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1

232
FORM TWOPHYSI
CS
HANDBOOK
[
Wit
hwel
ldr
awndi
agr
ams,
sol
vedexampl
esandquest
ionsf
orexer
cise]
(
Visi
on2030Edi
ti
on)

LABOATOMS

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Tabl
eofCont
ent
s
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Page2

BRI
EFPERSONALPROFI
LE Page2

GUI
DELI
NESI
NMYLI
FE Page2

Chapt
er1 MAGNETI
SM Page3

Chapt
er2 MEASUREMENTI
I Page9

Chapt
er3 TURNI
NGEFFECTOFAFORCE Page15

Chapt
er4 EQUI
LIBRI
UM ANDCENTREOFGRAVI
TY Page18

Chapt
er5 SOUND Page21

Chapt
er6 HOOKE’
SLAW Page25

Chapt
er7 MAGNETI
CEFFECTOFANELECTRI
CCURRENT Page30

Chapt
er8 WAVESI Page36

Chapt
er9 FLUI
DFLOW Page40

Chapt
er10 REFLECTI
ONATCURVEDSURFACES Page45

Acknowl
edgement ymotherJcMkiandmysblgervpciatno.Theywragtsucofenragmt.

Fi
rstandf
oremostIt
hankt
heAl
might
yGodf
ort
hegi
ftofl
i
fe,
ener
gy,
knowl
edgeandski
l
lst
opur
suet
hiswor
k.

Li
nest
hati
nfl
uenceact
ivi
ti
esi
nmyl
i
fe.

1. Godi
sal
way
sther
etoassi
stpr
ovi
dedy
ouaskf
orHi
m.

2. Ati
tsbest
,Phy
sicsel
i
minat
escompl
exi
tybyr
eveal
i
ngunder
lyi
ngsi
mpl
i
cit
y.

3. Ther
eisnomet
hodofchangi
ngy
ourf
ateexceptt
hroughhar
dwor
k.

4. Cohesi
onwi
thi
mmedi
atenei
ghbour
sanddet
ermi
nat
ional
way
sbet
ter
syouri
mmedi
ateenv
ironment
.

Chapt
erOne MAGNETI
SM

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3

Pr
oper
ti
esofmagnet
s

1. Magnet
icpol
es

 Magnet
icpol
esr ef
ertotheendsofamagnetwher
e
t
hepowerofatt
racti
onorrepul
si
oni
sgr
eat
est.

 Thef orceofattr
actionofamagneti sgr eatestatit
s
poles.Thefor
cer educesawayfrom poles.Thisiswhy
whenabarmagneti sdippedi
nironf i
l
li
ngs,thef i
ll
i
ngs
cl
ingmai nl
yaroundtheendsofthemagnet .

 Repul
sioni
stheonl
ysur
etestf
orpol
ari
tyofmagnet
.
2. Di
rect
ionalpr
oper
tyofamagnet Thi
sisbecauser
epulsi
oncanonlyoccurbetweenl i
ke
pol
esofmagnets.At
t r
act
ionisnotsuretestbecause
 Ifamagneti ssuspendedbyat hr
eadandi sf
reeto i
tcan occurbetween unli
ke pol
es ofmagnet s or
rot
ateitrot
atesandf i
nal
lyrestsint heintheNort
h- bet
ween a magnet and unmagni fi
ed magnet i
c
southdir
ect
ion.Thi
siscall
edt hedirecti
onalpr
oper
ty
mater
ial
.
ofamagnet.
Exer
cise

1) Descr
ibehowyouwoul
dv er
if
ythebasi
clawof
magneti
sm given t
wo barmagnet
sand a pieceof
thr
ead

Sol
uti
on

Pr
ocedur
e

Suspendonebarmagnet.Br
ingthenor
thpoleofanot
her
magnettowar
dsthenorthpoleoft
hesuspendedmagnet
andobserv
ewhathappens.

Bri
ng the same polet
owar
ds t
he sout
h pol
e oft
he
3. Magnet
icandnon-magnet
icmat
eri
als suspendedmagnet.

Obser
vat
ionsandconcl
usi
on
 Magnet
icmat
eri
alsar
ethoset
hatcanbeat
tract
edby
magnetse.g.Ir
on,Ni
ckel
,Cobal
t,I
ronal
l
oyl
i
kest
eel
, Anort
hpol
eat
tract
sasouthpol
eandrepel
sanort
hpole
Ni
ckelal
loyetc. whi
l
easouthpolerepel
sasout
hpol
e.Hence,l
i
kepoles
r
epelwhil
eunli
kepolesat
tract
.
 Non- magnet
ic material
s ar
et hose thatcannotbe
attr
actedbyamagnete. g.Copper,Br
ass,Alumini
um, Magnet
icfi
eldpat
terns
Glass,wood,Graphit
e
Magnet
icfi
eld
 Ferromagneti
cmat eri
alsaremagnet i
cmat eri
alst
hat
arestrongl
yatt
ractedbymagnete.g.softi
ron  The space around a magnetwher ethe magnet
ic
i
nfl
uence(magneti
cforceofat
tract
ionandrepul
si
on)
i
sfel
t
4. TheBasi
cLawofMagnet
ism  Thef
iel
disst
rongerneart
hepol
esoft
hemagnetand

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I
tstat
est hatl
i
kepol
esofmagnet
srepelwhi
l
eunl
i
ke i
sweakerf
art
herawayf
rom t
hepol
es.
pol
esatt
ract
.

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Magnet
icf
iel
dli
nes  Pointxi
scaledneut
l r
alpoi
nt.Ther
esul
tantmagnet
ic
fi
eldatt
heneutr
alpoi
nti
szero.
 Thesear eli
nesoff orcewhi
chrepr
esentamagnet
ic
fi
eld.Thesel
inesform amagnet
icfi
eldpat
ter
ns.  Magnet
icf
iel
dli
nesgetconcent
rat
edal
ongt
hesof
t
i
ron.
Di
rect
ionofmagnet i
cfield

 The dir
ect
ion ofmagnet i
cf i
eld ata poi
nti
st he
di
rect
iontowhi chaf reenorthpolewouldmoveif
pl
acedatthatpointi
nthefi
eld.

Char
act
eri
sti
cs/pr
oper
ti
esofmagnet
icf
iel
dli
nes

a) Magnet
icf
iel
dli
nesst
artf
rom t
heNor
thPol
eandend
att
heSout
hPole.
 Thesof tir
onr i
ngconcent r
atesthemagnet i
cfiel
d
l
inest huspreventi
ng them from pausi
ng thr
ough
regi
on P.Thi si ed magnet
s cal
l i
c shi
eldi
ng and
regi
onPi stherefor
esaidtobeshi el
dedbyt heri
ng
from magneti
cfiel
ds.

Pr
act
icalappl
i
cat
ionofmagnet
icshi
eldi
ng
b) They repeleach ot
hersi
deway
s and f
orm cl
osed
pathsasshownabove.  Thesoftir
onrodsandr ingsar eusedinmagneti
c
shi
eldi
ng where some el ect
ri
cal measuri
ng
c) Theydonoti
nter
secteachot
her
. i
nstr
umentsandwatchesar eshiel
dedandpr
otect
ed
fr
om str
aymagnet
icfi
elds.

