
escreenpl acedunderneathanda
smallel ect
ri
cmot or(
vibrator).

 Thewav esar egeneratedbyanel ectri

cv i
brator
asripplesandt heytr
av elacrossthesur faceof
the shallow wat erint he tray.Cr est
s appear
bri
ghtwhi et
l roughsappeardar kwhent hewav e
i
si l
lumi nated.Not ethatcr estsactaspl ano-
convex l ens and ther
ef or
e conv erge rays on
them whi l
et r
oughsactaspl ano-concaveand
ther
eforedi vergerayi
ncidentont hem.

2.Ref
lect
ionofWav
es

 Refl
ecti
onisthebounci ngoffofawav efrom an
 Abarattachedtovibr
at oducespl
orpr anewaves
obstacl
e.When r ef
lect
ion t
akes place,onlyt he
whi
le ci
rcularwavesar eproducedbyf i
xi
nga
di
recti
on of t he wav e changes; Wav elength,
smal
lballtothebar.
fr
equencyand speed ofthe wavedonotchange.
Refl
ecti
on ofwaves obeyst he laws ofr
eflecti
on
whichareappl
i
cabletotheref
lect
ionofli
ght
.
Pr
oper
ti
esofWav
es

1.Rect
il
inearPr
opagat
ion

 Rectil
i
nearpropagati
on i
st heproper
tyofthe
wav es to travel i
n a st rai
ght li
ne and
perpendi
cul
artothewavefront
s.

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a)Pl
anewav
esonast
rai
ghtr
efl
ect
oratanangl
e Afterr
efl
ect
ion,t
hewavesappeart
obedi v
ergi
ngf
rom a
pointbehi
nd themir
rorconvexref
l orhasa v
ect ir
tual
focus.

e)Ci
rcul
arwav
esonast
rai
ghtr
efl
ect
or

Pl
b) anewav
esonast
rai
ghtr
efl
ect
oratanangl
eof
o
90

f
)Ci
rcul
arwav
esonaconcav
eref
lect
or

c)Pl
anewav
esonaconcav
eref
lect
or

3.Ref
ract
ionofWav
es

 Refracti
onofawav erefer
stochangei ndi rect
ionof
thewav e.Whenawav eisr ef r
acted,i
tchangesi t
s
Af t
err ef
lect
ion,thewav esconv erget
oapoi nti
n speed, direct
ion and wav elength but not i t
s
frontoft her ef
lect
ingsurf
ace.Hence,theconcav
e frequency.
refl
ectorhasar ealfocus
 Whenwat erwavescr ossint
oshal l
owr egionfrom a
d)Pl anewavesonaconv exref
lector
deep region,the separat
ion bet ween wav ef ront
s
becomessmal leri
.e.thewavel engthdecreases

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a) Wav
efr
ont
spar
all
elt
oboundar
y

 Dur i
ngtheni ghtairclosetogroundiscoolerthan
thathigherabov e.Soundwav esproducedcloseto
b) Wav
efr
ont
smeet
ingt
heboundar
yatanangl
e groundar erefract
eddownwar dsbecausethewav e
frontsnearthegr oundmov esl
owerthanthoseon
theupperpar ts.Thisiswhysoundwav est
ravelf
ar
from sourceduringthenight
.

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c) Refr
acti
onofst r
aightwat
erwav
esonshal
l
ow Exer
cise
convexsur
face
Thef i
gurebel
ow showsplanewavest r
avel
l
inginashall
ow
regi
onofar i
ppl
etank.Theshall
ow regi
onisinci
dentona
deeperregi eof450asshown.
onatanangl

a) Descr
ibehowt
hewav
esar
egener
atedi
nar
ippl
etank

d) Refr
acti
onofstr
aightwat
erwav ow b) Compl
esonshal
l et
ethediagr
am toshowt
heappear
anceoft
hewav
e
concav
esurf
ace fr
ont
sinthedeepregi
on

c) Whatproper
tyofwav
esi
sil
l
ust
rat
edi
nthedi
agr
am y
ou
hav
edrawn?

4.Di
ff
ract
ionofWav
es

 Diff
ract
ioni sthespr eadingofawav easi tgoes
around an obstacl
e ort hr
ough a smallapert
ure.
Whendi ff
racti
onoccur sther
eisachangeindir
ecti
on
butnotinveloci
ty,f
requencyorwavelengt
h.

Ref
ract
ionofSoundWav
es

 During t
he day ai rcl ose to ground i
s much
warmert hant heairhigherabov e.Soundwav es
produced close t ot he ground ar erefr
acted
upwardsbecausewav efrontsneart heground
mov efasterthant hoseont heupperpar s.Thi
t s
i
s whysound wav es are nothear dfarf r
om
sourceduringt heday.

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 Whenaper t
ureiswiderthanthewav el hof 5.I
engt nter
ferenceofWaves
theplanewav e,thewav epassest hrough as
planewavesbutwhent hewidt
hoft heaperture  I
nterfer
enceistheint
eract
ionoftwoormorewaves
i
snearlyequalorl
essthanthewavel
engt hofthe of the same f r
equency emitt
ed fr
om coher
ent
planewave,t
hewav ef
rontsemergecircul
ar sources.Theresul
t ofint
erf
erencecanbeamu ch
l
ongerwav e,asmall
erwaveornowaveatall
.

 Interf
erence is an i mpor
t of t he princi
ple of
super posi
ti
onwhichst at
esthat“
:t
her esul
tanteff
ect
oft wowav estrav
elli
ngatagi v
enpoi ntinthesame
medi um i sthe v ect
or sum of t heirrespect
ive
displacement”

Condi
ti
onf
ori
nter
fer
ence

Thewav cesmustbecoher
esour enti
.e.

I
. Hav
esamef
requencyorwav
elengt
h

I
I. Hav
eequalorcompar
abl
eampl
i
tudes

I
II
. Hav
econst
antphasedi
ff
erence

Ty
pesofi
nter
fer
ence

 Dif
fract
ionofsoundwavesisthereasonasto a)Construct
iveint
erf
erence
whysoundf rom aloudspeakeri
nar oom i
s
heardroundacornerwit
houtthesour ng  I
cebei toccur swhent hewav eampl
it
udesrei
nforceeach
seen. otherbuil
dingawav eofev
engr
eaterampl
it
ude

Exer
cise

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1.Expl
ainwhydi
ff
ract
ionofl
i
ghtwav
esi
snotacommon
phenomenon.

2.Giv
ethedef
ini
ti
onoft
hef
oll
owi
ngt
ermsasconnect
ed
wit
hwaves

a) Wav
elengt
h

b) Fr
equency
b)Dest
ruct
ivei
nter
fer
ence
c) Wav
efr
ont
I
toccur
swhent
hewav
eampl
i
tudeopposeeachot
her
3.Fi ve successiv
e wavefrontsinar i
ppl
et ank are r
esul
ti
ngi
nwav
esofr
educedampl
i
tude.
observed to spread ov
era dist
ance of6.4cm.Ift he
vibr
atorhasaf r
equencyof8Hz,deter
minethespeedof
thewav es

4.

a) Whati
sdi
ff
ract
ion?

b) Whatfact
orsdet
ermi
net
heext
entofdi
ff
ract
ion
t
hatoccur
s?

c) Descr
ibe an exper
imentthatcan be sett
o
i
ll
ustr
atet
hisphenomenon
 For thi
s case, t
he waves under
go compl
ete
5.Di
ffr
act
ion,r
efr
act
ionandref
lect
ionar
eal
lpr
oper
ti
esof dest
ructi
ver
esul
ti
ng i
n a pul
se (
a wav
e)ofzero
waveswhichoneoft
heseaff
ects: ampli
tude

a) Di
rect
ionbutnotspeed?

Speedanddi
rect
ionoft
rav
eloft
hewav
es?

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I
nter
fer
encei
nwat
er(
usi
ngar
ippl
etank) I
nter
fer
encei
nli
ght(
Young’
sdoubl
esl
i
texper
ience)

 Coherent water waves ar

e gener
ated by  Int
erf
erencei
nli
ghtisevidencethatli
ghti
sawav e.I
t
at
tachingtwosimi
larbal
l
sonthebari
ncont
act can be demonst r
ated by y oung’
s double sli
t
wit
hv i
brat
or. exper
imentwhosepi oneeristhePhy si
cistThomas
Young.

 Observati
on:Al
ternatedarkli
nes( i
nregionsof
destr
uctiv
ei nt
erfer
ence)and br i
ghtlines (
in  Amonochr omati
cli
ghtsour ceisusedi nt hedoubl
e
regi
onsofconstructi
veint
erf
erence)ar
eseenon sl
itexper
iment
.TheslitS1 dif
fractsl
ightfall
i
ngonit
thewhitescr
een. i
ll
uminati
ngbothsltS2andS3i
i nf r
ontofit
.

 Aseriesofal t
ernatebright(i
nr egionsofconstruct
ive
i
nterf
er ence)and dar k( inr egions ofdest ruct
ive
I
nter
ferencei
nsound
i
nterf
er ence)verti
calbands/ fringesaref ormed on
 Coher entsour
cesofsoundcanbeobt ainedby thescre en.
connecti
ng two i dent
ical loud speaker s i
n
 The cent ral fri
nge is t he br ight
est (regi
on of
paral
lelto an audio-frequency generatoras
constructi
veinterf
erence).
showbelow.

S2O=S3O i
mpl
yi
ngt
hatpat
hdi
ff
erencei
szer
o

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S3P-
S2P=1λi
.e.
pat
hdi
ff
erenceonewav
e.

 Alt
ernate loud (i
n r egi
ons of constr
uct
ive 1 1
S3R-
S1R= λi
.e.pat
hdi
ff
erence= wav
e
i
nterf
erence)and softsound ( i
nr egi
ons of 2 2
destr
ucti
veinter
fer
ence)ishear
dalongXY.

 Al
ongCOonl
yloudsoundi
shear
d

 I
fwav esfrom onespeakerar eexact
lyoutof
phasewit
ht hosef
rom theothersof
tsoundwi l
l
beheardal
ongCOi .
e.destr
ucti
veint
erf
erence

 Connecti
ng the speaker
s t o same audio
fr
equency gener
atormakes they sat
isf
ythe
condi
ti
onofbeingcoher
entsour
ces.

 I
fthef
requencyoft
hesi
gnali
sincr
eased,t
he
point
s of const r
uct
ive int
erf
erence ( l
oud
sounds)along XY wi
l
lbecome mor e closel
y
spacedandsamewayt othoseofdest ructi
ve
i
nterf
erence

Exampl
e

1.I
.Di
sti
ngui
shbet
weendi
ff
ract
ionandr
efr
act
ionofwav
es

I
I.Thef
igur
esbel
owshowspl
anewav
esappr
oachi
ngsl
i
ts

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Complet
ethedi
agr
amst
oshow t
hepat
ter
nacr
osst
he  A node is a poi
ntof zero displ
acementof a
sl
it
s. st
ati
onar
y wave whie an ant
l inode i
s a poi
ntof
maxi
mum di
spl
acementofast
ati
onar
ywav
e.

II
I.Thefi
gurebel
ow showst woraysofmonochr
omat
ic
l
i
ghtinci
dentont
woadjacentsli
tsS2andS3.
2.St
ati
onar
ylongi
tudi
nal
wav
e

 Anexampleisasl
inkyspr
ingwi
thoneendf
ixedand
theot
herendmovedtoandfror
api
dlyi
nahorizont
al
dir
ect
ion.

Gi
veanexpressi
onf
ort
hewav
elengt
hoft
hel
i
ghti
n
t
ermsofd,
x,andy  Anot
herexampl
eiswhent
wospeaker
sconnect
edt
o
I
V.I nthespacebelow,sket
chthei
nter
fer
encepat
ter
n same audio-frequencygener
atorar
e ar
ranged t
o
observ
ed if whi t
e light was used inst
ead of faceeachother
.
monochromat
icl
ight

V.Expl
ainthevari
ati
onoff
requencyacr
osst
hepat
ter
n
di
spl
ayedin(I
V)above

VI.Givethatthewav el
engthofthemonochromat
icli
ght
usedin( I
II
)abov eis1.0x107 m,cal
cul
atei
tsfr
equency
(speedofli
ghti 0x108ms-1)
s3.

2.Twoobser versPandQar est

ationed2.5km apart,each
equippedwithast ar
tergun.Qf i
resthegunandobser ves
Precor dthesound7. 75secondsaf terseei
ngthesmoke
fr
om t hegun.LaterPf i
rest
hegunandobser vesQr ecord
sound7. 25secondsaf t
erseei
ngt hesmokef rom t
hegun.
Determine;
 Alt
ernat
eloud (
atant
inode)andsof
t(atnode)i
s
a) Thespeedofsoundi
nai
r
heardal
ongAB.
b) Thecomponentoft
hespeedoft
hewi
ndal
ongt
he

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st
rai
ght  Diagram b)showsthewaveform f
ormed on t
he
screenofaCRO whenami cr
ophoneconnect
edto
l
i
nej
oini
ngPandQ
theCROi smovedal
ongAB.

St
ati
onar
y(St
andi
ng)Wav
es
Exer
cise
 I
tisdefinedasawav eformedwhent woequal
Thediagr
am belowshowsanarrangementt
hatcanbeusedt
o
pr
ogressive waves t r
avel
l
ing in opposit
e determinethespeedofsoundi
nair.
di
rect
ionsaresuper
posedoneachother.

Ty
pesofst
ati
onar
ywav
es

1. St
ati
onar
ytr
ansv
ersewav
e
A micr
ophoneconnect
edtoaCRO wi
thit
stimebaseonis
movedalonganimaginar
yli
neABbet
weenthewal
landthe
 Anexampl
ethi
scasei
sawav
epr
oducedwhen
l
oudspeaker.
j
er ki
ngast ri
ngf ixedatoneend.A t r
ansverse
wav et r
avelsal ongt hestri
ngt othef
ixedend I . Use a di
agr
am t
o explai
n whati
s obser
ved as t
he
and t hen r efl
ect ed back. The two wav es micr
ophonei
smovedfr
om AtoB
travel
li
ngi nopposi tedir
ecti
onsalongt
hest r
ing
I
I. Ifthe fr
equency ofthe sound emitt
ed by t
he loud
thencombi ne/super posetof or
m astati
onary
speaker i
s 1650 Hz and t he di
stance bet
ween a
transversewav e.
minimum andthenextmaximum is0.
05m,calcul
atethe
vel
ocit
yofsoundair.

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I
II
. Ifthe fr
equency of t
he v
ibr
ati
ng loud speaker i
s
decr
easedwhathappenstothedist
ancebetweent wo
adj
acentmaxi
mum?

Condi
ti
onsNecessar
yforFor
mat
ionofSt
ati
onar
y 5. Thesket
chgr aphshowstheresul
tsofanexper
imentt
o
Waves st
udydif
fract
ionpat
ter
nsusi
ngdoublesl
it
.