Exer
cise

1. Descri
be how y ou woul
d shiel
d a magnet i
c
materi
al fr
om a magnet ic fi
eld. St
ate one
appl
icat
ionofmagnet
icshi
eldi
ng.

d) Theyar
ecl
osert
oget
herwher
ethef
iel
disst
ronger
. 2. Expl
aint
hemeani
ngoft
hef
oll
owi
ng

i
. Magnet
icf
iel
d

i
i
. Magnet
icl
i
nesoff
orce

3. The di
agr
am bel
ow the magnet
icf
iel
d pat
ter
ns
bet
weentwomagnet
sPandQ

 Consi
der t
wo bar magnet
s wi
th opposi
te pol
es
adj
acent
.
1. I
dent
if
ypol
esAandB

2. St
atewhi chofthet
wo magnet
sP andQ i
s
st
ranger
.Expl
ain.

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4. Sketch the magnet

ic f
iel
d pat
ter
ns f
or t
he Magnetizat
ion
arr
angementbel
ow.
 Magnet i
zati
onist heprocessofmaki ngamagnet
fr
om magnet icmater
ial
.Dur i
ngthispr
ocess,dipol
es
getali
gned.Inapar ti
all
ymagnet i
zedmat eri
almost
butnotalldomainsareali
gnedinonedirecti
on.

 Whenamateri sf
ali ull
ymagnetizedallt
hedomains
ar
eali
gnedi
nonedir
ecti
on.Atthisst
atethemat
erial
i
ssai
dtobemagneti
call
ysatur
ated.

 Therearef
ourcommonmet
hodsofmagnet
izat
ion;
thesear
e:

1. I
nduct
ion

2. St
roki
ng

3. Hammer
ingi
nnor
th-
sout
hdi
rect
ion

4. El
ect
ri
calmet
hodusi
ngdi
rectcur
rent
.

1. El
ect
ri
calmet
hod

 Di
rectcur
renti
sused.

 Themagnet icmateri
altobemagnet izedisplaced
i
nside the sol
enoi
d connected i
n seri
es wi
tht he
batt
ery
.Theswi tchisclosedandcurrenti
spassed
thr
ought hesol
enoi
dforsomet i
me.

 Thepol
ari
ti
esofthemagnetdependont
hedi
rect
ion
TheDomai
nTheor
yofMagnet
ism oft
heel
ectri
ccur
rent
.
 Magnetsconsistofsmal lmagneti
cgr oupsrefer
red  Thepol esoft hemagnetcanbei denti
fi
edusingthe
toasmagnet i
cdomai ns.Domainshav eacommon ri
ghthandgr ipruleforcurrentcar ry
ingcoilwhich
magneti
c axi
s.Domai ns compri
se smal l
ersub – statesthat:Ifacoilcarr
yingacur r
entisgraspedin
atomi
cmagnet s( mol
ecularmagnets)caleddi
l pol
es. the ri
ghthand such t hatthe fingers poi
nti nthe
Thedipol
esinapar t
icul
ardomainpoi nttowardsa direct
ionofcur r
entinthecoil
,thent hethumbpoints
commondirection. i
nt hedirect
ionofNorthPole.

Not
es:

I
. Al
lowingt
hecur
rentt
ofl
owf oralongt
imedoesnot
i
ncreaset
heextentofmagneti
csatur
ati
on.I
tonly

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causesover
heati
ngoft
hesol
enoi
dwhi
chadv
ersel
y
aff
ectsmagneti
sm.

I
I. A sol
enoi
disacoi
lwi
thmanyt
urnsofi
nsul
ated
copperwi
re.

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Exer
cise

1. I
nanexperi
menttomagnet
izedt
wosubstanceXand
Yusingcur
rentt
wocurv
eswav eobt
ainedasshown
bel
ow.

Expl
aint
hedi
ff
erencebet
weenXandY

2. Thegraphinthef i
gur
ebelow show t
her el
ati
onshi
p 5. Str
okingmet
hod
bet
weent heattr
acti
veforceofanel ect
romagneti
c
andthemagneti
zi
ngcurrent  I nthi
smethodamagnet i
cmateri
albarisrepeatedly
str
okedusi
ngoneendofast r
ongmagnet .Str
oking
ali
gnsdomainsandther
efor
et hemagneti
cmat erial
becomesamagnet.Ther
earetwotypesofstoki
ng:

a) Si
ngl
est
rokemet
hod

 Inthi
smet hodthemagneti
cmat er
ialisst
rokedwi th
onepol eoft hemagnetfrom oneendt o another
,
l
ift
ing i
tawayasshown.Thest r
oking i
sr epeated
Expl
aint
heshapeoft
hecur
veatpoi
ntABusi
ngt
he sever
alt i
mes whil
e keepi
ng t
he incli
nat
ion oft he
domai
ntheor
y. ma gnett
he same.

3. Hammer
ing(
mechani
calmet
hod)

 Thismet hodmakest heuseoft heeart

h’smagnet i
c
fi
eld.A steelbart obemagnet i
zedisplacedint he
north-
southposi t
ionandtheupperendishammer ed.
Theendpoi nt
ingnort
hwardbecomesanor t
hpoleand
theonepoi ntngsout
i hwar
dt heSouthPol
e.

 The end oft he magneti

c mater
ialbarwheret he
magnet fini
shes stroki
ng acquires an opposi
te
pol
ari
tyt
ot hatofthestr
oki
ngmagnet .

Di
sadv
ant
agesofsi
ngl
est
rokemet
hod

 Itpr
oducesmagnetsinwhi
chonepolei
snearert
he
endofthemagnet
izedmat
eri
alt
hant
heother
.

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 N/B Thi
s di
sadv
antage can be av
oided byuse of
doubl
estr
okemethod.

4. I
nduct
ion

 I
nt hi
smet hod,amagneti nducesmagneti
sm ina
magneticmater
ialincontactwithit
.Theendoft he
materi
alincont
actwiththemagnetat t
ainsapol
arit
y
opposi
tetothepoleofthemagnet.

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b)Doubl
est
rokemet
hod Demagneti
zat
ioncanbehast
enedbyanyoft
hef
oll
owi
ng
methods;
 Inthi
smet hod,themagnet icmateri
albarisstr
oked
fr
om t he cent
rer epeatedl
yin opposit
e dir
ect
ions,  Heat
ing
usi
ng opposite polar
it
ies oftwo barmagnet s as
showni n(
a)beloworl i
kepolesasin(b)bel
ow.  Hammer
ingi
neast
-westposi
ti
on

 Dr
oppi
ngonahar
dsur
face

 El
ect
ri
cal
met
hodusi
ngal
ter
nat
ingcur
rent
.

1. Hammer
ing

 Hammer i
ng a magnetplaced int he east
-west
di
rect
ionordroppi
ngitevi
dent
lyonthehar dsur
face
fl
oor sev
eraltimes makes i
tl ose most of the
magneti
sm.

2. Heat
ing

 Heat
ingamagnetunti edhotandcool
lr i
ngi
tsuddenl
y
whenrest
ingintheeast
-westdir
ect
ionmakesitl
ose
i
tsmagnetism.

3. El
ect
ri
calmet
hod

 Placingamagneti nasolenoidplacedi neastwest

directi
on and passi ng an al ter
nating current
demagnet izesit
.Thisisbecauseal t
ernati
ngcurrent
Exer
cise reverses manyt imes persecond,di sori
ent
ing the
magnet icdipol
es.
Wi
tht he ai
d ofa di agr
am expl
ain how y
ou woul
d
magneti
zedasteelbarsoastoobt ai
nasouthpol
eat
markedendoft
hebarby

a. Usi
ngaper
manentmagnet

b. Usi
nganel
ect
ri
ccur
rent

Whichoftheabov
emet
hodpr
oducest
rangermagnet
?
Gi
veareason. Har
dandsof
tmagnet
icmat
eri
al

Sof
tmagnet
icmat
eri
al
Demagnet
izat
ion  These ar et hose magneti
c mat er
ial
s magnet
ized
easi
lybutdo notr etai
ntheirmagnet i
sm f
orlong.
 Thi
si st he pr
ocess by which a magnetl osses
Examples:i
ron,al
loyofi
ronandnickel.
magneti
sm.Int hi
s process domains r
ever
se thei
r
di
rect
ionandgetmisal
i
gned( di
sori
ented) Appl
icat
ionsofsoftmagneti
cmateri
als
 Amagnetcanunder
gosel
f-
demagnet
izat
ioni
fpoor
ly 1. Maki
ngel
ect
romagnet
s
st
oredort
hepr
ocesscanbei
nfl
uencedex
ter
nal
l
yby

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giv
ing t
hedipolesenoughenergyto over
comet
he 2. Maki
ngt
ransf
ormercor
es
for
cesholdi
ngthem i
napart
icul
ardi
rect
ion.
3. Usedf
ormagnet
icshi
eldi
ng

Har
dmagnet
icmat
eri
als

 These are magneti

c mat
eri
alsthatar
e diff
icul
tto
magnetize butonce magneti
zed t
hey r
etai
nt hei
r
magnetism foral
ongtme.Exampl
i e–st
eel.

Appl
icat
ionofhar
dmagnet
icmat
eri
als:Usedi
nmaki
ng
per
manentmagnets

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St
ori
ngmagnet
s 6. St
atet
hepol
ari
ti
esofendsXandY.

 Barmagnetsarestoredinpai
rswihsof
t tir s 7. Wi
onkeeper ththeai
dofadi agr
am expl
ainhow barmagnets
pl
aced acr oss t hei
r ends t o pr event sel
f- arest
o r
edsoastomini
mizesel
fdemagneti
zat
ion
demagneti
zati
on.Unl i
ke pol
es ofthe magnet
s ar
e
pl
acedclosetoeachot her
. 8. Descr
ibeasimpl
eexperimentt
oshow theexist
ence
ofmagneti
cpol
es

9. Namet
wopr
oper
ti
esofamagnet

10.Whatar
efer
romagnet
icmat
eri
als?

11.Usi
ngt
hedomai
ntheor
yofmagnet
ism,
expl
ainwhy

a) The st
ray ofa magnetcannotbe measur
ed
bey
ondacer t
ainpoi
nt.

 Themagnet smagneti
zesof tir
on keeperst hr
ough b) Thet emperat
urei
ncr
easeweakerordestr
oyt he
i
nduction.Theali
gneddipol
esform acl osedloopor ma gneti
sm ofamagnet
.
chainroundthemagnet
sandt hekeepers,wit
hnof r
ee
12.Thegraphsbelowaref
ortwomagneti
cmateri
als.
poles.

Usesofmagnet
s

1. Usedinhospit
alsforr
emov
ingpi
ecesofi
ronf
rom t
he
eyesofpat
ients.

2. Usedt
oindust
ri
esasst
ir
rer
s,l
i
fti
ngi
ronscr
apmet
als.

3. Weat
herst
ati
ons f
orr eset
ti
ng si
x’
s mi
nimum and
maxi
mum t
her
momet er
.

4. Navigat
ion f
orshowi
ng di
rect
ion as i
n compass
needles
a) Whi
chmat
eri
ali
seasi
ert
omagnet
ize?
5. Magnet
ict
apesusedi
naudi
oandv
ideor
ecor
der
s.
b) Whi
chmat
eri
alf
ormsast
rongermagnet
?

c) St
ateoneappl
i
cat
ionofeach.
Rev
isi
onQuest
ions

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14

14.Whyi
ssof
tir
onusedasmagnetkeeper
? 13.Twosi
mil
arrazorbl
adesar
epl
acedoneonawooden
bl
ockandtheotheronasoftir
onblockasshown
15.Descr
ibehow youwouldshi
eldamagneti
cmateri
al
fr
om a magnet i
cfi
eld.Stat
e one appl
i
cat
ion of
magneti
cshi
eldi
ng

16.Use t
he domai
nt heoryto expl
ain a di
ffer
ence
bet
weenmagnet
icandnon-magnet
icmat
eri
als.

17.Acoilofinsul
atedwi
reiswoundar
oundau- shaped
bel
ow.
sof
tir
oncar eXYandconnect
edt
oabatt
eryasshown
i
nthefigur
ebelow. I
twasobservedthatt
her azorbladeont
hewooden
bl
ockwasat t
ract
edtot hemagnetwhi l
etheot
her
onthesof
tir
onwasnot .Explai
n.

Chapt
erTwo MEASUREMENT I
I
Speci
fi
cobj
ect
ives Cont
ent

Byt
heendoft
hist
opi
c,t
hel
eanershoul
dbeabl
eto: 1. Measur
ementoflength usi
ng v
erni
ercal
i
per
s and
mi
crometerscr
ewgauge
a) Measur
elengt
husi
ngv
erni
ercal
i
per
sandmi
cromet
er
scr
ewgauge 2. Deci
mal
places,
signi
fi
cantf
igur
esandst
andar
dfor
m

b) Express quant
it
ies i
n corr
ectnumberofdeci mal 3. Estimation ofthe di
amet
eroft he molecul
e ofoi
l
pl
acesandcor r
ectnumberofsigni
fi
cantf
igur
es. (r
elatetothesizeoftheHIVvi
rus,ment
ioneffect
sof
oi
l spil
l
sonheal t
handenvir
onment.
)
c) Expressmeasurementsinst
andardfor
m
4. Problemsi nmeasurement
s.
d) Esti
mat et
hediameterofamolecul
eofoil

e) Sol
venumer
ical
probl
emsi
nmeasur
ement
.

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Usi
ngVer
nierCal
i
per
s

Ver
nierCal
i
per
s 1. Pl
ace t
he obj
ectwhose di
ameter(l
engt
h)i
sto
measur
edbet
weent
heoutsi
dejaws.

2. Cl
oset
hej
awst
il
ltheyj
ustgr
ipt
heobj
ect
.

3. Recordthereadi
ngoft
hemainscale,opposi
teand
tothel
eftofthezer
omar
koft
hevernierscal
e.

4. Readthev ernierscal
emar kthatcoinci
desexactl
y
wit
hamai nscalemar kandmulti
plyi
twi t
hthel
east
count(accuracy)oftheVerni
ercali
pers.Thi
sisthe
Verni
erscalereadi
ng.

5. Thesum oft hever

nierscal
ereadi
ngandt hemai
n
scalereadi
ng gi
ves the di
ameter(l
engt
h)ofthe
object
.
 TheVer niercali
per
shast es.Themai
woscal nscaleis
contained on the st
eelfr
ame and is graduated i
n Ver
niercali
persreadi
ng = v
erni
erscal
ereadi
ng
centi
met ersbutal sohasmil
li
metersdi v
isions.The +mainscal
ereadi
ng
Vernierscaleiscontai
nedonthesli
dingjaw andhas
10equal divi
sions. Example

 ThelengthofVerni
erscaleis 0.
9cm impl
yi
ngt
hat
eachdi
visi
onoft
heverni
erscal
eis0.09cm.