 Thetwoprogr
essiv
ewav estrav
ell
ingi
nopposi
te
di
rect
ivet
oform astat
ionar
ywav emustbe:

I
. Samespeed

I
I. Samef
requency i
. Sketch an exper
iment
alsetup t
hatmaybeused t
o
obtainsuchapatter
n.
I
II
. Sameornear
lyequalampl
i
tudes
i
i
. Nameani
nst
rumentf
ormeasur
ingi
ntensi
ty

i
i
i. Expl
ainhow t
hepeaksl
abel
l
edA andB andt
roughs
Pr
oper
ti
esofaSt
ati
onar
yWav
e l
abel
edCareformed.

i
. A st ati
onar
y wav e is pr oduced by 6. Whatmeasur
abl
equanti
tyisassoci
atedwithcolour
sof
super
posit
ion of two progressive wav
es l
ight
?
tr
avel
li
nginopposi
tedir
ect
ions. 7. Ci
rcul
arwat
erwavesgener
atedbyapoi ntsour
ceatt he
cent
reO oft
hepondar eobservedtohav
ethepat
ter
n
i
i
. The wave has nodes at poi
nts of zer
o
showni
ntheFi
g.Expl
ainthepat
tern.
di
spl
acementand antinodes atpoint
s of
maxi
mum displ
acement.

i
i
i. I
nt hewave,vi
brat
ionofpart
icl
esatpoi
nts
bet
weensuccessi
venodesi
sinphase.

i
v. Bet
ween successi
ve nodes par
ti
cl
es hav
e
di
ff
erentampl
it
udesofvibr
ati
on.
8. I
nanexper i
menttoobservei
nter
ferenceofl
i
ghtwav
es,a
v
. Thedi
stancebet
weensuccessi
venodesor doubl
e sl
iti
s pl
acedcl
osetot
he source.
λ
ant
inodesi
s. i
. St
atet
hef
unct
ionoft
hedoubl
esi
l
t.
2
i
i
. Descr
ibewhati
sobser
vedont
hescr
een.
Di
ff
erences bet
ween st
ati
onar
y and pr
ogr
essi
ve

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wav
es i
i
i. St
atewhati
sobser
vedont
hescr
eenwhen

St
ati
onar
ywav
es Pr
ogr
essi
vewav
es a) Thesl
i
tsepar
ati
onS1S2i
sreduced.

b) Whiteli
ghti
susedi
nsteadofmonochromat
icsour
ce.
They do nottransf
er Theytr
ansferenergyfr
om
energyfr
om onepoint onepointtoanothersi
nce13.TheFig.showsanexper
imentalar
rangement
.S1andS2ar
e
to anot
her si
nce the the wav e for
ms mor enarr
owsli
ts.
wave forms do not thr
oughthemedium
move t hr
ough t he
medium

The dist
ance bet
ween Distance bet
ween
two successi
venodes successive t
roughs or
λ crestsisλ
oranti
nodesis
2

Vibr
ati
onsofpar ti
cles Phase of par
ti
cles near
at poi nt
s bet ween eachotheraredi
ff
erent
St
atewhati
sobservedont
hescr
eenwhenthesour
cei
s:-
successi
ve nodes are
i
nphase i
) Monochromati
c (i
i) Whit
eli
ght

14.Thefigshowst
hedispl
acementofapracti
cei
nprogressiv
e
wavei nci
denton a boundar
y between deep and shal
low
The ampl i
tudes of Theampl
i
tudeofanyt
wo
regi
ons.
parti
cles between part
icl
es whi
ch are i
n
successive nodes is phasearet
hesame
dif
ferent

Rev
isi
onExer
cise

I
. Complet
ethediagr
am t
oshowwhatisobser
vedaf
ter
boundar
y.(
Assumenolossofener
gy)
.
1. Name a pr
oper
ty ofl
i
ghtt
hatshows i
tisa
t
ransv
ersewav
e.
I
I. Expl
aint
heobser
vat
ioni
n(i
)abov
e.
2. I
nanexper i
mentusi ngarippletankt
hef requency,f
oftheelect
ri
cpul segeneratorwasr educedt oone
thi
rdofitsori
ginalval
ue.How doest henew wav e
l
engthcomparewi ththeinit
ialwavel
ength? Explain
youranswer
.

3. Dist
ingui
shbet
weenst
ati
onar
yandpr
ogr
essi
ve
wav
es.

4. St
atethecondi
tionforami
nimum t
ooccuri
nan
i
nter
fer
encepat
tern.

Chapt
erSev
en CURRENTELECTRI
CITYI
I

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Obj
ect
ives Cont
ent

Bytheendoft
hist
opi
cthel
eaner
,shoul
dbeabl
e 1. Scal
ereadi
ngammet
er,
vol
tmet
er
to:
2. El
ect
ri
cci
rcui
ts:
cur
rent
,pot
ent
ial
dif
fer
ence
a) Def
inepot
ent
ial
dif
fer
enceandst
atei
tsuni
ts
3. Ohm’
slaw(
exper
iment
alt
reat
mentr
equi
red
b) Measurepot
ent
ialdi
ff
erenceandcur
renti
na
ci
rcui
t 4. Resistance t
ypes ofr
esi
stor
s,measur
ement
s of
resi
stanceunit
s
c) Ver
if
yOhm’
slaw
5. El
ect
romot
ivef
orce(
emf
)andi
nter
nalr
esi
stanceof
d) Def
iner
esi
stanceandst
atei
tsuni
t acel
l
(E=V+I r
)

e) Deter
mine exper
iment
all
yt he volt
age-
cur
rent 6. Resistor
sinser
iesandi
nparall
el
rel
ati
onshi
psforv
ari
ousconduct
ors
7. Problemsonohm’ slaw,r
esistor
sinser
iesandi
n
f) Defi
neemfandexplai
nint
ernalr
esist
anceofthe parall
el.
cel
l

g) Deri
vet hefor
mulaeforeff
ecti
ver
esi
stanceof
resi
stor
sinseri
esandinpar
all
el

h) Solv
enumer icalpr
obl
emsinv
olvi
ngohm’
slaw
resi
stori
ntheseri
esandi
npar
all
el

El
ect
ri
cCur
rent ne It
I= n=
t e
 Elect
ri
c cur
rentr
efer
stot
he r
ate off
low of
NBchar
geonanel
ect
ron, 6×10-19 coul
e=1. omb
charge.

 The mov ement of char ged part

icles cal
l
ed
el
ectronsconsti
tutesanel ect
ri
cchargeandthe Example
conducti
ngpatht hroughwhi chel
ectronsmov e
i
scalledanelect
riccircui
t. Cal
cul
atet
heamountofchar
gethatpassest
hroughapoi
nti
na
ci
rcui
tin3seconds,
ift
hecur
renti
ntheci
rcui
tis0.
5A.
change,
Q
cur
rent
,I= Sol
uti
on
t
ime,t

Q Q=I
t
I=
t
Q=0.
5A×3s=1.
5C
 SIuni
tofel
ect
riccurr
entist
heamper
e(A)
aft
er
t amousphy
hef sici
stMari
eAmper
e.
Exer
cise
 Sub-
mul
ti
ples of t
he amper e mi
e ar l
li
-

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amper
e(mA)andmi
cro-
amper
es(
μA) 1.Acur
rentof0.
08Apassesi
naci
rcui
tfor2.
5mi
nut
es.

IμA=1×10-6A
Im A=1×10-3A, I
. How much char
ge passes t
hrough a poi
nti
nthe
ci
rcui
t?

I
I.Calculat
et henumberofel
ect
ronspassi
ng t
hrough
Def
ini
ti
onoft
heamper
e thepointpersecond

 An amper
erefersto an el
ect
ri
c cur
r hat 2. Acur
entt rentof0.5Afl
owsinacir
cui
t.Determinet
hequant
it
y
fl
ows i
n a conduct
orwhen a charge of1 ofchargethatcr
ossesapoi
nti
n4mi nutes.
coul
ombfl
owsperunitt
ime

Tot
alchar
gepassi
ngt
hroughapoi
nti
naci
rcui
t Measur
ementofEl
ect
ri
cCur
rent
 If
nelect
ronspassthroughapoi ntandthateach  El
ect
ri
ccur
renti
smeasur nganammet
edusi er.
el
ectr
oncarri
esachar geet henthetotalchar
ge
Q passi
ng through the pointis equalto ne
coul
ombsi .
e.Q=ne;butQ=I t
, ⇒ne=I t

Exampl
e

I
nmovingachar
geof30coulombsfr
om poi
ntB t
oA 150
j
oul
esofwor
kdonewhati
sthedeci
malpl
acebet
weenAand
B?

Sol
uti
on

W
p.
d=
Q

150
p.
d= =5V
30

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 Zer
oerror
,ifany,shoul
dber ect
if
iedusi
ngthe
adj
ust
mentscrewbeforeusi
ngtheammeter.
Def
ini
ti
onoft
hev
olt
 Theammet sconnect
eri edinseri
eswit
hother
 Av olti
sdef
inedastheener
gyneededtomoveone
component
s in the circui nce i
t si ti s an
coulombofchar
gefr
om onepoi
nttoanot
her
i
nstr
umentoflowr
esist
ance.

Measur
ementofPot
ent
ialDi
ff
erence

 Pot
ent
ial
dif
fer
encei
smeasur ngav
edusi olt
met
er.
 Anappropr
iat
escal
eshoul
dbechosentosafe
guar
dthecoil
oft
heammeterf
rom bl
owi
ngup

 Accur
acyofeachscal
eoftheammetermustbe
obser
vedwhenrecor
dingr
eadi
ngs.

Exer
cise

Giv
ether
eadi
ngsshownbybot
hscal
esoft
heammet
er
 Zer
o er
ror
,ifany
,shoul
d be r
ect
if
ied usi
ng t
he
bel
ow.
adj
ust
mentscr
ewbef
oreusi
ngt
hev
olt
met
er.

 Thevol
tmeterisconnect
edinacross(i
nparal
lel
)the
componentsintheci
rcui ncei
tsi tisaninst
rumentof
hi
ghresi
stance.

 Anappropr
iat
escaleshouldbechosentosaf
eguar
d
thecoi
loft
hev ol
tmet
erfrom bl
owingup.

 Accur
acyofeachscaleofthevolt
met
ermustbe
obser
vedwhenr
ecor
dingr
eadi
ngs.

Exer
cise

Gi
vet
her
eadi
ngsshownbybot
hscal
esoft
hev
olt
met
erbel
ow.

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Pot
ent
ial
Dif
fer
ence(
Vol
tage)

 Electr
icpot
ent
ialdi
ff
erencebetweentwopoi
nts
refer
st oworkdone( i
nj oul
es)inmovi
ngone
coulombofchargefr
om onepointtot
heot
her.

 TheSIuni
tofpot
ent
ial
dif
fer st
encei hev
olt(
v).

 Thebat
ter
yisthesourceofpowerf
ormov
ing
char
get
hrought
heci
rcuit
.

wor W(
kdone, i
njoules)
pot
ent
ialdi
ff
erence=
Changemoved,Q(
incoulombs)

W
p.
d=
Q

Cur
rentandv
olt
agei
nser
iesar
rangement

I
.Cur
renti
nser
iesar
rangement

 Consi
dert
heset
-upbel
ow:

Note:Forbot hthe ammet erand vol

tmeter
,t he
negativeter
minalisconnectedtonegat
ivet
erminal
oft he batter
y and posi
tiv
et ermi
nalto posit
ive
ter
mi nalofbat
ter
y.

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Cur
rentandVol
tagei
nPar
all
elCi
rcui
tAr
rangement  Whent
heswi
tchi
scl
osed,
iti
sobser
vedt
hat
;

Readi
ngonA1=r
eadi
ngonA2=r
eadi
ngon A3=r
eadi
ngonA3

I
.Cur
renti
nPar
all
el  Theref
ore,when components are connect
ed i n
ser
ies,same cur
rentflows t
hrough each oft he
 Consi
dert
heci
rcui
tshownbel
ow: componentsev
enifthecomponent
sarenotident
ical

I
I.Vol
tagei
nSer
iesAr
rangement

 Consi
dert
heset
-upbel
ow

 Whent
heswi
tchi
scl
osed,
iti
sobser
vedt
hat
:

Readi
ngonA1 + r
eadi
ngonA2

+r
eadi
ngonA3 =Readi
ngonA4

 Theref
ore,thesum oft hecurrentsinpar
all
el
ci
rcuit
sisequalt othet ot
alcurr
ent.Thet
otal
curr
entflowing i
ntojuncti
onisequalt ot
otal
curr
entfl
owingout.  Whent
heswi
tchi
scl
osed,
iti
sobser
vedt
hat
:

Readi
ngonV1+ r
eadi
ngonV2+ r
eadi
ngonV3=r
eadi
ngonV4

I
I.Vol
tagei
nPar
all
el  Theref
ore,when components are connected i
n
ser
ies,the sum oft he v
olt
age drop acr
oss t
he
 Consi
dert
hedi
agr
am bel
ow: componentsisequalt
othevol
tagesuppl
y.

Exer
cise

1. Usi
ngt
hedi
agr
am bel
ow,
find:

I
. Thecurrentpassingt
hrough L1 i
nthef i
gurebelow
gi
venthatammet erAr
eads1.2Aandcur r
entsthr
ough
L2andL3are0.
34Aand0.52Arespecti
vel
y.

I
I. V1 V2 andV3r
eadi
ngs,
giv eadsi
hatV4r
ent s3.
0V

 Whent
heswi
tchi
scl
osed,
iti
sobser
vedt
hat
:

Readi
ngonV1 =r
eadi
ngonV2=r
eadi
ngonV3
=r
eadi
ngonV4

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 Ther
efor
e, f
or component
s i
n paral
lel
arr
angement,the same vol
tage dr
ops acr
oss
eachoft hem (si
ncethei
rtermi
nalsar
eatt he
sameelectri
cpotent
ial
.

2. I
nthecir
cuitshownbelow,whati
sthep.
dacr
osst
he
bul
b,andtheswitchwhen:

I
. Theswi
tchi
sopen?

I
I. Theswi
tchi
scl
osed?

 From t
hegraph,v
olt
ageisdir
ect
lypr
oport
ional
tot
he
curr
entandthi
sisgraphi
cal
repr
esent
ati
onofOhm’s
l
aw.
3. Def
ineav
olt
 Theslopeofthegr
aphgi
vesr
esi
stance.
SIuni
tof
4. Twocel
l
s,A andB connect
edwi
thpar
all
elar
ein resi
st st
ancei heohm(Ω)
ser
ieswi
thabul
basshownbel
ow.
∆V
=R
∆I

 Mul
ti
plesofanohm ar
e:

1kΩ)=1000Ω(
ohm (
1ki
l 103Ω)

I
. Copyt he di
agram to show wher
ethe ammet
er 1megohm ( 106Ω)
1MΩ)=1000000Ω(
should be connect
ed in or
derto measur
ethe
curr
entthr
oughcellA

I
I. Vol
tmetershould be connect
ed t
o measurethe Def
ini
ti
onofanohm
pot
ent
ialdi
ff
erenceacrossbothbul
bandcellB
 Anohm ref
erst
ot heresi
stanceofaconduct
orwhen
acur
rentof1Aflowingthroughitcausesav
olt
age

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Ohm’
sLaw dr
opof1Vacr
ossi
tsends.

 Ohm’ slawr elatesthevoltageacr ossthe  Thereci

procal
ofresi
stancei
saquantit
ycal
led
conduct orandt hecurrentflowingthroughit
.It 1
conduct
ance,( )whoseSIuni
t sΩ-1orSi
si emens(
S)
i
saf terthephy sici
stGeor geSimonOhm.I t R
statesthat,“t
hecur rentfl
owi ngthrougha
conduct ori
sdi rectl
yproportionaltothe
potentialdi
fferenceacr ossi t
sendspr ovi
ded Exampl
e
thattemper atureandot herphy si
calproper
ti
es
arekeptconst ant”
.

Acurrentof6mAflowsthr
oughaconductorofresi
stance
4kΩ.Calcul
atet
hev
olt
ageacrosst
heconductor
.

Sol
uti
on

V=I
R
 Mat
hemat
ical
l
y,Ohm’
slawcanbeexpr
essedas:
V=6×10-3×4×103=24V
V∝ I

V=RI
Exer
cise
 ∴ V=I R,WhereVi st
hepotent
ialdi
ff
erence,Ii
s
1. Calcul
atethecurrentinmil
l
-amperesf
lowi
ng t
hrougha
thecur
rentandRaconstantofproport
ional
it
y -1
conductorofconduct 2mΩ whena15vsour
ance0. cei
s
caledr
l esistance.
connect
edt
oit
 I
fsev
eral
val
uesofcur
rentandt
hei
r 2. I
nor dert
ost artacer tainlaw acurrentof36Amustf l
ow
cor
respondingval
uesofvolt
ageforni
chr
ome t
hroughthest artermot or
.Calcul
atet heresi
stancesoft
he
wir
eareobtainedandagraphofvolt
ageagai
nst motorgivent hatt hebat t
eryprovidesav olt
ageof12V
cur
rentplot
ted,ast
rai
ghtl
inethr
oughtheori
gin i
gnoretheint
er nalresi
stanceofthebat t
ery.
i
sobtained.

3. I
nanexperimenttoinv
esti
gat
etheV-
Irel
ati
onshi
pfor Fact
orsAf
fect
ingt
heResi
stanceofaMet
all
i
cConduct
or
aconduct
or,t
hefoll
owingr
esul
tswer
eobtai
ned
1.Temper
atur
e
P.
d(V) 2. 3. 4. 6.
0
0 0 0  Resi st
anceofamet al
licconduct
ori ncr easeswi t
h
temper at e.Thi
ur sisbecauseheat ingi ncreasesthe
Cur
rent
,I(
A) 1. 1. 2. 3.
0
vibrati
onofat omst herebyincr
easingt hecol l
isi
ons
0 5 0
percr oss-sect
ionarea.Theoppositiontot heflowof
Resi
stance, electronsthusincr
easesast emperatures.
R(Ω)
2.Lengt
hoft
heconduct
or
I
. Copyandcompl
etet
het
abl
e
 Ther
esi
stanceofauni
for
m conduct
orofagi
ven

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I
I. Pl
otagr
aphofIagai
nstt
hev
olt
age mat
eri
ali
sdi
rect
lypr
opor
ti
onal
toi
tsl
engt
hi.
e.

I
II
. Det
ermi
net
her
esi
stanceoft
heconduct
or R∝ l
…….
.(1)

I
V. Commentont
henat
ureoft
heconduct
or R=const
ant×l

4. Twocell
s,eachof1.
5Var eusedt odr
iveacur
rent R
=const
ant
thr
oughawireABofr
esi
stance90Ω l

I
. Cal
cul
atet
hecur
renti
ntheci
rcui
t 3.Cr
oss-sect
ionar
eaoft
heconduct
or

I
I. Whatwoul d be t
he di
ff
erence,i
fany t
ot he  Ther esi
stanceofametall
i
cconduct orisinv
ersel
y
cur
rent
,ift
hetwocell
sar
econnectedi
npar
all
el? proporti
onaltoi t
s cr
oss-sect
ionalarea,A. A
conduct
orwithl
argercr
oss-
sect
ionalar
eahasmany
fr
ee el ect
rons t o conduct
or hence bet t
er
Ohmi
candnon-
ohmi
cconduct
ors conduct
ivi
ty.

Ohmi
cconduct
ors 1
R∝ ………….
(2)
A
 Theseareconduct orswhich obeyOhm’ slaw
1
and ther
eforevoltage dr
op acr oss them i s R=const
ant
×
A
dir
ect
lypropor
ti
onaltocurr
entthroughthem e.g.
metalconduct
orslikeni omeandel
chr ectrol
ytes RA=const
ant
l
ikecoppersul
phate.

 Forohmicconduct
orsagraphofvol
tageagai
nst
Resi
sti
vi
tyofamet
all
i
cconduct
or
cur
renti
sastrai
ghtli
net
hroughtheori
gin.
 Resisti
vityist
heresist
anceofsampl eofmater
ialof
Non-ohmi
cconduct
ors
unitlengthandunitcrosssecti
onalareaatacert
ain
 TheseareconductorswhichdonotobeyOhm’s temp eratur
e.
l
awandt hereforet
heirr
esist
ancechangeswit
h
 Combi ningequat
ions(1)and(2)above;
curr
entflow e.g.t
hermist
or,thermi
onicdi
ode,
fi
lamentbulb,semi
conductordiodeet
c. l
R∝
A
 A gr
aph ofvol
tage agai
nstcurr
entf
ornon-
ohmi
cconduct
orsisnotastr
aight
. Pl
R=
A

RA
ρ= , wher
eisρi
sther
esi
sti
vi
tyoft
heconduct
or
l

 TheSIuni
tofr
esi
sti
vi
tyi
stheohm met
er(
Ωm)

Exampl
e

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Two met
ers ofa resist
ance wir
e,area ofcr
oss sect
ional
50mm2,
0. hasaresi
stanceof220Ω.Cal
cul
ate:

I
. Ther
esi
sti
vi
tyoft
hemet
al

I
I. Thelengt
hofthewirewhich,
connectedi
nparal
l
elwi
th
the2meterl
ength,
wi l
lgi
vearesi
stanceof2.
00Ω.

Sol
uti
on

l=2m, A=0. 0×10-5m2,

50mm2=5.

R=220Ω

RA
ρ=
l
El
ect
ri
cal
Resi
stance
0×10-5m2
220Ω×5.
ρ= 50×10-3Ωm
=5.
2m
 El
ectr
icalresi
stanceist
heopposi
ti
onoff
eredby
aconductortotheflowofel
ect
ri
ccurr
ent
.

 Amat eri
alwit
hhighconductancehasverylow
electr
ical r
esist
ance e.g. copper
. El
ectr
ical
resist
anceismeasuredusinganohmmeter.

Exer
cise b)Li
ghtdependentr
esi
stor(
LDR)

1. Giv
enthatt
heresist
ivi
tyofni
chr
omei 1x10-6  I
s1. tsr esi
stance decr
eases wi
thi
ncr
eases i
nli
ght
m,whatlengt
hofnichromewi r
eofadiamet
er0.
42m i
s i
ntensi
ty.
neededt
omakear esi
storof20Ω?

2. TwowiresXandBar esuchthatther adi

usofYis
twi
cet
hatofYandthelengthofYistwicet hatofX.i
fthe
two ar
e of same mat er
ial
, determine t he rat
io
r
esistanceofX
r
esistanceofY

Met
hodsofMeasur
ingResi
stance
Resi
stor
s
1.Vol
tmet
er-
ammet
ermet
hod
 These ar
e conductor
s speci
all
y designed t
o
off
erpart
icul
arr
esist
ancetothefl
owofel ect
ri
c
cur
rent
. The sy mbol of r esistor is

 Int
hismethod,
current
Ithr
ought
heresi
storRand
cor
respondi
ngvol
tageVacrossi
tar
eobtainedand

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Ty
pesofr
esi
stor
s resi
stanceoft
heresi
stori
sdet
ermi
nedusi
ngt
he
V
expressi
onR= .
I

1.Fi
xedr
esi
stor
s Di
sadv
ant
agesofv
olt
met
erammet
ermet
hod

 These arer esistors desi

gned t
o givefi
xed  Iti
snotaccurat
esincevol
tmet
ertakessomecurrent
resi
stance e.
g.wi r
e wound resi
stor
s,car
bon and ther
efor
e notallcurr
entpasses thr
ough the
(col
ourcode)resistor
setc. resi
stor

2.Themet
er-
bri
dgemet
hod

 I
nthismethodar esi
storofknownresi
stancei
sused
i
nthedeterminat
ionofresist
anceofanotherr
esi
stor
whoseresi
stanceisnotknown.

 Thef
igur
ebel
owshowsaset
-upofMet
erBr
idge.
2.
Var
iabl
eresi
stor
s

 Thesear eresi
storswhoser
esi
stancecan be
var
ied.Theyi
nclude:

a)Rheost
at

 Thi
s i
s t
wo a t
ermi
nal v
ari
abl
e r
esi
stor
represent
ed byanyoft
he sy
mbol
s bel
ow i
n
electr
ical
cir
cui
ts.  The br i
dge is balanced byadjusti
ng the v
ariabl
e
resi
storLunt ilthereisnogal vanometerdef
lecti
on
i
.e.pointeratzeromar k.Atbal
ancedstate:

X L1
=
R L2


b)
Pot
ent
iomet
er

 This is a t
hree ter
minal var
iabl
e r
esi
stor
repr
esent
edbythesy
mbol bel
ow.

3.Nonl
i
nearr
esi
stor
s

 These ar
er esi
stor
si n whi
ch currentfl
owi
ng
thr
oughthem doesnotchangelinearlywi
tht
he
vol
tageappl
i
ed.Theyincl
ude:

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a)Ther
mist
or

 Thisisat emperat
uredependentr
esist
orwhose
resi
stance decr eases wi th increase in
temperature.I
tsel
ectr
ical
symboli
sasbel ow.

Resi
stor
sNet
wor
ks a) Cal
cul
atet
heef
fect
iver
esi
stance

1.Resi
stor
sconnect
edi
npar
all
el Sol
uti
on

1 1 1 1 1
 Consi
dert
hreer
esi
st sR1 R2 andR3connect
or ed = + + +
RT R1 R2 R3 R4
i
npar
all
elasshownbel
ow:
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + =0.
9333
RT 4 3 10 4

1
RT = =1.
074Ω
0.
9333

b) Thecur
rentt
hrought
he10Ωr
esi
stor

Sol
uti
on

Sincetheresist
orsareinparal
l
el,thev
olt
agedr
op
acrosseachofthem i
sthesamei
.e.4.
5V.

I
T
=I
1
+II
2 3 V
I=
R
VT V1 V2 V3
= + +
RT R1 R2 R3 10
I= =2.
222A
4.5
ButVT =V1=V2=V3
2.Thefigurebel
ow shows3r esist
orsinser
iesconnect
edt
o
(
forr
esi
stor
sinspar
all
el) powersource.Acur
rentof1.
5Aflowthrought
hecir
cuit
.

1 1 1 1
= + +
RT R1 R2 R3

Fornr
esi
stor
sinpar
all
el

1 1 1 1
= + +
RT R1 R2 R3 Cal
cul
ate:

 I
ftwo r
esi
st s R1 andR2 ar
or e connect
ed i
n a) Thet
otalr
esi
stance
par
all
elt
hen t
he equi
val
entr
esi
stance RE i
s
b) Thev
olt
ageacr
osst
hesour
ce
gi
venby
c) Thev
olt
agedr
opacr
osseachr
esi
stor

Sol
uti
on

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1 1 1 R1+R a)RT =R1+R2+R3

= + = 2

RE R1 R2 R1 R
RT =4+6+3=13Ω
2

RR
RE= 1 2 b)V=I
R
R1+R2
V=1.
5×13=19.
5V
2.Resi
stor
sconnect
edi
nser
ies
c) V4Ω =1.
5×4=6V

V6Ω =1.
5×6=9V

V3Ω =1.
5×3=4.
5V

VT =V1+V2+V3

IR =I
T T
R +I
1 1
R +I
2 2
R
3 3

ButI
T
=I
1
=I
2
=I
3

RT =R1+R2+R3

Exer
cise

1.The fi
gure bel
ow shows f
iver
esi
stor
s and a sour
ce of
vol
tageof6V.

Exampl
es a) Fi
ndt
heef
fect
iver
esi
stanceoft
heci
rcui
t

1.The circui
tdiagr
am inthe f
igur
e bel
ow shows 4 b) Cal
cul
atet
hecur
rentt
hrough
resi
stor
sconnect
edacrossa4.
5vsupply
3.Si
xresi
stor
sar
econnect
edi
naci
rcui
tasshowni
nthef
igur
e
bel
ow.

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a) Cal
cul
atet
het
otalr
esi
stanceoft
heci
rcui
t

b) Thet
otalcur
renti
ntheci
rcui
t

c) Thecur
rentt
hrought
he3Ωr
esi
stor

d) Thecur
rentt
hrought
he8Ωr
esi
stor

3.Twor
esi
stor
sconnect
edi
npar
all
elasshownbel
ow Exper
iment
alDet
ermi
nat
ionofI
nter
nalResi
stanceand
Emf

Met
hod1

 Consi
dert
hesetupbel
ow:
a) Cal
cul
ate:

I
. t
hecur
rentt
hatpassest
hroughR1

I
I. Ter
minalp.
dacr
osst
hebat
ter
y

El
ectr
omot i
veForce( Emf
)andInternal Resist
ancer I fsev er
alv al
ues ofcur rentand theircor
responding
valuesofv olt
agearecol l
ectedandgr aphofv ol
tageV
 Electromoti
vef orce(E)ofthecel lreferstothe againstcurr
entIisplot
ted.Itisastr
aightl
i
neofnegat i
ve
potenti
aldi
fferenceacrossitst erminalswhen sl opecutti
ngthroughthevoltageaxi
swhenextrapolat
ed.
nochargeisflowingoutofi
ti.e.whent heci
rcui
t
i
sopen.

 Terminalvolt
age(V)i
st hevol
tagedropacross
theterminal
softhecellorbat
terywhencharge
i
sf lowing outofitand itisduet o ext
ernal
resi
stanceR.

 Usi
ngt
heequat
ion E=V+I
randt
her
efor
e V=E-
Ir,
thesl
opeofthegr
aphgivestheint
ernalresi
stanceof
thecel
lwhil
ethevol
tage-i
nter
ceptgivestheemf( E)
ofthecel
l
.

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 Inter
nalresistance( r)r ef
erst ot heoppositi
on  I
fsev eralval
uesofcur rentandt hei
rcorr
esponding
offer
edbyt hesour ceofel ectromot ivefor
ceto values of volt
age ar e col l
ect
ed and graph of
theflowofthecur r
entt hati
tgener ates. 1
recipr
ocalofcurrentagai nstRisplott
ed,astr
aight
I
 Lost v ol
tage i s t he di f
ference bet ween 1
elect
romotivef orceandt erminalv olt
ageandi t l
inewi thposit
ivegradientwhi chpassesthr
ough
I
i
sduet ointernalresistance. axisisobtai
ned.