 Thedifferencebetweent hemainscal
edivi
sionand
theVernierscaledivisi
oniscall
edthe l
eastcount.
Thi
s is t he accuracy of the Verni
er cal
iper
s
i
. (
e.0.
9-0.09)cm =0.01cm

 Verniercali s has i
per nsi
de jaws used t
o measur
e
i
nternaldi
ametersandoutsi
dejawsusedt omeasur
e
ext
ernaldiameter
s.

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Exer
cise (
ii
) Negat
iveEr
ror

1. Descr
ibehow y ou woul
d measurethei nt
ernal  Occurswhent
hezer
omarkoft
hemai nscal
eist
othe
di
ameterof100cm3beakerusi
ngverni
ercali
pers. r
ightoft
hezer
omarkoft
hever
nierscal
e

2. Wri
te down the v
erni
er cal
i
persreadi n Exampl
ng i e
di
agram (
a)(
b)and(
c)showedbel
ow.

Cor
rect
ionoft
heNegat
iveEr
ror

 Thenegati
veer
roriscor
rect
edbyaddi
ngzer
oer
rort
o
ther
eadingobt
ained.

Exer
cise

Thef
igur
ebel
owshowsav
erni
ercal
i
per
s

Zer
oEr
roroft
heVer
nierCal
i
per
s
St
atethecor rectreadi
ngofscal
eiftheinst
rumenthasa
 Verni
ercal
i
persi ssai
dtohaveazeroer
rori
fthezero zeroerrorof–0. 02cm.
marksoft hemai nscaleandverni
erscal
edo not
coi
ncidewhent hejawsofthecali
per
sar eclosed
wit
houtanobject.
Micromet erScrewGauge
 Therear
etwot ypesofer
ror
s:
 I tisusedt omeasurev er
ysmalll
engthssuchasthe
di
amet erofathinwire.

(
i) Posi
ti
veEr
ror

 Occurswhenthezer
omarkofthemainscal
eist
othe
l
eftofthezer
omarkoft
heverni
erscal
e.

Exampl
e

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s,
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Cor
rect
ionoft
hePosi
ti
veEr
ror

 Theposi
ti
veer
rori
scor
rect
edbysubt
ract
ingt
hezer
o
er
rorf
rom t
her
eadi
ngobtai
ned.

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 Themi crometerscrew gaugeconsi stofa thi

mble
which carr
ies a ci
rcularrotati
ng scal
e known as
thi
mblescaleandaspi ndlewhichmov esfor
wardand
backwardswhenthet hi
mbl ei
srotat
ed.

 Thesleevehasali
nearscal
einmi l
li
met ersandhal
f
mil
li
metercaledsl
l eevescal
eandt het himbl
ehasa
ci
rcul
arscal
eof50or100equaldi
vi
sions.

 Theratchetattheendofthet hi
mblepr
ev ent
sthe
userf
rom exer
ti
ngmorepressureonanobjectwhen
themi
crometerscr
ewgaugeisinuse.

 Thedi stancemov edbythespindleinonecomplete

rot
ation oft he t
himbleis cal
l he pi
ed t tch ofthe
micromet er.Aspindl
emov esforwardorbackwards
by0.5mm peracompl et
erotati
onofthethimbl
ewith
50div i
sions.

 Ther
efor
eeachdiv
isi
onoft
himbl
escal
erepr
esent
sa
spi
ndl
etrav
elof Thezer
oer
roroft
hemi
cromet
erscr
ewgauge

0.
5mm  I toccursifthezeromar kofthethimblescaledoes
=0.
01mm notcoincidewi t
ht hehor i
zont
al(centr
e)lineoft he
50
sleevescalewhent hemicrometerisclosedwithout
 Thi smeanst hatifthet himbl
er ot
atesthr oughone anobject.
division,t
he spindle mov esforward orf orwar
d by
0.01mm.Thi si sthel eastcount( accur
acy )ofthe Posi
tiveerr
orofmi cr
omet erscrewgauge
mi crometerscrewgauge.
 Occur swhent hezer omar kofthet hi
mbl escal
ei s
 Leastcountoft hescr ew gauge i
sdef i
nedast he be l
owthe hori
zontalli
ne.
distance mov ed by the spindl
e when t he thi
mble
Example
rotatesthroughonedi v
ision.

Usi
ngami
cromet
erscr
ewgauge

1. Pl
ace t
he objectwhose diameter
/l
engt
hist
o be
measur
edbetweent
heanvilandthespi
ndl
e.

2. Closethemi cr
ometerusi
ngrat chetunt
ilt
heobjecti
s
heldgentlybetweentheanvilandt hespindl
e.Note  Theposit
iveer
rori
scor
r edbysubt
ect ract
ionoft he
thattherat
chetshouldsl
iponlyoncewhent hegripi
s er
rorfr
om ther
eadi
nggi
venbythemi
crometerscr
e w
fi
rm enoughtogiveaccur
atereading. gauge.

3. Readt
hesl
eev
escal
eandr
ecor
ditas: Negat
iveer
ror

Sl
eev
escal
ereadi
ng= -
--
--
--
--
--
--
-mm  Itoccur
swhent hezeromarkoft
hethimblescal
eis
abovethehor
izont
all
ineoft
hesl
eevescal
e.
E.
g.consi
dert
hescr
ewgaugebel
ow:
Exampl
e
4. Readt hethi
mblescal
eandmul t
ipl
yitbythel east
countofthescr
ewgauge(
0.01mm)andrecor
ditas:

Thi
mbl
escal
ereadi
ng=……x0.
01=………….
mm

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5. Micr
ometerreadi
ng=sl
eev
escal
ereadi
ng +t
himbl
e
scal
ereadi
ng

Exampl
es

 Thenegat
iveerr
ori
scor
r edbyaddi
ect ngt
heer
rort
o
ther
eadi
ngobtai
nedbyt
hescrewgauge

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Si
gni
fi
cantFi
gur
es Exer
cise

 Signi
fi
cantfi
guresr
efert
othenumberofdi
git
sused Express t
he fol
l
owi
ng i
n cm gi
vi
ng t
he answer
sin
tospeci
fytheaccur
acyofaval
ue. standar
dform

Not
e: a) 0.
1mm

1. Thedi
git
s1-
9ar
eal
lsi
gni
fi
cantwhent
heyappeari
na b) 125mm
number
.
c) 3.
8m
2. Thefi
rstdi
gitf
rom t
hel
eftofanumberi
sthef
ir
st
si
gni
fi
cantf
igur
es d) 0.
015m

3. Thenumberofsigni
fi
cantfigur
esisdetermi
nedby e) 7.
8km
counti
ngt
henumberofdi
git
sf r
om t
hef
irstsi
gni
fi
cant
fi
gureont
helef
t. Deci
malplaces

4. Zero maybe si gni

fi
cantornotdependi ng on the  Ref ertonumberofdigit
stother i
ghtofthedeci
mal
positi
onofthedi
git pointandthi
sdeter
minestheaccuracyoft
henumber
e.
g.6.0345(4d.
p)
5. Ifzerooccur
sbetweennon-zerodigi
tsi
tissi
gnif
icant
e.g.1004(
4sf)
,15607(5sf
),180.
45(
5sf) Exer
cise

6. Whenzerooccursatthelef
tendofanumberi
tisnot Fi
ndthev ol
umeofacubewhosesi
dei
s2.
22cm.Expr
ess
si
gni
fi
cante.g.0.
00546(3sf
),0.
0002(
1sf
) youranswercor
rectt
o3d.
p