Rel
ationshipbetweenEmf( E)
,Ter
minalVol
tage(
V)
andInternalResi
stance(
r)

 Consi
deraresi
storRconnect
edi
nser
ieswi
tha
cel
lofi
nter
nalr
esist
ancer

 Theint
ernalresi
stanceoft
hecellrisconsider
ed
toconnectedinserieswi
ththeexternalr
esist
or,
R

 Thecur
rentf
lowi
ngt
hrought
heci
rcui
tisgi
ven
by:

e.m.f
cur
rent=
tot
alresi
stance

E
I=
R+r

E=I
(R+r
)

E=I
R+I
r⇒E=V+I
r

 Wher
eIR=t
ermi
nal
vol
tage,I
r=l
ostv
olt
age

1 Exer
cise
 Thegr adi
entofthegr aphgives andt heref
ore
E
1.Thetabl
ebelowshowsr
eadi
ngobtai
nedinanexperi
mentto
the elect
romoti
vef orce oft he cel
lcan be
deter
mine the e.
m.f
,E and int
ernalresi
stance R of a
obtai
ned whilet he R- i
nter
cept gi
ves i
nter
nal
accumulat
or
resi
stanceofthecellr.
Ext
ernalr
esi
stance,R 0.
3 0.
3 2.
(Ω) 5 75

Exampl
es Cur
rent
,I(
A) 2.
5 1.
0 0.

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1.Twodr ycel
lseachoft heint
ernalresi
stance0.05Ωand 5
connectedinseriesareusedt ooperateanel ect
ri
cbellof
resi
stance10Ω.Thewi ri
ngoftheci r
cuithasar esi
stance Reci
procalofcur
rent
,
of0.2Ω.I fthebellrequir
esacur rentof0. 2Ator i
ng,to 1
whatv aluecan t hecombi ned emff allbeforethebell I
comest or i
ng?
a) Dr
awasui
tabl
eci
rcui
tusedt
ogett
heabov
eresul
ts
Sol
uti
on
1
b) Pl
ott
hegr
aphof agai
nstR
I

c) Det
ermine t
he val
ues ofi
nter
nalr
esi
stance rand
el
ect
romoti
vefor
ce

2.Theci
rcui
tinthef
igur
ebel
owshowsthecurr
entatjunct
ion
P.Findt
heamountanddi r
ecti
onoft
hecurrentthatpasses
(
E=I )
R+r thr
ought
hewi r
eW.

2(
E=0. ( 2)
10+0. 05×2)=2.
+0. 06V

2.Youar
epr
ovi
dewi
thr
esi
stor
sofv
alues4Ωand8Ω

a) Dr
awaci r
cuitdi
agram showi
ngther
esi
stor
sinser
ies
wi
theachotherandwithbatt
ery
. 3.Thr
eer
esi
stor
sar
econnect
edasshownbel
ow

Cal
cul
ate:
b) Calcul
atet otalr esistance oft
he ci
rcui
t(assume
negli
gibl
einternalresistance) a)Thet
otalr
esi
stancei
ntheci
rcui
twhen:

Sol
uti
on i
. S1i
sopen

RT =R1+R2 i
i
. S2i
scl
osed

RT =4+8=12Ω b)Thecur
rentt
hrougheachoft
her
esi
stor
swhen:

i
. S1i
sopen

c) Giventhatthebat
teryhasanemfof6Vandi nt
ernal i
i
. S1i
scl
osed
resi
stanceof1.
33Ω,cal
cul
atet
hecur
rentt
hrough
c)Thepot
ent
ialdi
ff
erenceacr
osseachr
esi
storwhen S1 i
s
i
. 8Ωwhent
het
woar
einser
ies. cl
osed

Sol
uti
on 4.A batter
yofemf12V andi
nter
nalr
esi
stanceof0.
6Ω i
s
connect
edasshownbel
ow
E
I =I =
8Ω 4Ω R+r

6
= =0.
4501A
12+1.
33

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i
i
. 4Ωr
esi
storwhent
het
woar
einpar
all
el. a)Cal
cul
atet
hecur
rentt
hrought
he3Ωr
esi
storwhenswi
tchi
s:

Sol
uti
on i
. Open

i
i
. Cl
osed

b)Findthetot
alpot
ent
ialdi
ff
erentacr
osst
he7Ω r
esi
stor
s
whenSisopen

5.Acel
lofemfof6.
0Vanddr
ivescur
rentof2.
0At
hroughR1
RR whenswi
tchSi
sopen
RT = 1 2 +r
R1+R2

4×8
RT = +1.
33=4Ω
4+8

V E-
V
I = 4Ω = r
4Ω R4Ω R4Ω

6
Cal
cul
ate:
6- ×1.
33
4
I = =1.
001A a) Thecur
rentt
hrought
he2Ωr
esi
stor
4Ω 4

b) Thei
nter
nalr
esi
stanceoft
hecel
l

c) Thecur
rentthr
ougheachoft
her
esi
stor
swhent
he
swi
tchSiscl
osed

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The ci
rcui
t bel
ow can be used as a l
i
ght sensor
. 8. a) Int heci
rcui
tdiagr
am shown,
cal
cul
atet
heef
fect
ive
resi
stancebetweenYandZ.

a) Expl
ainhow itwor
ksascondit
ionschangef
rom
pi
tchdarknesst
obrightl
i
ght

b) Ift
heresi
stanceofLDRi ndimli s1x104Ω
ghti
b) Det
ermi
net
hecur
rentt
hrought
he3r
esi
stor
.
cal
cul
atet
hep.dacross1kΩresi
stor
c) Oneoft
he6r esistor
shasal engt
hof1m andcr
oss-
secti
onal
ar
eaof5.0x10-5m2.Calcul
atether
esi
sti
vi
tyoft
hemateri
al.
Fur
therExer
cise
9. I
nthecircui
tdi
agram fi
veresi
storsareconnectedtoa
1. Astudentlear
ntthatabatter
yofeightdr
ycells bat
ter
yofemf .4V,andnegli
gibl
einter
nalresi
stance.
each1.5vhasatotalemfof12Vt hesameasacar Det
ermine:
batt
ery.Heconnectedinseri
eseightnewdr ybat
teri
esto
hi
scarbutfoundthattheycouldnotstar
ttheengine.Gi
ve
areasonfort
hisobservat
ion

2.
a)Youarerequi
redt
odet er
minetheresist
anceperuni
t
l
engthofani chr
omewi rex,youarepr ovi
dedwithd.c
powersuppl
y,anammeterandvol
tmeter
.
i
. Thet
otalr
esi
stanceoft
heci
rcui
t.
I
. Drawacircui
tdiagr
am t
oshowhowy
ouwoul
d
connectt
hecircui
t. i
i
. Thecurrentf
lowi
ngt
hrought 5
he5.
resi
stor
.
I
I. Descri
behowyouwouldusethecircui
tin(a)(i)
abovetodet
ermi
netheresi
stanceperunitlength i
i
i. Thepot
ent
ial
satpoi
ntsYandO.
ofx.
i
v. Thepot
ent
ialdi
ff
erencebet
weenYand
c) 2.Four5resi
stor
sareconnect
edt
oa10Vd.c.suppl
yas O.
showninthedi
agram bel
ow.
11.Ast udentwishest oinvesti
gatet herelat
ionshi
pbetween
currentandv ol
tagef oracer t
aindev i
ceX.I nthespace
provide,drawaci rcui
tdiagram includi
ngt wocell
s,
rheostat,ammet er,volt
meterandt hedeviceXthatwould
besui t
ableinobt aini
ngthedesi redresul
ts.

Cal
cul
ate;
- 12.Inthecir
cuitdiagram showni
nfi
gur
e7,theammeterhas
negli
gibl
eresistance.Whentheswi
tchSiscl
osed,
the
a. Theef
fect
iver
esi
stancei
ntheci
rcui
t. ammet erreads0. 13A.

b. Thecurr
entIf
oll
owi
ngi
ntheci
rcui
t(t
hrough
thesour
ce)

3.St
udythecircui
tdiagram bel
owanddet er
minet
he
pot
entialdropacrossthe3r esi
stor
.

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4. Stat
etwocondi
ti
onst
hatar
enecessar
yfora
conduct
ort
oobeyOhm’sl
aw.

5. a) TworesistorsR1andR2areconnectedinseri
es
t
oa10Vbat ter
y .Thecurr
entflowi
ngthenis 0. 5A.
WhenR1onl
yi sconnectedtothebatt
erythecurr
ent
fl
owi
ngis0.8A.Calcul
atethe

i
. Val
ueofR2

i
i
. Cur
rentfl
owingwhenR1andR2ar
econnect
edi
n
par
all
elwit
hthesamebatter
.

6. Acurr
entof0.
08Apassesi
ncircui
tfor2.5minut
es.
Howmuchchargepassest
hroughapoi nti
nthe
ci
rcui
t?

7. Anammet er,avolt
meterandabulbareconnect
edi n
acircui
tsoast omeasur ethecur
rentf
lowi
ngandt he
potenti
aldif
ferenceacr
ossboth.Sketchasuit
able
ci
rcuitdi
agram forthearr
angement.

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Chapt
erEi
ght HEATI
NGEFFECTOFANELECTRI
CCURRENT

Speci
fi
cobj
ect
ives Cont
ent

Byt
heendoft
hist
opi
cthel
eanershoul
dbeabl
eto: 1. Si
mpl
eexper
iment
sonheat
ingef
fect

a) Perf
orm anddescri
beexperi
mentstoi
l
lust
rat
e 2. Fact
orsaf
fect
ingel
ect
ri
cal
ener
gy,
W =VI
t,
P=VI
heat
ingeff
ectofanelect
ri
ccur
rent
3. Heat
ingdevi
ces:electr
icalket
tl
e,el
ect
ri
cali
ron
b) Stat
ethef
act
orsaf
fect
ingheat
ingbyel
ect
ri
c box,
bulbf
il
ament,elect
richeat
er
curr
ent
4. Probl
ems on el
ect
ri
calener
gy and el
ect
ri
cal
c) Deri
vet heequati
onsf
orel
ect
ri
calener
gyand power
el
ectr
icalpower

d) Ident
ifydev
icesinwhichheat
ingef
fectofan
elect
ri
ccurr
enti
sappl
ied

e) Sol
ve numer
icalpr
obl
ems i
nvol
vi
ng el
ect
ri
cal
ener
gyandel
ect
ri
cal
power

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I
ntr
oduct
ion Fact
orsAf
fect
ingHeat
ingbyEl
ect
ri
cCur
rent

 When an el ectri
c cur r
entpasses t hrough a Theheatproducedbyaconduct orcar
ryingcurrent
conductor,itgener at
es heatener gy
.Thi sis dependson:
cal
ledt heheatingef f
ectofanel ectr
iccurr
ent
andi tisduet ot her esist
anceof f
eredbyt he a) Amountcur r
entpassingthr
oughtheconduct or
conductortot hecur r
ent.Heatingef f
ectofan
 The heatpr oduced i
s dir
ectl
ypr oport
ionaltot he
el
ectri
ccur r
entwasf i
rstinvest
i edbyJames
gat
squareofcur rentthrough t
heconduct orprovided
Joule,aManchest erbrewerinUK.
thatsameconduct ori
susedforthesamet i
me.i.
e

2
gy ∝ I
heatener .
Demonst
rat
ingHeat
ingEf
fectofanEl
ect
ri
cCur
rent
Usi
ngaCoilofWi
re

 Theset-
upbelowcanbeusedt oexperi
mental
ly
demonstr
ateheati
ngef
fectofanel
ectr
iccur
rent
i
nthelaborat
ory
.

b)Resi
stanceoft
heconduct
or

 Heatpr oduced in a conductorcar

ryi
ng cur
renti s
 Precaut
ion:t
hecoi
lshoul
dbeful
l
yimmersedi
n dir
ectl
ypr oport
ionaltoresist
anceoftheconductor
waterbutshoul
dnottoucht
hebott
om orwal
l
s provi
ded cur
rent and t
ime are constant
.heat
ofthebeaker
. ener
gy∝ R.

 Obser
vati
on:Iti
sobservedthatthetemperat
ure
ofwateri
ncreaseswit
hr esi
stance,cur
rentand
ti
me.

 Expl
anati
on:Elect
ri
calenergyis conver
ted to
heatenergyresul
ti
nginar isei
nt emperature.
The heat energy i
ncr
eases wit
hr esi
stance,
curr
entandti
me.

c) Ti
me f
or whi
ch cur
rent f
lows t
hrough Exampl
es

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conduct
or 1.Anelect
ri
cbulbr ated40W isoper
ati
ngon240V mai
ns.
Det
ermi
netheresi
stanceofi
tsf
il
ament.
 Keeping cur
rentand r
esi
stanceconstantheat
producedinaconductori
sdi r
ectl
ypropor
tional Sol
uti
on
tothet i
mef orwhi
chcurr
entf l
ows.Heatenergy
V2
∝ t
. P=
R

2402
40= ; ⇒R=1440Ω
R

2.Whenacurrentof2Af lowsinaresi
storf
or10minut
es,15KJ
ofelect
ri
calener gyisdissi
pat
ed. Deter
minethevolt
age
acr
ossther esi
stor.

Sol
uti
on

E=VI
t

15×1000=V×2×10×60

15000
Vv
dA` V= =12.
5V
1200

Q 3. Howmany100W el
ectr
icir
onscouldbesaf
elyconnect
ed
t
oa240Vmov ingcir
cuitf
it
tedwit
ha13Af use?
El
ect
ri
cal
Ener
gy,
E
Sol
uti
on
 ConsideracurrentIfl
owi
ngt hr
oughaconduct
or
of resist
anceR f or a ti
met.If a potent
ial P=VI
di
ffer
ence V dr ops across t
he ends ofthe (
No.ofi
rons)x1000=VI
conductor,t
hen;
13x240
W No.ofi
rons=
V= 1000
Q
=3.
12=3i
rons
(
from def
ini
ti
onofpot
ent
ial
dif
fer
ence)

E=W =VQ
Exer
cise

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(
wher
eW i
stheel
ect
ri
cal
wor
kdonei
nmov
ing 1. Aheat erofresistanceR1i
sr atedPwat
ts,Vv ol
tswhil
e
v
anotherofresistanceR2israted2Pwatt
s, /2vol
ts.
char
geQ) DetermineR1/R2

Thi
sisel
ect
ri
cal
wor
kdonei
sconv
ert
edt
oheat 2. Stat
eTHREEf
act
orswhi
chaf
fectheat
ingbyanel
ect
ri
c
curr
ent
.
ener
gy,
E

char
geQ
3. Whati
spowerasi
trel
atest
oel
ect
ri
calener
gy?
butcur
rent
,I= ; ⇒Q=I
t
ti
me,t
4. Anelect
ri
calappl
i
ancei
srat
edas240V,200W.Whatdoes
E=V(
I)
t; ⇒E=VI
t thi
sinf
ormati
onmean?