7. Ifthezerooccursatt heri
ghthandendofani nt t St
egeri andardPr efi
xesUsedWi thSIUnit
s
mayormaynotbesi gni
ficant.E.g.60000.
Itcanbe
 Thet ablebelow showsmul t
iplesandsub-mult
ipl
es
correctto1signifi
cantf i
gurethereforethezerosare
usedwi thSIunits,thei
rpref
ixesandsymbolforthe
notsi gni
fi
cant
.Ifal lthezer osar ecounted(ended)
pref
ixes.
thenitwil
lbecorrectto6si gnif
icantfi
gures.
Sub- pr
efi
x Symbol f
or
8. I
ft hezero occur
sattheri
ghthand end aft
ert he
mul ti
ple/ pr
efi
x
decimalpoi
nt,iti
sal
wayssi
gni
fi
cante.
g.2.000(4sf)
,
mul ti
ple
3.
0(2sf)
10-1 deci d
Exer
cise 10-2 cent i c
10-3 mi l
li m
Wri
tedownthenumberofsi
gni
fi
cantf
igur
esi
neachof 10-6 mi cro µ
t
hefol
lowi
ng 10-9 nano n
10-12 pico p
a) 40000 10-15 femt o f
10-18 atto a
b) 609
101 deca da
c) 0.
000675 102 hect o h
103 kil
o k
d) 5237.
8 106 mega M
109 giga G
e) 0.
0000600 1012 tera T
1015 pet a P
f
) 0.
002304
1018 exa E
St
andar
dFor
m

 Thi
sisawayofwr
it
inganumberespeci
all
yav
ery

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l
argeorver
ysmallnumberinwhichonl
yonei
nteger
appear
sbef
oret
hedecimalpoi
nt.

 Aposit
ivenumberi
ssaidtobeinstandardform when
wri
tenasAX10n,wher
t eAi ssuchthat1≤A<10and
t
heindexnisanint
egere.
g.3567=3.567x103

 I
fthenumberl
iesbetweenzeroand1t henthei ndexn
becomesanegati
vee. 0.
g. 567x10-4
0003567=3.

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TheOi
lDr
opExper
iment Possi
bleSour
cesofEr
rori
ntheExper
iment

 Thi
sis an exper
imentused i
nt he est
imat
ion of a) Er
rori
nmeasur
ingt
hedi
amet
er(orv
olume)ofoi
l
di
amet
er/si
ze/thi
cknessofamol
ecul
e. dr
op

 I
nt hi
sexper i
ment,atrayi
sfil
l
edwit
hwatertothe b) Errori
nmeasur
ingdi
amet
erofoi
lpat
ch
bri
m,andl ycopodi
um powderi
sli
ght
lyspr
inkl
edon
thewatersurf
ace. Exer
cise

 Anoildr
opiscaref
ull
yplacedatt
hecentr
eoft het
ray 1. I
n an experi
mentto est
imatethe si
ze ofan oi
l
andall
owedt ospr
eadont hesur
faceofwaterunt
ili
t molecul
e,thedi
amet
eroft hepat
chwasmeasur ed
i
s one molecul
et hi
ck.Thisfor
ms a patch whose tobe200mm f oranoi ldropofradius0.25mm.
di
ameterismeasured Det
erminethedi
ameterofthemol
eculeoftheoi
l

2. Inanexper i
mentt oestimatethediameterofoi l
molecul
e100dr opsofoilarerel
easedfrom bur
ett
e
andlevelofoi linburet
techangesf r
om 0.5cm3 t
o
3.
20.
5cm Oneoft hedropsisplacedonwat erand
spr
eadsov eraci
rcul
arpatchofdiameter20cm.

a. Det
ermi
ne:

I
. Thev
olumeoft
heoi
ldr
op

I
I. Thear
eaoft
hepat
chcov
eredbyt
heoi
l

I
II
. Thedi
amet
eroft
heoi
lmol
ecul
e

b. St
ate:

i
.Assumpt
ionsmadei
nthi
sexper
iment
 Thi
cknessofoi
lmol
ecul
eisest
imat
edasd i
i
.Two possi
ble sour
ces of er
ror
s i
n t
his
exper
iment
v
olumeofoi
ldr
op=v
olumeofoi
lpat
ch

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4 3 d2 Rev
isi
onQuest
ions
πr=π( )×t
hickness,
t,ofoi
lpat
ch(
ormol
ecul
e)
3 2
1. Whatar ethezeroerror
soft hemi cr
omet
erscrew
Funct
ionsofl
ycopodi
um powder gauges shown i n t he f i
gur
es below?(t
he
micrometersareclosed).
ift
hemi cr
omet
erswere
1. I
tbr
eakssur
facet
ensi
on
usedt omeasuret hediamet erofawi r
ewhose
2. i
tcl
ear
lyshowst
heext
entofspr
eadoft
heoi
ldr
op di
amet eris1.
00mm,whatwoul dbethereadi
ng
oneach?
Funct
ionofbeams:

 Usedt
oest
imat
edi
amet
eroft
hespr
eadoi
lpat
ch

Assumpt
ionsmadei
noi
ldr
opexper
iment

a) Theoi
ldr
opi
sper
fect
lyspher
ical

b) Theoi
lpat
chi
sper
fect
lycy
li
ndr
ical

c) Theoi
lpat
chi
sonemol
ecul
ethi
ck.

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2. Compareandcont
rastt
hescalesoftwo
micr
ometerscr
ewgaugeswithapitchof0.
5mm
and1.0mm.

3. Whatar
ethetwol
i
mit
ati
onsoft
hemi
cromet
er
scr
ewgauge?

4. Listdowntheadvantagesanddisadvantagesof
themi cr
ometerscr
ewgaugeov erthev erni
er
cali
pers

5. Sket
chami
cromet
erscr
ewgaugescal
ereadi
ng:

a) O.
23mm

b) 5.
05mm

6. (
a)Whatar
ethezeroerr
orsoft
hev
erni
ercal
i
per
s
i
nfi
gures(
a)and(b)bel
ow?

(
b)Ifthecor
rectdi
ameterofanobjecti
s4.
01cm, what
wouldbethereadi
ngsofbothcal
i
per sf
ort
hisdi
ameter?

(c)Thecal
iper
sinfi
gure(a)wasusedt omeasur ethe
di
ameterofacyli
ndr
icalobjectandrecorded4.
55cm
whil
etheoneinfi
gure(b)wasusedt omeasur ethe
di
ameterofasphereandr ecorded5.05cm.Calculate
corr
ectvol
umesoftheseobj ect
sinm3.(Takeπ=3. 142)

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25

Chapt
erThr
ee TURNI
NGEFFECTOFAFORCE
MomentofaFor
ce Momentofaf
orce=f
orce×per
pendi
cul
ardi
stance

 Basi
call
y,momentofaf
orcer
efer
stot
het
urni
ng ∴momentoff
orceaboutpi
vot=20N×0.
4m
ef
fectofthef
orce.
=8Nm
 I
ti sdefined asthe productofthe for
ce and t
he
perpendi
culardi
stancebetweenthepointofsupport
(pi
votorfulcr
um)andthelineofact
ionofthef
orce.
ThePr
inci
pleofMoment
s(t
heLawoft
heLev
er)

 Consi
derameterrul
ebal
anced(
atequi
l
ibri
um)ona
piv
otatit
scentr
ebyweight
sW1,W2,W3 andW4 as
shownbel
ow.