Si
nce, R(
V=I f
r aw)
om ohmsl ;el
ect
ri
cal
ener
gy 5. Anel
ect
ri
calheat
eri
slabel
l
ed120W,
240V.

canal
sobeexpr
essedas; Cal
cul
ate;

t=(
E=VI IR)
It
; 2
⇒E=IRT a. Thecurr
entthroughtheheat
ingel
ement
whentheheaterison.

b. Theresi
stanceoft
heel
ementusedi
nthe
El
ect
ri
cal
Power
,PE heat
er.

 Poweri
sther
ateofdoi
ngwel
l 6. Anelectri
ctoyisr
ated100W,
240V.Calcul
atethe
resi
stanceofthet
oywhenoperat
ingnor
mally.
work
power=
t
ime 7. Anelect
ricbul
bwi t
haf i
lamentofresi
stance480is
connect
edt oa240Vmai nssupply
.Det ermi
netheener
gy
el
ect
ri
calener
gy VI
t di
ssipat
edin2mi nutes.
= = ;
ti
me t

⇒El
ect
ri
calpower
,PE=VI

Si
nceV
=IR,el
ectri
cal
powercanal
so
beexpressedas;

PE=(
IR)
I

2
PE=IR

V V
Orf
rom I= ; P=V( )
R R

V2
PE=
R

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El
ect
ri
cal
Dev
icesf
orLi
ght
ing 3. Acurrentof3.3Aispassedthroughar esi
storof25Ωf
or2
hour
scal cul
atetheel
ectri
calenergyconvertedt
oheat
a)Fi
l
amentl
amps ener
gyi n20mi nut
es.

4. Anelect
ri
ccur r
entir
onconsumes2. 9MJofenergyin1
hour10 minutes when conv
ert
ed t
ot he mai
ns power
suppl
yof240v.Cal
culat
etheamountt
hrou

5.
 When cur
rentf
lows t
hrough the fi
l
ament,i
t 6. ght
hef
il
amenti
ntheel
ect
ri
cir
on
gl
owswhit
ehotandt
herefor
eproducesli
ght
.
7. I
ntheci
rcui
tshowni
nthef
igur
ebel
oweachbul
bisr
ated
 Thefi
l smadeoft
amenti ungst
enmet
alduet
o 6v,
3w,
i
tsver
yhighmelt
ingpoi 3400oC)
nt( .

 Thebul
bi sf
il
ledwi thinertgasli
keargonand
ni
tr
ogentopr
ev entoxi
dationoft
hefil
ament.

b)Fl
uor
escentl
amps
a) Calcul
atethecurr
entthr
ougheachbul
b,when
thebulbsarewor
kingnor
mall
y.

b) How many coulombs of char

ge pass i
n6
secondst
hrougheachbul
b?

c) Whatwoul
dt he ammet
erread when al
lthe
 Theyareeff
ici
entthanfi
lamentl
ampsbecause bul
bsar
eworki
ngnormal
l
y.
theylastmuch longerand hav
elow r
unning
cost
. d) Cal
cul
atet
heel
ect
ri
calpowerdel
i
ver
edbyt
he
bat
ter
y.
 I
tconsist
soft hemercur
yvaporwhichproduces
8. Star
ti
ngfrom el
ectri
calpower
,P,
gener
atedinaconduct
or
ul
trav
iol
etradiat
ionwhenthel ampisswitched 2
V
on.The radiati he powderon t
on makes t he showthatP= , wher
ethesymbol
stheirusual
R
i
nside of t he tube produce visi
ble li
ght meanings.
(f
luor
esce).

El
ect
ri
cal
Dev
icesf
orHeat
ing

A)Fuse

 Afuse i
s a shor
tlength ofwir
e of
mat
eri
alwit
hlow melt
ingpoint(
ti
nned

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copper)
,which melts and breaks the
ci
rcuitwhencurr
entthroughitexceeds
acertai
nv al spr
ue.Thi otect
sel ectri
cal
appli
ancesandprev
entsfireoutbreaks.

Ot
herel
ect
ri
calheat
ingdev
icesi
ncl
ude:

a) Radi
antel
ect
ri
cheat
er

b) El
ect
ri
cali
ronbox

c) El
ect
ri
cket
tl
e

d) Hotwi
reammet
er

a)

Rev
isi
onExer
cise

1. Atouchbulbiscall
ed2.
5v,0.
4A.Whati
sthepower
r
ati
ngofthebulb?

2. Anel
ect
ri
cbul
bisl
abel
ed50w,
240v
,cal
cul
ate

b) Ther
esi
stanceoft
hef
il
amentusedi
nthe
l
amp

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c) Thecur
rentt
hroughthef
il
amentwhent
he
bul
bworksnor
mal l
y

Chapt
erNi
ne ELECTROSTATI
CSI
I

Speci
fi
cobj
ect
ives Cont
ent

Bytheendoft
hist
opi
cthel
eaner
,shoul
dbeabl
e 1. El
ect
ri
cfi
eldpat
ter
ns.
to:
2. Char
gedi
str
ibut
iononconduct
ors.
a) Sket
ch el
ect
ri
cfi
eld pat
ter
ns ar
ound char
ged
bodi
es. 3. Spher
ical
andpearshapedconduct
ors.

b) Descri
bechargedi
str
ibut
iononconduct
orsof 4. Act
ionatpoi
nts;
li
ght
ingar
rest
ors.
var
iousshapes.
5. Capaci
tance, unit of capacitance ( f
arad,
c) Def
inecapaci
tanceandst
atei
tsSIuni
t. micr
ofarad)
,fact
orsaf
fect
ingcapaci
tance.

d) Descri
be charging and dischar
ging of a 6. Appl
i
cat
ionsofcapaci
tor
s.
capacit
or (cal
culat
ion i
nvol
vi
ng curves not
7. Pr
obl
ems on capac
requi
red).
1 1 1
CT =CI+C2, = + )
Q=CV,
e) Statethefact
orsaffect
ingt
hecapaci
tanceofa CT C1 C2
paral
lelpl
atecapaci
tor

f
) St
atet
heappl
i
cat
ionsofcapaci
tor
s.

g) Sol
venumer
ical
probl
emsi
nvol
vi
ngcapaci
tor
s.

El
ect
ri
cFi
eld

 Anel ectr
icfi
eldr
eferstotheregi
onwherea
chargedbodyexperi
encesafor
ceofat
tract
ion
orrepulsi
on.

2. I
sol
atednegat
ivepoi
ntchar
ge

Di
rect
ionofanEl
ect
ri
cFi
eld Thefiel
dli
nesar
eradi
all
yinwar
dst
owar
dst
henegat
ive
char
ge
 Thedi r
ecti
onofanelectr
icf
ieldatapar
ti
cul
ar
pointisdefi
nedast
hedi r
ect
ioninwhi
chaunit
posit
ivechargei
sfr
eet omov ewhenpl
acedat
thatpoint
.

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3. Twoequalposi
ti
vepoi
ntchar
ge

El
ect
ri
cLi
neofFor
ce(
Elect
ri
cFi
eldLi
ne)

Thi
sisthepat
hal
ongwhichaunitposit
ivechar
ge
woul
dtendt
omoveint
heelect
ri
cfi
eld.

Pr
oper
ti
esofEl
ect
ri
cFi
eldLi
nes
4. Twoequalunl
i
kepoi
ntchar
ge
1. Elect
ri
cfiel
dli
nesst tat900f
ar rom t
hepositi
ve
chargeandendonthenegat
iv geat900.
echar

2. Theydonotcr
osseachot
her
.

3. Theytendt ocontr
actorexpandsot
hatt
hey
neveri
nter
esteachother

El
ect
ri
cFi
eldPat
ter
ns

1. I
sol
atedposi
ti
vepoi
ntchar
ge

The fi
eldli
nes ar
eradi
all
y out
war
ds f
rom t
he
posi
ti
vechar
ge

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5. Twounequalposi
ti
vepoi
ntchar
ge

 Nochargeisfoundontheout
sideofahollow
conduct
or.Forahol
lowconductor
,thecharge
resi
desontheoutsi
de.
6. Posi
ti
vepointchar
geandast
rai
ghtmet
alpl
ate Poi
ntAct
ion
havi
ngnegati
vecharge
 Pointact
ionref
erst
othefastl
ossorgainofchar
ge
atsharppoint
sduetohi
ghchargeconcentr
ati
onat
thepoint
s.

Demonst
rat
ionofPoi
ntAct
ion

 Ahighl
ychargedshar
ppoi
nti
spl
acedcl
oset
oa
Bunsenbur
nerflame.

7. Posi
ti
vepointchargeandunchar
gedr
ingpl
aced  I
tisobser
vedt
hatt
hef
lamei
sbl
ownaway
.
i
ntheelect
ri
cf i
eld

8. Twoparal
l
elmetalpl
ateshavi
ngopposi
te Expl
anat
ion
char
geandpl
acedclosetoget
her
.
 Burni
ngflamecont ainspositi
veandnegat i
veions.
Theelect
ri
cf i
eldbet
weent
hem i
suni
for
mi.
e.f
iel
d Whent hesharp[pointisbroughtclosetotheflame,
l
inesequall
yplaced. negati
veionsareat t
ractedtothesharppoint,whil
e
posit
ivei
onsarer epell
edawayf rom thesharppoint.
Asthepositi
veionsar erepell
ed,theycreat
ean
“el
ectr
icwind”whichbl ows.

 I
ftheconduct
orisbr
oughtv
erycl
oset
othef
lame,
t
heflamespli
ts.

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Char
geDi
str
ibut
iononConduct
ors

 Dist
ri
buti
onofchargeonthesur
faceofa
ordependsont
conduct heshapeofthe
conduct
or.

 Forspheri
calconduct
or,char suni
gei for
mly
di
stri
butedonthesurface.

 Forpearshapedconduct
or,
chargei
s
concent
ratedatt
hesharppoint
.

 ForCuboi
danddiamondconduct
orshi
gh
char
gedensi
t satt
yi hever
ti
ces.

Exampl
e

1.Acandl
efl
ameisplacednearashar
ppointedpi
nconnect
ed
tot
hecapofanegat
ivel
ychargedel
ect
roscopeasshown
bel
ow.

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Stat
eandexplai
nwhati
sobser
vedont
hel
eafoft
he
el
ect
roscope.

Sol
uti
on

Itisobser vedthattheleafcol
lapses.Thisisbecausethe
shar ppointionizestheairar
oundi t
.Thenegat i
veions
(electrons)mov etot heshar
pendt oionizethepositi
ve
char gedairionswhi chareatt
ractedtothecap( orpositi
ve
airionsneut ral
izethenegati
vechargeont heshar ppoint)
.

1. I
selectr
icalf
iel
dst
rengt
hascal
arorv
ect
orquant
it
y?
Expl
ain
2.I
tisdangeroustocar
ryapoi
ntedumbr
ell
awheni
tis
rai
ning.Expl
ain.
2. Expl
ainhownegati
vel
ychar
gedpoi
ntededgeget
s
di
schargedbyi
tsel
f.
Sol
uti
on
3. I
tisnotadvi
sablet
otakeshel
terunderat
reewheni
tis
Thesharppointoftheumbr
ellaat
tract
schar
gereadil
yto
r
aini
ng.Expl
ain.
neutr
ali
zethechargeint
hecloudwhichmayelect
rocute
thepersonholdi
ngtheumbr
ella.
4. Whati
sthepur
poseoft
hespi
kesont
hel
i
ght
ningar
rest
or?

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Appl
i
cat
ionofPoi
ntAct
ion Capaci
tor
s

Poi
ntact
ioni
sappl
i
edi
nthewor
ki hel
ngoft i
ght
ing  Acapaci
tori
sadev
iceusedf
orst
ori
ngchar
ge.
ar
rest
or.
 Capaci
torsy
mbol
is

Ty
pesofCapaci
tor
s

1. Papercapaci
tor
s

2. El
ect
rol
yti
ccapaci
tor
s

3. Var
iabl
eai
rcapaci
tor

4. Par
all
elpl
atecapaci
tor

Par
all
elPl
ateCapaci
tor

 Aparal
lelpl
atecapaci
torconsi
stsoft
womet al
Wor
kingMechani
sm oft
heLi
ght
eni
ngAr
rest
or pl
atesseparat
edbyani nsul
ati
ngmateri
alcal
l
ed
di
elect
ri
c.
 Whenanegat i
v el
ychar
gedcloudpassesover
thearrest
ori
tinducesposi
ti
vechar
geont he
spikesandnegati
vechargeonthepl
ate.

 Thenegat
ivechar
geontheplat
eisimmedi
atel
y
di
schar
gedtothesur
roundi
ngground.

 Negati
veionsar
eattr
act
edt
othespikesandar
e
di
schargedbygi
vingupt
hei
rel
ect
rons.
Char
gingaCapaci
tor
 Atthesametime,positi
veionsar
erepel
led
upwardsfr
om thespikesandtheyneut
rali he  Theci
zet r
cui
tdi
agram bel
owshowsaset
-upf
or
negati
vechar
geont heclouds. char
gingacapaci
tor
.

Exer
cise

1. Thef i
g.showsahol l
ow negat i
velychar gedsphere
withmet aldi
skattachedtoani nsulatorplacedi
nside.
 Obser
vati
on:Whent heswit
chiscl
osedi sobser
ti ved
Statewhatwoul dhappent ot heleafofanunchar ged
el
ectroscopei ft
hemet aldiskwer ebr oughtnearthe t
hatmill
i
-ammeterreadingdecr
easeswhil
evol
tmeter
capofelectroscope.Givear easonf oryouranswer. r
eadingi
n cr
eases.

 Expl
anat
ion:Negat
ivechar
gef
lowf
rom t
henegat
ive

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terminal
oft hebatter
ytoplateBoft hecapaci
tor
.At
thesamer atenegat i
vechargefl
owf rom t
heplat
eA
ofcapacitort opositi
veter
mi nal
ofbat t
ery
.
Therefor
e, equal posi
tiv
eandnegat i
vecharges
appearont heplatesandopposet heflowof
elect
ronswhi chcauses.

 Thechargi
ngcurr
entdropst
ozer
owhent
he
capaci
tori
sful
l
ycharged.

 Pot
enti
aldi
ff
erenceacrosst
hecapaci
toral
so
dev
elopsdur
ingchar
ging.