Momentofaf
orce=f
orce×per
pendi
cul
ardi
stance

 SIuni
tofmomentofaf
or st
cei henewt
onmet
er(
Nm)

Fact
orsAf
fect
ingMomentofaFor
ce

1. Amountoff or
ce – momentoff or
ce is di
rectl
y
proport
ionalt
otheamountoffor
ceappl
ied.  TheforcesW1andW2tendtomakether ul
etur
ninthe
ant
icl
ockwisedi
rect
ionaboutt
hepi
vot.Theref
ore,
the
2. Perpendicul
ardi
stancebet
weenli
neofacti
onofforce
moment sduetotheseweight
sarereferr
edtoasan
andpointofsupport–momentisdir
ect
lypropor
ti
onal
ant
icl
ockwisemoments.
thedi ance900.
st
 Simil
arl
y,t
heforcesW3andW4t endtomaket herul
e
Exampl
esofAct
ivi
ti
esi
nWhi
chFor
cePr
oducesaTur
ning
tur
ni n a cl
ockwise di
recti
on and ther
efor
e,thei
r
Eff
ect
moment saboutthepi
votareclockwi
semoment s.
1. Openi
ngandcl
osi
ngadoor
Sum ofcl
ockwi
semoment =W3d3+W4d4
2. Cl
osi
ng a lid of a cont
ainer e.
g.( geomet
ri
cal
Sum ofant
icl
ockwi
semoment =W1d1+W2d2
i
nst
rumentbox)
Atequil
ibr
ium (bal
ance)
,Sum ofcl
ockwi
semoment=
3. Apai
rofsci
ssor
sorgar
denshear
sinuse
Sum ofant
icl
ockwisemoment
4. Chi
l
drenpl
ayi
ngon“seesaw”
W3d3+W4d4=W1d1+W2d2
5. Awheel
bar
rowbei
ngusedt
oli
ftheav
yloads
 Thi scanbesummar izedbythepri
ncipl
eofmoment s
6. Ascr ewdr i
verbei
ngusedtoti
ght
enorl
oosenascrew. w hi
chs tat
es “
foras yst
em i
ne qui
li
brium thesum of
clockwisemoment saboutapoi ntmustbeequalt o
7. Beam bal anceinuse. thesum ofant icl
ockwisemoment saboutt hesame
point”
.
Examples
N/B:A bodyi s sai
dt o be atequil
ibr
ium when itis
Fi
ndt hemomentoft heforceaboutt
hepivoti
nt he bal
ancedundert heacti
onofanumberoff orces.
fi
gur
esbel ow

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Exampl
es Exer
cise

1. St
atet
hel
awoft
hel
ever(asabov
e) Ahal fmeterrul
ei ssuspendedver
ti
call
yf r
om apivotat
the0cm mar k.Itismaintai
nedintheverti
calposit
ion
2. Auni for
m meterr ulepi
votedatit
scent
rei
sbalanced byf ourhor
izontalfor
cesactingi
nthedirecti
onsshown
byaf orceof4.8Nat20cm mar kandsomeot
hert wo i
nt hefigur
ebelow
forces,Fand2. 0N ont he66cm and90cm mar ks
respecti
vel
y.Calculatet
hef or
ceF.

The10.0N for
ceactsthr
ought
he15cm mar k,4.0N
for
cethrought
he20cm markand5.0Nforcethrough
the40cm mark.Cal
cul
ateFwhi
chactst
hroughthe30
cm mark.
Atequi
l
ibr
ium (
bal
ance)
,
Par
allelforces
Sum ofcl
ockwi
se moment= Sum ofant
icl
ockwi
se
moment  Consi deraunif
ormrodbel
owbalancedbytheforces
F1,F2,F3,F4,
F5andRwhichi
sthenormalreact
ionon
F×0.
16+2.0×0.
40=4.
8×0.
30 pivot.
0.
16F+0.
80=1.
44

0.
16F=0.
64

0.
64
F=
0.
16

F=4.
0N

3. Aboyofmass40kgsi tsatapoint2.0m f
rom the
pivotofaseensaw.Fi ndt
heweightofagi rlwho  Thefor
cesF1,F2,
F3,F4,
F5andRar
epar
all
el.
canbalancethesee-
sawbysitt
ingatadistanceof
3.2m fr
om t
hepivot
.(Takeg=10nkg)  Forpar
all
elf
orces:

sol
uti
on a) Thesum off or
cesacti
ng on onesideofthe
system isequaltothesum off or
cesact
ingon
opposite di
recti
on i.
e.the al
gebrai
c sum of
parall
elf
orcesiszer
o.

b) Thesum ofclockwisemomentsi sequaltothe

sum ofant
icl
ockwisemomentsi.e.t
healgebr
aic
sum oft
hemoment sofpar
all
elf
orcesiszer
o.

Exer
cise

Atequi
l
ibr
ium (
bal
ance)
, Auniform met
alrodoflengt
h80cm andmass3. 2kgi
s
support
edhori
zont
all
ybytwov er
ti
calspr
ing’
sbal
ancesC

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Sum ofcl
ockwi
se moment= Sum ofant i
cl
ockwi
se andDbalanceCisalsof
rom oneendwhil
ebalanceDi s
moment 30cm fr
om the ot
herend.Find t
he r
eading on each
bal
ance.
Wg×3. ( N
)
2m = 40kg×10 ×2.
kg
0m

3.
2Wg=800

800
Wg=
3.
2

wg=250N

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Ant
i–par
all
elf
orces(
Coupl
es) I
II
. For
cesappli
edonthest
eer
ingwheelofacarwhen
goi
ngroundabend
 Ant
i– par al
l
elforcesoracoupl
eref
erst
o equal
,
par
all
elbutopposi
tefor
ces. I
V. For
cesappl
i
edonbi
cycl
ehandl
e

 Thetot
almomentofanti
-paral
l
elf
orcesistheproduct
ofoneoftheforcesandt heper
pendicul
ardistance
bet
weenthef
orces.

Rev
isi
onExer
cise
Exampl
e
1. Expl
ainwhyt hehandl eofadoori splacedasfaras
Twov erti
calequalandopposit
ef orcesactonamet er possi
blefrom thehinges.
rul
eat20cm and90cm mar ksr espect
ivel
y.Ifeachof
thef orceshasamagni tudeof4. 0 N,calculat
ethei
r 2. Expl
ainwhyi tiseasiertoloosenatightnutusinga
momentont hemeterr
uleaboutthe40cm mar k. spannerwithal onghandlethantheonewi t
hashor t
handl
e.
sol
ution
3. Thefigurebelow showsauni for
m barinequil
i
br i
um
Totalmoment undertheinf
luenceoft wofor
ces
=oneofthef
orce,FX per
pendi
cul
ardi
stancebet
weent
he
f
orces,
d

0N×(
=4. 0.9-
0.2)
m

=4.
0N×0.
7

=2.
8Nm

Exampl
esofcoupl
es

I
. For
cesappli
edonawheelspannerwhent
ight
eni
ng
orl
ooseni
nganut

I
I. For
cesappl
i
edwhenopeni
ngawat
ert
ap

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Chapt
erFour EQUI
LIBRI
UM ANDCENTREOFGRAVI
TY
Cent
reofGr
avi
ty 3. Forcir
cul
arplateconstr
uctdi
amet
ers.Thepointof
i
nter
secti
on,whichisthecent
reofthecir
cle,i
sthe
 Centreofgr avi
ty(COG)ofa bodyi st hepoi ntof cent
reofgrav
ity
.
appli
cati
on oft he r
esult
antf or
ce due to earth’
s
att
racti
on.I
ti sthepointwherethewholewei ghtof
thebodyappear stoactfrom.Theresul
tantforceis
theweight(
W =mg)oft hebody.