Capaci
tance

 Capaci
tanceisdefi
nedasthechar
gest
oredi
na
capaci
torperuni
tvolt
age.

change,
Q
capaci
tance,
c=
vol
tage,
V

Q
C=
V

 TheSIuni
tofcapaci
t st
ancei hef
arad(
F)

Def
ini
ti
onoft
hef
arad

 Afar
adisthecapaci
tanceofabodyi
fachar
ge
of1coul
ombr ai
sesi
tspotent
ial
by1vol
t

Submul
ti
plesoft
hef
arad

1mi
crof
ar 1µF)=10-6F
ad(

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Di
schar
gingaChar
gedCapaci
tor 1Nanof
arad( )=10-9F
1µf

 Theci
rcui
tfordi
schar
gingi
sasbel
ow. 1Pi
cof
ar 1pF)=10-12F
ad(

Fact
orsAffect
ingt
heCapaci
tanceofaPar
all
el-Pl
ate
Capaci
tor

1.Ar
eaofOv
erl
apoft
hePl
ates,
A

 Capaci
tanceisdir
ect
lypr
opor
ti
onal
tot
hear
eaof
over
lapoftheplat
es(C ∝ A)
 Obser vat
ion:Iti
sobservedthatmi
ll
iammeter
readingdecreasesfrom maximum val
ueto  I
fthepositi
veplat
eisconnectedt
othecapofa
minimum.Thepoi nterdef
lect
sinopposi
te posit
ivel
ychar
gedelect
roscope,t
hediv
ergence
directi
ontot hatdur
ingchargi
ng. oftheleafi
ncr
easesastheareaofoverl
ap
i
ncreases
 Expl
anati
on:Dur i
ngdischargi
ngchargefl
owin
theopposi
tedi
r ecti
oni.e.f
rom pl
atetoAunt
il 2.Di
stanceofSepar
ati
onoft
hePl
ates,
d
thechar
geont heplatesiszero.
 Capacit
anceisinver
selypropor
ti
onalt
odi
stance
 Pot
ent
ial
dif
fer
enceacr
osst
hecapaci
tor 1
ofseparat
ionoftheplates(C ∝ )
pr
act
ical
l
ydi
mini
shest
ozer
o. d

 Ift
heposi t
iveplat
eisconnect edtot
hecapofa
posit
ivel
ychargedel ect
roscope,t
hediv
ergence
oftheleafdecreasesast hedist
anceofthe
separati
onincreases.

3.Nat
ureoft
heDi
elect
ri
c Capaci
torNet
wor
ks

 Diel
ectr
icref
erstot
heinsul
ati
ngmat er
ial a)Capaci
tor
sinSer
ies
betweentheplat
esofaparal
lelpl
ate
capaci
tor.  Consi
dert
hecapaci
tor
sar
rangementbel
ow.

 Permi
tti
vit
yεoftheinsul
ati
ngmater
ial
isa
const
antdependentonthemedi
um between
thepl
ates.

 I
ftheplat
esar einav acuum,
theconst
anti
s
denot
edby εo(epsil
onnaught
)anditsv
alue
i
s8.85×10-12Fm-1 Char
geonC1=changeonC2=changeonC2=Q

Expr
essi
onf
orcapaci
tance butV=V1+V2+V3(
I.
e.component
sinser
ies)

A Q
C ∝ andV=
d C
ɛA
C= , wher
eɛ=per
mit
ti
vi
ty
d

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QT Q1 Q2 Q3
= + +
CT C1 C2 C3

1 1 1 1
= + +
CT C1 C2 C3

wher
eCTi
sthecombi
nedcapaci
tance

 Foronl
ytwocapaci
tor
s,C1andC2ar
einser
ies,

1 1 1 C1+C2
= + =
CT C1 C2 C1C2
Exampl
es
CC
Ther
ef eCT = 1 2
or
1. Twopl atesofapar all
elpl
atecapacit
orare1mm apart C1+C2
andeachhasanar eaof6cm2. .
Giventhatt
hepotent
ial
dif
ferencebetweent heplatesi
s90V, cal
cul
atet
he B)Capaci
torsinParal
l
el
chargest or
edinthecapaci t
or.
(Takeɛ0=8. 85×10-12Fm-1)  Considerthearr
angementbel
ow.

Sol
uti
on

ɛA
C=
d

85×10-12Fm-1×6×10-4m2
8.
C= 31×10-12F
=5.
1×10-3

Q=CV
 Thep.dacrosseachofthecapaci
torsist
hesame
779×10-10C
31×10-12×90=4.
Q=5. asthep.dacrossthesour
cesincetheyar
e
connect
edinparal
lel
.
2. Findtheseparati
ondistancebetweentwopl at
ei ft
he
-12
capacitancebet
weent henis6×10 Fandt he QT =Q1+Q2+Q3
enclosedareais3.0cm2(takeɛ0=8. 8510-12Fm-1)
butQ=CV
Sol
uti
on
CTV=C1V1+C2V2+C3V3
ɛA
C=
d
CT =C1+C2+C3
-
12 85×10-12Fm-1×3×10-4m2
8.
6×10 F=
d

85×10-12Fm-1×3×10-4m2
8. -
4 2  Not
e:Tr
eatchar
geascur
rentsi
ncecur
renti
s
d= 425×10 m
=4.
6×10-12F
t
her
ateoff
lowofchar
ge.

Exer
cise
Exampl
es
geof4x104cwasst
1. Achar oredi
napar
all
elpl
ate

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capacit
orwhenapotent
ialdi
ff
erenceof5Vwas 1. Threecapacit
orsofcapaci
tance3µF,4µFand6µFar
e
appli
edacrosst
hecapacit
or.Workoutthe connect
edt oapotenti
aldi
ffer
enceof24Vasshown
capacit
anceoft
hecapacit
or. bel
ow.

2. Thef i
gurebelow r
epresent
stwopar al
l
elplates
ofacapacitorseparat
edbyadi st
anced.Each
plat
ehasanar eaofAsquar eunits. Suggest
two adjust
mentst hatcanbemadeso ast o
reducetheeff
ecti
vecapacit
ance.

Fi
nd: Q3µF=C3µFV3µF;

a) Thecombi
nedcapaci
tance Q3µF=3µF×9.
0048V=27.
0144µC

Sol
uti
on Q4µF=C4µFV4µF;

1 1 1 1
= + + Q4µF=4µF×9.
0048V=36.
0192µC
CT C1 C2 C3

1 1 1 1 Q2µF=C2µFV2µF;
= + +
CT 3 4 6
Q2µF=2µF×9.
0048V=18.
0096µC
1 4+3+2
= =0.
75
CT 12 Q5µF =C5µFV5µF ;

1
CT = =1.
333µF Q5µF =5µF×14.
9952V=74.
976µC
0.
75

b) Thet
otalchar
ge

Sol
uti
on Exer
cise

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Q=CV 1. I
nthecir
cui
tbel
owC1=4µF,=C2=3µFandC3=1µF.
Gi
venthatV=12V,cal
cul
ate:
Q= 1.
333µF×24V=32µC

c) Thechar
geoneachcapaci
tor

Sol
uti
on

Sincethecapaci
torsar
einser
ies,
char
ge
oneachoft hem i
sthesameandisequalt
o
totalchar
gei.
e.32µC
I
. Thechar
geoneachcapaci
tor
d) Thev
olt
ageacr
osst
he4µFcapaci
tor
I
I. Thev
olt
ageacr
osseachcapaci
tor
Sol
uti
on
2. Intheci
rcui
tshownbel
owcal
cul
atet
hechar
geont
he
Q capaci
tor
V=
C

32µC
V= =8V
4µF

2. Fourcapacit
orsofcapaci
tance3µF,4µF,
2µF,
and
5µFarearrangedasshownbel ow.

Fi
nd:
3. Thefigurebel
ow Showspar tofacir
cui
tcont
aini
ngt hr
ee
capaci
tors.Wri
te an expr
essi
on f
orCT. (The eff
ecti
ve
capaci
tancebet
weenAandB. )

a) Thecombi
nedcapaci
tance
4. St
atet
hel
awofel
ect
rost
ati
cchar
ge.
Sol
uti
on
5. Thecapacit
orsintheci
rcui
tinFi
gur
ebel
ow ar
eident
ical
Capaci
tor
s3µF,4µFand2µFar ein andi
nit
ial
lyunchar
ged.
par
all
elandthei
rtot
alcapaci
tanceisi
n
ser
ieswit
hthe5µFcapaci t
or.

1 1 1
= +
CT C1+C2+C3 C4

1 1 1 14
= + =
CT 2+4+3 5 45

45
CT = =3.
214µF
14
6. Swit
chS1 i
sopenedandswitchS2 cl
osed.Det
ermi
net
he
b) Thet
otalchar
ge fi
nalr
eadi
ngofthevol
tmet
er,
V.

Sol
uti
on 7. I
ntheci
rcui
tdi
agr
am showni
nfi
gur
ebel
oweachcel
lhas

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QT =CTVT an emfof1.
5 and i
nter
nalr
esi
st 5.The
ance of0.
capaci
tanceofeachcapaci
tori 4F.
s1.
QT =3.
214µF×24V=74. 976×10-6C
976µCor74.

c) Thechar
geoneachcapaci
tor

Sol
uti
on

Vol
tageacross3µF,4µFand2µFist
he
samesincetheyareinpar
all
el;

Q
V5µF=VT- T
VT-
C5µF

74.
976µC
24- =9.
0048V
5µF

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2. A10µFcapaci tori
schargedtoap.
dof200Vand
i
solated.I
tisthenconnectedi
npar
all
elt
oa20µF
capacit
or.Fi
nd:

I
. Ther
esul
tantpot
ent
ialdi
ff
erence.

Sol
uti
on

8. Whent
heswi
tchsi
scl
oseddet
ermi
net
he:

a. Ammet
err
eadi
ng

b. Char
geoneachcapaci
tor

9. Threecapaci
tor
sof1.5F,2.
0 Fand3.
0 Far
e
connect
edinser
iest
op.
d.of12V.Fi
nd;
-
QT =Q10µF+Q20µF
I
. Thecombi
nedcapaci
tance.
10×10-6F×200V=(10×10-6)
V+(
20×10-6)
V
I
I. The t ot
al char
ge st
ored i
n t
he
arr
angement
. 10×10-6F×200V
V= =10V
(10×10-6)
F+(
20×10-6)
F
I
II
. Thechar
gei
neachcapaci
tor
.

10.Inthecir
cui
toft
hefi e3C1=2F,C2 =C3 =0.
gur 5F
andEi sa6Vbatter
y.Calcul
atet
het
otalchargeand I
I. Theener
gyst
oredbef
oreconnect
ion.
p.dacr
ossC1
Sol
uti
on
Ener
gySt
oredi
naCapaci
tor 1 2
Ener
gyst
ored= CV
2
 Char
gingacapacitorinvol
vesdoingwork
agai
nstrepulsi
onofthenegat i
vepl
atetomor
e 1 -
6 2
Ener
gyst
ored= ×10×10 F×(
200V)=0.
2J
el
ectr
onsf l
owingi
nandat t
racti
onofthe 2
posi
ti
veplateonelectronsfl
owingout.

 Thisworkisst
oredi
nfor
m ofpotent
ialener
gy. I
II
. Theenergyi
nthet
wocapaci
tor
saf
ter
Theenergymaybeconver
tedtoheat,l
i
ghtor connect
ion.
otherf
orms.
Sol
uti
on
wor
kdone(
Ener
gyst oredincapacitor
)
=av eragecharge 1 1
ed= (
C1+C2)
2 2
Ener
gyst
ored= CV;
Ener
gyst
or V
×potential
dif
ference 2 2

1 1
ed= (
10×10 +20×10 )
-
6 -
6 2 -
3
Ener
gyst
ored= QV Ener
gyst
or 10 =1.
5×10 J
2 2

1 2
Ener
gyst
ored= CV (
sinceQ=CV)
2 I
V. Theener
gydi
ff
erencebet
weenIIandII
I
2 abov
eandcommentony ouranswer
.
Q Q
Ener
gyst
ored= (si
nceV= )
2C C Sol
uti
on

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 Agraphofchar
ge,Qagai
nstvol
tage,
Visa (
0.2-
0.0015)J=0.
1985J
st
rai
ghtl
inethr
ought
heorigi
n.
Theener
gyi
sconv
ert
edt
oheatandl
i
ght

Exampl
es

1. A4µFcapacit
orischar
gedtoapotent
ial
di
ff
erenceof80V.Fi
ndtheener
gystor
edini
t

Sol
uti
on

1 2
Ener
gyst
ored= CV
2

1
Ener
gyst
ored= (4×10-6F)
×80V
2

Ener
gyst
or 6×10-4J
ed= 1.

Exer
cise

1. A10µFcapaci
tori
schar
gedbyan80Vsupplyandthen
connect
edacr
ossanunchar
ged20µFcapaci
tor
.Calcul
ate:

I
. Thef
inalp.
dacr
osseachcapaci
tor
.

I
I. Thef
inalchar
geoneach.

Theini
ti
alandf
inalener
gyst
oredbyt
he
capaci
tor
s.

2. A 2Fcapaci t
orischargedtoapot enti
alof200V,the
supplyisdi
sconnect
ed.Thecapaci
tori
st henconnect
edto
anotherunchar
gedcapacit
or.Thep.d.acrosstheparal
lel
arr
angementi s80V.Findthecapacit
anceoft hesecond
capacit
or.

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3. A5Fcapaci
tori
schar
gedt
oap.
dof200vandi
sol
ated.I
t
i
sthenconnect
edt
oanot
herunchar
gedcapaci
torof10F.
Cal
cul
ate:

I
. Ther
esul
tantp.
d

I
I. Thechar
gei
neachcapaci
tor
.

4. Inanexperimenttost
udythevariati
onofcharge
storedoncapacit
orandthepotenti
aldi
ffer
ence
acrossit
,thefol
l
owingresul
tswer eobt
ained.

Char
geQ 0.
0 0.
1 0.
2 0.
3 0.
4 0.
56
(C) 8 6 4 2 0

p.
d(v
) 2.
0 4.
0 6.
0 8.
0 10. 14.
0
0

5. Pl
otagr
aphofchar
geQ.agai
nstp.
d

6. Usey
ourgr
apht
odet
ermi
ne:
-

a. Capaci
tanceoft
hecapaci
tor
.

Ener
gyst
oredint
hecapaci
torwhent
hep.
d
acr
ossit
splat
eis10V.

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Appl
i
cat
ionsofCapaci
tor
s

1. Usedi
nsmootheningcir
cuit
st osmoot
hent
he
d.
cout
puti
nrect
if
icat
ionprocess

2. Usedi nr educti
onofspar ki
ngininduct
ioncoil
contact.Var i
abl
ecapaci t
orisused int ur
ning
ci
rcuitofar adi
or ecei
veri
nwhichi
tisconnected
i
npar al
leltoindi
cat or

3. Capaci
tor
sareusedindel
aycircui
tsdesi
gnedto
gi
veint
ermit
tentf
lowofcur
rentincari
ndicat
ors.

4. A capaci
tori
sincl
uded i
nfl
ash ci
rcui
tofa
camerainwhi
chi
tdi
schar
gesi
nst
antl
ytofl
ash.

Chapt
erTen QUANTI
TYOFHEAT

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Speci
fi
cobj
ect
ives Cont
ent

Bytheendoft
hist
opi
c,t
hel
eanershoul
dbeabl
e 1. Heatcapaci
ty,
specif
icheatcapaci
tyuni
ts
to: (
experi
mentaltr
eatmentrequi
red)

a) Defi
neheatcapaci
tyandspeci
fi
cheat 2. Lat
entheatoffusion,l
atentheatofv
apori
zat
ion,
capaci
ty uni
ts(exper
imentaltr
eatmentnecessar
y)

b) Deter
mineexperi
mental
lyspeci
fi
cheat 3. Boi
l
ingandmel
ti
ng
capaci
tyofsol
idsandli
qui
ds
4. Pr
essur
ecooker
,ref
ri
ger
ator
c) Defi
nespeci
fi
clatentheatoff
usionand
speci
fi
clat
entheatofvapori
zat
ion 5. Pr
obl
emsonquant
it
yofheat

d) Deter
mineexperi
mentall
ythespeci
fi
clatent (
Q=MC∆θ, Q=Ml
)
heatoff
usionoficeandthespeci
fi
clatent
heatofvapor
izat
ionofst
eam.

e) Stat
ethef
act
orsaf
fect
ingmel
ti
ngpoi
ntand
boil
i
ngpoi
nt

f
) Expl
aint
hef unct
ioni
ngofapr
essur
ecooker
andaref
rigerat
or

g) Sol
vepr
obl
emsi
nvol
vi
ngqual
i
tyofheat
.