Cent
reofGr
avi
tyofRegul
arShapes

 Thecentreofgr avi
tyofauni f
orm body( bodywith
weight evenly dist
ri
buted) l
ies at t he body’s
geometr
icalcent
re.Forexampl
e, auni
for
m met err
ule
Exampl
es
bal
ancesatthe50cm mar kwhensuspended.
1. A uni
for
m meterrul
eisbalancedat20cm mar
k
whenaloadof1.
2Nishungatt
hezeromark.

a) Draw adi
agram ofmet
err
uleshowi
ngal
lthe
for
cesact
ingonit
.

 Thecent
reofgravi
tyofregularshapescanal
sobe
det
er nedbyconst
mi ruct
ione.g.

1. Forsquar e and r
ect
angularplat
es,diagonal
s are b) Cal
cul
atet
hewei
ghtandmassoft
hemet
err
ule
constr
ucted.Thepoi
ntofinter
sect
ioni
sthecentreof
gravi
ty.
sol
uti
on

Atequi
l
ibr
ium (
bal
ance),
Sum ofcl
ockwi
semoment
=Sum ofant
icl
ockwi
semoment

W×0.
3m =1.
2N×0.
2m

0.
3W =0.
24
2. Fortri
angularplat
e,perpendi
cul
arbisect
ors oft
he
si
desareconstruct
ed.Thepointofi
nter
secti
onist
he 0.24
∴W = =0.
8N
cent
reofgravi
ty. 0.3

c) Det
ermi
net
her
eact
ionont
hepi
vot
.

sol
uti
on

t
otal
upwar
dfor
ces=t
otal
downwaedf
orces

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R=1.
2+W

R=1.
2+0.
8

R=2.
0N

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2. Thediagram belowshowsamet alpl

ate3m l
ong,1m 4. Thef i
gur ebelow showsadi agr
am,ofmass150kg
wideandnegl igi
blethi
ckness.A hor
izont
alfor
ceof andr adius0.5m bei ngpul
ledbyhor i
zontalforceF
100N applied atpoi
ntD j ustmakest heplat
et i
l
t. againstastep0. 1m high.Whati
nit
ialforce,F,
isjust
Calcul
atetheweightoftheplat
e. suffi
cienttotur nthedrawnsothatitrisesov erthe
step.Ift hedi agram bel
ow showsspher i
calbal l
s
placedatdiff
er entposi
ti
onsonasurface.

Sol
uti
on
Equi
li
bri
um States
Atequi
l
ibr
ium (
bal
ance),
Sum ofcl
ockwi
semoment
=Sum ofant
icl
ockwi
semoment  St at
eofequi li
bri
um referstostat
eofbalanceofa
body.Therearethr
eestatesofequi
li
bri
um:
100N×3m =W×0. 5m

300=0.
5W
1. St
abl
eequi
l
ibr
ium
300
∴W = =600N
0.
5  Abodyi ssaidtobeinast ableequi
l
ibri
um ifi
tretur
ns
totheor i
ginalposi
ti
onaf t
erbeingdispl
acedslight
ly.
Exer
cise Thef unneldoesnott oppleoversince thelineof
acti
on ofwei ghtstil
lf al
l
si nsi
de the base ofthe
1. Auni for
m hal
f-meterr ul
eispiv
otedatt
he10cm funnel
.
mark.Fi
ndtheposit
ionofa2. 0Nweightthatwil
l
bal
ancetherulehorizont
all
yifthewei
ghtoft he
rul
eis0.
4N.

2. Thef igur
ebel ow showsauni form plankoflength
6.0m acteduponbyt heforcesshown.I ftheplank 2. Unstableequil
ibr
ium.
hasawei ghtof300N,dr aw thedi agram showing
allthef orcesactingont hepl ank.Calculat
et he  Abodyi sinunstableequil
ibr
ium ifonbei ngdispl
aced
tensionTint hest
r i
ngandthereactionatthepivot. sli
ghtl
y,itdoesnotr et
urntoi t
sor i
ginalposit
ionsbut
occupiesanew posi t
ion.Thef unnelbel ow toppl
es
overbecauset heli
neofact i
onofwei ghtfal
l
sout si
de
thebaseoft hefunnel.

3. Neut
ralequi
l
ibr
ium

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 Abodyi ssaidtobei nneut

ralequil
i
bri
um i
fonbei
ng
displ
aceditoccupiesanew posit
ionwhichi
ssi
mil
ar
totheori
ginalposi
tion.

3. Def
inet
hecent
reofgr
avi
tyofabody

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Condi
ti
onsf
orEqui
l
ibr
ium Exer
cise

1. Thesum off orcesonthebodyinonedi

rect
ionis 1. Statet
hecondi
ti
onsofequi
li
bri
um f
orabody
equalt
othesum off or
cesact
ingont
hebodyinthe acteduponbyanumberofparal
l
elf
orces.
opposi
tedi
rect
ion
2. Expl
ainwhy
:
2. Thesum oft
heclockwisemomentsaboutanypoi
ntis
equalt
othesum oftheant
icl
ockwi
semoment sabout a)I
tisnotsaf
eforadoubl
eDeckerbust ocar
ry
thesamepoi
nt. st
andi
ngpassenger
sontheupperdeck.

Fact
orsAf
fect
ingt
heSt
abi
l
ityofaBody b)Bus body - builders bui l
d l uggage
compartment
sundertheseat
sratherthanon
1. The posi
ti
on ofCOG oft
he body -t
he l
owerthe roofr
acks.
posi
ti
onoft hecent
reofgr
avi
tythemorestabl
ea
bodyis. c)Labor
ator
yst
andsar
emadewi
thawi
deheav
y
base.
2. Baseareaoft
hebody-abodyi
smorestabl
ewhent
he
baseiswide.Anarr
ow basemakesthebodytobe 3. Wheni
sanobj
ectsai
dtobei
nequi
l
ibr
ium?
l
essstabl
e.
4. Whatt
ypeofequi
l
ibr
ium has:

I
. A marbl
e att
he bot
tom ofa wat
ch
Exampl
esofAppl
i
cat
ionofSt
abi
l
ity gl
ass?

1. Contai
nersforhol
dingliqui
dssuchasconi
calf
laskin I
I. At
ightr
opewal
ker
?
the l
aborat
ory hav e broad base t
oimpr
ovet hei
r
stabi
li
ty. I
II
. Acy
li
ndersi
tt
ingoni
tsbase?

2. Raci
ngcars(e.
g.for
mulaonecar
)hav ewiderwheel
s I
V. Aspher
eonal
evelt
abl
etop?
andlowerposi
ti
onsofcent
erofgrav
ityt
hanor di
nar
y
V. A bi
rd per
ched on a t
hin hor
izont
al
car
s.
br
anchofatree?
3. Mostbuses carr
yt hei
rcar go in space bel
ow the
5. St
ate:
passengerl
eveli
nst
eadoft her oofrackinorderto
keepthecent
reofgr
av i
typosit
ionslow. I
. Twowaysinwhi
cht
hest
abi
l
ityofabodycanbe
i
ncr
eased.
4. A hydrometeris ableto stay upr
ightinal i
qui
d
becauseitisweightedatitsbaseandt her
efor
eit
s I
I. Twopr
act
icalappl
i
cat
ionofst
abi
l
ity
.
centr
eofgravi
tyi
satt hebase.
6. Expl
ainhowacy cl
i
stmai
ntai
nst
hest
abi
l
ityofa
5. ABunsenbur
nerhasawi
deheav
ybaset
oincr
ease mov i
ngbicy
cle.
st
abi
l
ity
7. Descr
ibethest
ateofequi
l
ibr
ium oft
hebal
lin
6. Aper soncarr
yingabucketofwateri
nonehandhas eachposi
ti
on
toleanhisbodytotheot
hersi
detoadj
ustt
heposi
ti
on
hiscentr
eofgravit
y.