Def
ini
ti
onofHeat Sol
uti
on

 Heatisform ofener
gythatfl
owsfr
om onebody Q=C∆θ
toanotherduetotemperatur
edi
ff
erence
Q=600JK-1×( 200)
600-
betweenthem.
=24000J
Di
ff
erencesbet
weenHeatandTemper
atur
e

Heat Temper
atur
e
Exer
cise
Heati
saf orm ofenergy Temperatur
ei sthe
t
hatfl
owsf rom onebody degr
eeofhot nessor Anel ect
ri
calheat
err
ated240V,3Arai
sesthetemperat
ureof
t
oanotherduet o col
dnessofabody l
iqui
dXf om 25oCt
r o55oCin10minut
es.Calcul
atet
heheat
t
emperaturediff
erence measuredonsamescalecapaci
tyofl
iqui
dX.

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Measur
edi
njoul
es Measur
edi
nkel
vi
n Speci
fi
cHeatCapaci
ty,
c

HeatCapaci
ty,
C  Speci
ficheatcapaci
tyi
sthequanti
tyofheat
requi
redtorai
sethetemperat
ureofaunitmassofa
 Heatcapaci
tyr
efer
stot hequant
it
yofheat subst
ancebyonekel vi
n(K)
.
ener
gyrequi
redtorai
set het
emperat
ureofa
gi
venmassofasubst ancebyonekelvi
n. Speci
fi
cheatcapacit
y,c
heatener
gyabsorbed,
Q
=
heatener
gyabsorbed,
Q mass,m×t emper
atur
echange,
∆θ
Heatcapaci
ty,
C=
t
emperat
urechange,
∆θ
Q
c=
m∆θ
Q
C= orQ=C∆θ
∆θ Q=mc∆θ

 TheSIuni
tofheati
sthej
oul
eperkel
vi
n(JK-1)  TheSIuni
tofspeci
ficheatcapaci
tyi
sthej
oul
eper
-
1-1
ki
logr
am perkel
vi
n(Jkg k )
 Note:Di
fferentmat
eri
alshavedi
ffer
entrat
esof
heatabsorpti
onandtheref
oredi
ff
erentheat  Speci
fi
cheatcapaci
tycanal
sobeexpr
essedas:
capaci
ti
es.

Exampl
es
heatcapaci
ty,
C
Calcul
atet hequant
it
yofheatrequi
redtorai
sethe Speci
fi
cheatcapaci
ty,
c=
mass
temperatureofamet albl
ockwithaheatcapaci
tyof
600JK-1from 200Ct
o600C. Heatcapaci
ty,
C=speci
fi
cheatcapaci
ty,
c×mass,
m

 Note:Iftwosubstancesofthesamemassar e i
. St
atetheprecauti
onst
hatneedtobetakent
o
subjectedtothesameamountofheat ,
they mini
mizeheatlossest
othesurr
oundi
ngs
acquiredif
fer
enttemperatur
echangesbecause
Sol
uti
on
theyhav edi
ff
erentspeci
ficheatcapaci
tiese.g.
thespecifi
cheatcapacit
yofi r
onis460Jkg-1k-1. i
. Thecal
ori
met
ershoul
dbehi
ghl
ypol
i
shed.
Thismeanst hat1kgofironwouldtakeinor
i
i
. Thecal
ori
met
ershoul
dbeheav
il
ylagged.
giveout460Jofheatwheni tstemperat
ur e
changesby1k. i
i
i. Thecal
ori
metershoul
dbecl
osedusi
ngan
i
nsul
ati
ngli
d(li
dmadeofapoorconduct
or)
.

Exampl
e

Ablockofcopperofmass10. 0kgandspeci
fi
cheat
capaci
ty460Jkg-1k-1cool
sfom 800Ct
r o400C.Fi
ndt
he
quanti
tyofheatgivenout.

Sol
uti
on

Q=mc∆θ

Q=10kg×460Jkg-1K-1( 40)0C
80-

Q=184000J=184kJ Det
ermini
ngspecif
icheatcapaci
tyofl
i
qui
dsusi
ng
methodofmixt
ures

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Exer
cise

1.Ablockofmetalofmass1.5kgwhichi
ssuit
ably Exampl
e
i
nsulatedi
sheat
edf om 300Ct
r o500Cin8minut
esand20
secondsbyanel
ectri
cheatercoi
lrat
ed54watt
s.Fi
nd: Abl ockofmet alofmass0. 15kgat1000cwas
transferredtoacoppercal ori
met erofmass0. 4kg
a) Thequant
it
yofheatsuppl
i
edbyt
he containingal iquidofmass0. 8kgat200c.Thebl ockand
heat
er thecal orimeterwi thit
scontent sev entual
lyreacheda
b) Theheatcapaci
tyoft
hebl
ock commont emper at eof400c.Gi
ur v enthespecificheat
-
1-1
capaci tyofalumi nium 900Jkg k , andthatofcopper
c) Thespeci
fi
cheatcapaci
ty 400Jkg-1k-1,calculatethespecificheatcapaci tyofthe
l
iquid.
2Findthefi
nalt
emperat
ureofwateri
faheat ersour
ce
r
ated50W heat
s100gwaterfom 250Ci
r n5mi nut
es Sol
uti
on
(
speci
fi
cheatcapaci
tyofwat
eris4200Jkg-1k-1)
Heatl
ostbyt
hemet
albl
ock
=heatgai
nedbyl
iqui
d
+heatgai
nedbycal
ori
met
er
Met
hodsofDet
ermi
ningSpeci
fi
cHeatCapaci
ti
es
mBcB∆θB =mLcL∆θL+mccc∆θc
1.Met
hodofMi
xtur
es
15×900×(
0. 40)
100-
 Inthi
smet hod,arel
ati
velyhotsubst
anceis =0.8×cL×( 20)+0.
40- 4×400
×(
40-20)
mixedwithar el
ati
vel
ycoldsubstance.Heat
energyi
stransferr
edfrom hotbodytocold 8100-
3200
cL= 25Jkg-1K-1
=306.
bodyunti
lthermalequil
ibri
um i
sestabli
shed 16

Det
ermini
ngSpecif
icHeatCapaci
tyofaSol
i
dUsi
ng 2.El
ect
ri
calmet
hod
MethodofMi
xtures
 I
nt hi
smethod,
electr
icheati
ngcoi
lsuppl
i
esthe
heatener
gywhichisabsorbedbyot
hersubst
ances.

Exampl
e Det
ermi
ningSpeci
fi
cHeatCapaci
tyofaMet
alBl
ock
Usi
ngEl
ectri
calMet
hod
Al aggedcoppercal
ori
meterofmass0. 50kgcontains
0.
4kgofwat erat250C.Ametall
icsoli
dofmass1. 2kgis  Theset
-upt
hatcanbeusedi
nthi
scasei
sasshown
tr
ansf er
redfr
om anovenat3500Ct ot
hecal or
imeteranda
bel
ow.
steadytemperat eof500Ci
ur sreachedbyt hewateraft
er
sti
r r
ing.

i
i
. Calcul
atethespeci
f i
cheatcapacityofthe
mat er
ialoft
hesoli
d( Specif
icheatcapaci
tyof
copperis 400Jkg-1k-1andt
hatofwater4200Jkg-
1-
k1)

Sol
uti
on

Heatl
ostbyt
hesol
i
d
=heatgai
nedbythewater
+heatgai
nedbycalor
imet
er

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mscs∆θs=mwcw∆θw +mccc∆θc

2×cs×(
1. 50)
350-
=0.4×4200×( 25)+0.
50- 5×400
×(
50-25)

42000+5000
cs= 56Jkg-1K-1
=130.
360

Pr
ecaut
ions ChangeofSt
ate

I
. Themetalblockmustbehi
ghl
ypol
i
shedand  Changeofasubst
ancefrom sol
idtol
iqui
d,f
rom
heav
il
ylagged. l
iqui
dtogasortherev
erseinvol
veschangeofst
ate.

I
I. Thetwoholesshouldbefi
l
ledwit
hahighoi
l Lat
entHeat
toi
mpr ovet
hermalcont
actwit
htheheat
er
andthermometer
.  Lat entheatref
erst
oamountofheatrequi
redt
o
changest at
eofasubst
ancewi
thoutchangein
Exampl
e temperature

Amet alblockofmass0. 5kgisheatedel

ectr
ical
ly
.Ift
he  Iti
stheheatener
gyabsor
bedorgi
venoutdur
ing
voltmeterreads20V, t
heammet er4Aandthe changeofstat
e.
temperatureoftheblockri
sesfom 250Ct
r o950Ci n8
mi nut
es,calcul
atet
hespecifi
cheatcapaci
tyofthemetal Lat
entHeatofFusi
on
block.
 Latentheatoff
usionref
erstot
heamountheat
Sol
uti
on
requir
edtochangethestat
eofasubstancefr
om
Heatsuppl
i
edbyt
heheater soli
dtoliqui
dwithoutt
emperat
urechange.
=heatabsor
bedbyt
hemet
al
block  Note:Whenali
qui
dchangest
osol
i
dst
ate,
lat
ent
heatoff
usioni
sgi
venout.
VI
t=mbcb∆θ
Speci
fi
cLat
entHeatofFusi
on,l
f
20×4×(
8×60)J=0.
5kg×cb×( K-1
25)
95-
 Speci
fi
clat
entheatf
usionrefer
stothequant
it
yof
38400 heatr
equir
edtochangeaunitmassofthesubstance
cb= 14 Jkg-1K-1
=1097.
35
fr
om sol
idtol
iqui
dwithoutchangei
ntemperatur
e.

Q
l= , ⇒Q=ml
Det
erminingSpeci
fi
cHeatCapaci
tyofLi
qui
dUsi
ng f m f

El
ectr
icalMethod
 TheSIunitofspeci
fi
clatentheatoff
usi
oni
sthe
-
1
Exampl
e j
ouleperkil
ogram (
Jkg ).

Inanexper imenttodet erminethespecifi

cheatcapaci ty Lat
entHeatofVapor
izat
ion
ofwat eranelectr
icalheaterwasused.I fthev ol
tmeter
readingwas24Vandt hatofammet er2.0A, calcul
atethe  Latentheatofv
aporizat
ionrefer
stotheheat
specifi
cheatcapaci t
yofwat erift
hetemper atureofa requir
edtochangethestateofasubstancefr
om
massof1. 5kgofwat erina0. 4kgcoppercalorimeterrose l
iquidtogaswithoutchangeintemperat
ure.
0
by6caf ter13.
5mi nutes.
Speci
fi
clat
entheatofv
apor
izat
ion,

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 Speci
fi
clat
entheatofvapor
izat
ioni
sthequanti
tyof
heatr
equir
edtochangeaunitmassofasubstance
fr
om l
iqui
dtovaporwit
houtchangeintemper
ature.

Q
l = , ⇒Q=ml
TheSI V m V

uni
tof
speci
ficl
atentheatofvapori
zat
ioni
sthej
oul
e
-1
perki
logr
am (Jkg ) .
Sol
uti
on

Heatsuppl
i
edbyt
heheat
er
=heatgai
nedbywater
+heatgai
nedbycal
ori
met
er

VI
t=mWcW∆θW +mccc∆θc

24×2×( 5×60)=1.
13. 5×cW×6+0.
4×400×6

38880-
960
cW = 33 Jkg-1K-1
=4213.
9

Exer
cise

Amanwant edtohav eawar m bat hat350c.Hehad4.0kg

0
ofwaterinabasi nat90c. whatmassofcol dwaterat
230cmusthehav eaddedtothehotwat ertoobtai
nhis
choiceofbath.Neglectheatl
ossesandt akespeci
ficheat
capacit
yofwat eras4200Jkg-1k-1

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Exampl
es

1.Cal
culat
et heamountofheatr equir
edtoconver t4kgof
0 0
i
ceat-10ct ol i
quidat5c( speci
fi
cheatcapaci
tyofwat er
s4200Jkg-1k-1,
i speci
fi
cheatcapacit ce=2100Jkg-1k-1,
yofi
speci
fi
clatentheatoffusionofi 000Jkg-1k-1)
ce=340,

Sol
uti
on

Q=micecice∆θice+micel
fi
ce
+ mwatercwater∆θwater

Q=4×2100×( 0)+4×340000+4×4200×(
10- 5-0)

Q=84000+1360000+84000

Q=1528000Jor1.
528MJ

2.Aket t
leratedat4.0kW cont ai
ning2.0kgofwat erislef
t
switchedon.Howl ongwi l
littaket hewat ertoboildr
yin
thekettl
eiftheini
ti
altemper atureofwat eris200c
(specif
icheatcapacityofwat eris4200Jkg-1k-1specif
ic
l
atentheatofv apor
izati
onofwat eris2.26x106Jkg-1.
a. Fr
om t
hegr
aph,
det
ermi
net
heboi
l
ingpoi
ntoft
hel
i
qui
d.
Sol
uti
on
b. I)Determinetheheatgivenoutbyt heheaterbetweent
he
Q=Pt= mwatercwater∆θwater+ml
Vwat
er ti
mest =0.5minutesandt =5.
0 mi nutes.
I
I)From thegraphdet er
minethetemper at
urechange
4000×t=2×4200×( 26×106
20)+2×2.
100- betweent het
imest =0.5minutesandt=5.0minutes.

672000+4520000 II
I)Hencedet
ermi
net
hespeci
fi
cheatcapaci
tyoft
he
t= =1298s
4000
l
i
quid

c. 1.8gofvaporwascoll
ectedfrom t
heli
quidbetweent
he
ti
mest=6.8minut
esandt =7.
3mi nut
es.Deter
minethe
Exer
cise
speci
fi
clat
entheatofvapori
zati
onoftheli
quid.
1. Calcul
atetheamountoft hermalener gyrequir
edto
change5gofi ceat-100ctost eam at1000c( speci
fi
c
heatcapacit
yofice2.10Jg-1k-1,specif
iclat
entheatof
Fact
orsaf
fect
ingmel
ti
ngandboi
l
ingpoi
nts
fusi
onofice336Jg-1,speci
ficl atentheatof
vapori
zati
onofsteam 2260Jg-1, speci
fi
cheatcapacity
-1-
1
Theyaret
wo:
ofwater4.2Jg k )
I
. Pr
essur
e
2. Acoppercal ori
meterofmass60gcont ains100gof
oilat200c.api eceoficeofmass28gat100ci s
II. I mpur i
ti
es
addedt otheoi l.Whatmassofi cewi llbel eftwhen
thet emper at
ureofthecalor
imet erandi tscontent
s Ef
fectofpressureonmel ti
ngpoi
nt
0
willbe10C?Speci f
icheatcapaci tyofcopper=0. 4Jg-
1-
k1,specifi
cheatcapaci t
yofoil2. 4Jg-1k-1,
specif
ic  I ncr
easeinpr essur
elowerst
hemel
ti
ngpoi
ntofa
-
1
l
at entheatoff usi
onofice336Jg ) substance.
3. Dryst
eam i
spassedint
oawelllaggedal
umini
um
 Consi
dert
heset
-upbel
ow.
cal
ori
meterofmass400gcontaini
ng1.2kgofi
ceat

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0oC.Themi xtur
eiswel lsti
rredandst eam suppl ycut
offwhent hetemper atureoft hecalorimet erandi t
s
contentsreaches53oC.Negl ectingheatl osses,
determinethespecificlatentheatofv apor i
zati
onof
waterif400gofst eam i sfoundt ohav econdensedt o
-1
water.(specif
iclat
entheatoff usi
onofi ce336Jg ,
specif
icheatcapaci t
yofwat er4.2Jg-1k-1,speci
fi
c
heatcapacityofalumi ni
um is900Jkg-1K-. 1

4. a)St atetwof actorsthataffectt

heboil
ingpoi nt
ofal iquid.b)100gofal iquidatatemperatureof
10Ci spour edintoawel llaggedcal
ori
met er.An
electricheaterrated50W isusedt oheatthe
l
iquid.Thegr aphinthefigurebelowshowst he
variati
onoft het emperatureoftheli
qui
dwi th  I
tisobser
vedt
hatthewi
recut
sit
swayt
hrought
he
ti
me. i
ceblock,
butl
eav
esitasonepi
ece.

Expl
anat
ion Ev
apor
ati
on

 Thewir
eexertspr
essur
eont hei
cebeneathi
t  Evaporat
ionistheprocessbywhichal
iqui
dchanges
andt
herefor
emakesitmeltatatemper
ature toagas.Itoccursatallt
emperat
ures(
i.
e.hasno
l
owerthanit
smelti
ngpoint
. fi
xedtemperature)

 Thewat erf
ormedbymel tedicefl
owsov erthe Factor
saffectingrateofev aporati
on
wireandi mmedi atel
ysoli
difi
esandgivesout
l
atentheatoff usiontocopperwi rewhichituses 1.Temperature
tomel ticebelowit.
Rateofevapor at
ionincreaseswi t
ht emper aturesince
 Not e:Copperwi r
eisusedi ntheexperi
ment i
ncreaseintemper atureincreaseskineticenergyof
because: mo l
eculesan dtheref
o r
e surfacemo lecules easi
l
y
escape.
I. I tisagoodconduct orofheat.
2.Surf
acear ea
I
I. I thashi gherthermalconductiv
ityt
hanother
met als.  Rat eofev aporati
oni ncreaseswi t
hsur facearea
becausemanymol eculesareexposedwhensur f
ace
Appl
icati
onsofef fectsofpressureonmel t
ingpoint areaislarge.Wat erinbasin(a)ev aporatesfaster
ofi
ce thantheonei n(b)i nthefigur
ebel ow.

I
. Iti
sappliedoniceskatinginwhichweightof
theskateractsonicethroughthi
nbladesof
skates.Thi
smel tst
heicet ofor
m afil
m of
wateronwhi chtheskatersli
des. 3.Dr
aught

I
I. I
tcanbeusedi
njoi
ningt
woi
cecubesunder  Draughti
ncr
easesr ateofevaporat
ionsinceit
pr
essur
e. sweepsawayev aporati
ngmol ecul
escleari
ngaway
formoremoleculestoescape.Thisiswhycl ot
hes
Ef
fectofi
mpur
it
iesonmel
ti
ngpoi
nt dryfast
eronawi ndyday.

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 Impur
iti
eslowert
hemel
ti
ngpoi
ntsof 4.Humi
dit
y
subst
ances.
 I
ncr
easeinhumidi
tylower
srat
eofev
aporat
ion.Thi
s
 Thisisappli
edinhumi
dareasduri
ngwint
eri
n i
swhyclothest
akelongtodr
yonahumidday.
whichsalti
sspreadonroadsandpat
hsto
preventf
reezi
ng. Ef
fect
sofEv
apor
ati
on

Ef
fectofi
mpur
it
iesonboi
l
ingpoi
nt I
. Onefeelscoldwhenmet hylat
edspiri
tisappli
ed
onhisheadaf t
ershavi
ng.Thisisbecausethe
 I
mpuriti
esrai
setheboil
i
ngpointsofsubst
ances. evapor
atingspir
itget
slatentheatofvapori
zati
on
Thisi
swhysaltedfoodcooksfast
erthan fr
om hisbody.
unsal
tedone.
I
I. Thinl ay eroffrostfor
msar oundt heout si
deofa
 Consi
dert
heset
-upbel
ow. testtubewal l
swhenai ri
sbl ownt hr
ough
met hy latedspiri
t.i
nthetube.Thisi sbecausethe
evapor ati
ngspi r
itobt
ainslatentheatof
vapor izationfrom wall
soft hetubecr eati
nga
coolingef fect
.

Di
ff
erencebet
weenEv
apor
ati
onandBoi
l
ing

 Whent hel
iqui
dsar eheatedt
oboili
ng,t
he Ev
apor
ati
on Boi
l
ing
boil
ingpoi
ntofsaltsolut
ioni
sobservedtobe
highert
hanthatofdisti
ll
edwater
.Thisi
s I
ttakesplaceatal
l I
ttakesplaceatf
ixed
becauseimpuri
ti
esr ai
setheboil
i
ngpointofa t
emper at
ures. t
emper at
ure.
l
iquid.
I
ttakespl
aceonthe I
ttakesplacet
hroughout
Ef
fectofPr
essur
eonBoi
l
ingPoi
nt l
i
quidsurf
aceonl
y. t
heliqui
d.

 Decreasei
npressur
elower
stheboil
i
ngpoi
ntof Decreasi
ng Decreasi
ngatmospher
ic
ali
quidwhil
eincr
easeinpr
essur
erai
sest
he at
mospher icpr
essur
e pressur
elowerst
he
boi
li
ngpoint. i
ncreasestherateof boil
ingpoi
nt.
evaporat
ion.
 Thi
siswhyfoodt
akeslongert
ocookathigh
al
ti
tudest
hanatl
owal t
it
udesbecausepr
essur
e
athi
ghalt
it
udei
shigher.
Appl
i
cat
ionsofCool
i
ngbyEv
apor
ati
on
 Itisalsothereasonast owhywaterinasufuri
a
closedwi t
hal i
dboi lsfast
ert
hantheclosed 1. Sweat
ing
one.Thest eam pr essurei
naclosedsufur
iais
 Evaporat
ingsweatabsorbsl
atentheatof
higherandt hi
sr ai
sest heboi
l
ingpointofwater
vapori
zati
onfrom bodyandt
hereforecreat
inga
maki ngittoboilfaster.
cooli
ngeffect
.

2. Cool
i
ngofWat
eri
naPor
ousPot

 Waterseepi
ngoutofthepott
hroughpores
ev
aporatesfr
om sur
faceofpot
,creat
ingacool
i
ng
ef
fect.

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1. TheRef
ri
ger
ator 3 .4. St
atet
wof act
orst
hatwoul
drai
set
heboi
l
ingpoi
ntof
watert
oabove1000C

5. a)Stat
ewhati
smeantbyt
het
erm speci
fi
clat
entheat
ofv
apor
izat
ion

b)Inanexperi
menttodeter
minethespecif
iclat
entheatof
vapori
zat
ionofwater
, eam at1000cwaspassedi
st ntowater
contai
nedinawell
-l
aggedcoppercalor
imeter
.Thefoll
owing
measurementsweremade:

 Massofcal
ori
met
er =50g

 I
nit
ialmassofwat
er =70g

 Fi
nalmassofcal
ori
met
er+wat
er+condensedst
eam
=123g

 Fi
nalt
emper
atur
eofmi
xt e=300C
ur

(
Speci
ficheatcapaci
tyofwater=4200Jkg-1Kandspeci
fi
c
-1 -
1
heatcapaci
tyforcopper=390Jkg K )Determinet
he:

I
. Massofcondensedst
eam

I
I. Heatgai
nedbyt
hecal
ori
met
erandwat
er
 Itconsi
stsofahighlyvolati
l
eliqui
d(Freon)
whichtakeslat
entheatofv apori
zati
onf r
om I
II
. Giv
ent hatLi
sthespeci
fi
clat
entheatofev
apor
ati
on
content
s( f
ood)inrefr
igerat
orandev aporat
es. ofsteam

 Thepumpr emovesthev
apori
ntol
owercoil i
. Wri
teanexpr
essi
onf
ort
heheatgi
venoutby
outsi
dethecabi
netwher
eiti
scompressedand st
eam
changedtoli
qui
dform.
i
i
. Det
ermi
net
hev
alueofL.
 Theevaporat
orandcondenserpipesarehi
ghly
6.Aheat ingel
ementr ated2.5KW isusedt orai
sethe
coi
ledtoincr
easesurfaceareaf
orabsorpt
ion temperatureof3.
0kgofwat erthrough500C.Calcul
atet
he
andlossofheatrespecti
vel
y. ti
mer equiredt
oaffectthis.(Specif
icheatcapaci
tyofwat
eri
s
4200J/ kg/K)
 Thepipesar
emadeofgoodconduct orofheat
(copper
)toi
ncr
easeheatconduct
ivi
ty. 7.St
atet
wof
act
orst
hataf
fectt
hemel
ti
ngpoi
ntofi
ce.

 Thecopperf
insenhanceheatlosstot
he 8.Steam ofmass3.0gat1000ci
spassesi ntowat erofmass
0
sur
roundi
ngatthecondenserpipe. 400gat10c.Thef i
naltemperat
ureofthemi xtur
ei sT.The
cont
ainerabsor
bsnegli
gibl
eheat.(
Specif
iclatentheatof

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Rev
isi
onExer
cise vapor
izat
ionofsteam=2260kJ/
kg,
speci
fi
cheatcapaci
tyof
wat =4200Jk-1)
er
1.Anel ectr
icheaterr at
ed6000W i susedt oheat1kgof
0
i
cei ni
tial
lyat- 10cunt i
lal lthemasst ur
nst o st
eam. I
. Der
iveanexpr
essi
onfort
heheatl
ostbythest
eam as
Giventhatlatentheatoff usionofice=334kJkg-1,specifi
c i
tcondensest
owateratt
emperat
ureT.
heatcapaci tyofi ce= 2,260J kg -1 K -1,specif
ic heat
capaci
tyofwat er=4,200Jkg-1 K-1 andl atentheatof I
I. Der
iveanexpr
essi
onf
ort
heheatgai
nedbyt
hewat
er.
vapori
zationofwat er=2,260KJkg-1 K -1,cal cul
atet he
I
II
. Det
ermi
net
hev
alueofT.
minimum t i
mer equir
edfort hisact
ivi
ty.
9.Acantogetherwi
thst i
rr
eroftotalheatcapaci
ty60j/
k
2a)Expl
ainwhyabur nfr
om t
hesteam ofboi
li
ngwateri
s
cont
ains200gofwat erat100c.drysteam at1000cispassedin
moreseverethant
hatofwat
erit
sel
f?
whil
ethewaterissti
rredunti
lthewholereachesat emperatur
e
0
b)Anenergysavi
ngstovewhenburni
ngsteadiyhasan of30cCal
l culatet
hemassofst eam condensed.
eff
ici
encyof60%.Thest ov
emel t
s0. ceat00ci
03kgofi n
10.Animmer si
onheat
erwhichtakesacurrentof3Afrom 240V
180seconds.Cal
cul
ate;-
mainsrai
sedthet
emperatureof10kgofwater300cto
0
I. Thepowerr ati
ngofthest
ove. 50 c.Howlongdi
ditt
ak e?

I
I. Theheatener
gywast
edbyt
hest
ove. 11.100gofboi l
i
ngwat erarepouredintoametalv
essel
weighing800gatat emperat eof200ci
ur ft
hefinal
temper at
ureis500c.Whati sthespeci
fi
cheatcapaci
tyof
themet al?(Speci
fi
cHeatcapaci t
yofwater4.
2x
3Ani mmer si
onheaterrated90W i
splacedinaliquidof 103J/kg/k)
mass2kg.Whent heheat eri
sswit
chedonf or15mi nutes,
thetemperatur
eoftheliquidri
sesfom 200Ct
r o300C. 12.0.02kgoficeand0. 01kgofwat er00careinacontainer.
0
Determinethespeci
fi
cheatcapacityoftheli
quid. Steam at100 c i
s passedinunti
lallt
he i
ceisjustme l
ted.
Howmuchwat eri
snowi nthecontai
ner?

13.I
nadomest i
coi l-
fi
redboi
ler
,0.5kgofwat erfl
owst hrough
theboilerev erysecond.Thewat erent
erstheboilerata
temper atureof300candl eavesatat emperat eof700c,
ur re
-ent
eringt heboi l
ersaft
erfl
owi ngaroundtheradiatorsat
300c.3. 0x107Jofheati sgivent othewaterbyeach
kil
ogram ofoi lburnt
.Thespeci f
icheatcapacit
yofwat eris
4200Jkg-1K-. 1

I
. Uset hei
nformati
onabovetocalculat
ethe
energyabsorbedbythewaterev
er ysecondasi
t
passesthroughtheboi
ler
.

I
I. Usethesamei nf
ormati
onabovet
ocal
cul
atet
he
massofoilwhichwouldneedt
obebur
nti
norder
topr
ovidethi
senergy.

14.Youarepr ov
idedwi t
htwobeaker s.Thefirstbeaker
contai
nshotwat erat700c.Thesecondbeaker
contai
nscoldwat erat200c.Themassofhotwat eri
s
thr
icethatofcol
dwat er.Thecont ent
sofbot h
beakersaremixed.Whati sthetemper at
ureofthe
mixtur
e?

15.Cal
cul
atet
heheatev
olv
edwhen100gofcopperar
e

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cool
edfrom 900ct
o100c.(
Speci
fi
cHeatCapaci
tyof
Copper=390J/Kg/k)
.

16.An-immersi
onheaterr
ated150wi splacedinali
qui
d
ofmass5kg.Whent heheateri
sswi t
chedonf or25
minutes,t
hetemperat
ureoftheli
quidri
sesf r
om 20-
2700c.Deter
minethespecif
icheatcapacit
yoftheli
qui
d.
(Assumenoheatlosses)

FORMORESI
MILARRESOURCES

CONTACTMRI
SABOKE0705525657

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