7. Chai
rs,stool
s,t ri
pod 73 stands,tabl
es etc are
pr
ovi
dedwi t
ht hr
eeormor elegs.Thelegsareoften
madesli
ghtl
yincl
inedout
wardstoimprovest
abil
it
y.

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Chapt
erFi
ve SOUND
Speci
fi
cobj
ect
ives Cont
ent

Byt
heendoft
hist
opi
cthel
eanershoul
dbeabl
eto: 1. Sound:natur
eandsour
ces(
exper
iment
alt
reat
ment
requi
red)
a) Perfor
m anddescr
ibesimpl
eexper i
mentst
o show
thatsoundi
spr
oducedbyvi
brat
ingbodies 2. Pr
opagat
ionofasound

b) Perfor
m and describean experimentto show that 3. Compr essi
onsandraref
acti
on
soundrequir
esamat er
ial
medium forapropagat
ion.
4. Speedofasoundbyechosound
c) Explai
nthenatureofsoundwav es.
5. Factorsaff
ect
ingthespeedofasound
d) Determine t
he speed ofsound in airbyt he echo
method. 6. Problemsonv el
ocit
yofasound

e) St
atet
hef
act
orsaf
fect
ingt
hespeedofsound.

f
) Sol
venumer
ical
probl
emsi
nvol
vi
ngv
eloci
tyofsound.

Def
ini
ti
onofSound

 Sound isaf or
m ofenergy thatori
ginates f
rom
vi
brat
ingobj
ect
s.I
tisal
ongi
tudi
nalmechanicalwave.

SomeSour
cesofSound

1. Vi
brat
ingwoodenst
ri
p

2. Vi
brat
ingwi
ree.
g.gui
tarwi
rebei
ngpl
uck.

3. Vi
brat
ingdr
um

4. Tuningfork-thepr ongsoftuni
ngforkaremadeto Exer
cise
vi
bratebystri
kingthem agai
nstahar
dsurf
ace.
1. Thef igur
ebelow showsavibr
ati
ngfor
k.Theti
me
5. Vibr
ating ai
rcolumnse. g.blowi
ng ai
ra crosst
he i
ntervalfort
heprongt ogof
rom AtoBi s0.
005s.
mout hofatest-t
ube. Fi
nd:

6. Airsir
en-itisafor
m ofdiskwi tharingofequal l
y a) Thef
requencyoft
hef
ork
spacedholeswhi
chareequidi
stantf
rom thecentr
e.I
t
i
sr ot
atedataconstantrat
easai risblownt hr
ough b) Thewavel
engthoft
hev
ibr
ati
ons,
ift
hev
eloci
ty
theholes. ofsoundi
nairi
s340m/s.

7. Cog-
wheel
andcar
d

8. Voi
cebox(
lar
ynx)

Pr
opagat
ionofSoundEner
gy

 Soundwav
eispr
opagat
edi
nf m ofcompr
or essi
ons

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(
areasofhighpr e)and r
essur aref
acti
ons(ar
easof
l
ow pressur
e)through propagating medi
um.Sound
r
equir
esamat er
ialmedium forpropagat
ion.

2. The di
agr
am bel
ow shows sound wav
es passing 2. Closetheswitchandobser
vewhathappens.
thr
oughai
r.St
udyitandanswerthequest
ionsthat
fol
low. Observat
ion:I
tisobserv
edthatthebel
lbegi
nstori
ngand
thesoundisheardoutsi
de.

3. Gradual
l
ypumpoutsomeairandnot
etheef
fectt
his
hasonsoundr
eachi
ngyou.

Obser
vat
ion:Thei
ntensi
tyofsounddecr
easesgr
adual
l
y.

4. Pumpasmuchairoutoft
hej
araspossi
bleandl
i
sten
a. Labelt
hef
oll
owi
ng: tot
hesoundpr
oduced.

i
. Compr
essi
on Obser
vati
on:Soundi
sfoundtohavealmostdi
sappear
ed
t
houghthehammercanbeseenvibr
ati
ng
i
i
. Rar
efact
ion
Concl
usi
on
i
i
i. wav
elengt
h
The above obser
vati
ons show thatt
he sound cannot
b. I
fthewav
efr
ontt
akes0.
1st
otr
avelf
rom At
oB, tr
avelthr
oughav acuum.Itneedsamater
ialmedium for
f
ind: propagat
ion.

i
. Thef
requency Fact
orsAf
fect
ingVel
oci
tyofSoundI
nAi
r

i
i
. Thewav
elengt
h,i
fvel
oci
tyofsoundi
nai
r a) Temperatur
eoftheair-soundt
rav
elsf
ast
eri
n
i
s330m/s. hotai
rthanincol
dai
r.

Exper
iment b) Humidi
tyoft
heair-thev
eloci
tyofsoundonai
r
i
ncr
easeswit
hhumidi
ty
Ai
m:

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Toshowt hatsoundr
equir
esamater
ialmedi
um t
otr
avel
. c) Di
recti
on ofwind -
wind blowing inthe same
(I
.e.sounddoesnottr
aveli
nvacuum) di
recti
onassoundincreasesthev el
oci
tyofthe
l
atter
.
Appar
atus
SoundTr
ansmi
ssi
oni
nSol
i
ds,
Liqui
dsandGases
El
ect
ri
cbel
l
 Soundtravel
sfast
esti
nsol
i
ds,
fol
l
owedbyl
i
qui
dsand
Swi
tch thengases.

Bel
lgl
ass-j
ar  Speedofsoundinmat er
ial
svariesfr
om solidtosol
id,
l
iqui
dt oliqui
d and gas to gas depending on t
he
Vacuum pump densi
tyoft he mat
erial
.Densermat eri
alt r
ansmit
s
soundfast
er.
Wi
res
Ref
lect
ionPr
oper
tyofSoundWav
es
Cel
l
s
 Ref
lect
edsoundiscal
led echo.Soundi
sref
lect
ed
Gl
asspl
ate
whenitfal
l
sonhar
dsur
faces.
Pr
ocedur
e
 Refl
ecti
onsofsoundwav
esal he l
soobeyt awsof
1. Setupt
heappar
atusasshowni
nthedi
agr
am bel
ow. ref
lect
ion:

i
. Theangleofi ncidenceisequalt
otheangl
eof
ref
lect
ionatpointofinci
dence

i
i
. Theinci
dentsound,t
heref
lect
edsoundandt
he
nor
malli
eont hesamepl
ane.

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Rev
erber
ati
on m
∴2x=330 ×0.
7s
s
 Reverberat
ion r
efer
st othe eff
ectinwhichori
ginal
soundseemspr ol
ongedduet ooverl
apwit
htheecho 330×0.
7
x= =115.
5m
sound.I toccursin some hall
s,sound waves are 2
ref
lectedfrom wall
s,fl
oorandcei l
i
ngandsincet he
echot i
mei sshort
;theechooverl
apswit
htheori
ginal Al m
so,2(d-x)=330 ×(0. 2)
7+0. s
sound. s

 To reducerev
erberat
ion i
nplaceslikebroadcastng d=297+x
i
studi
os and concerthals,wal
l ls are made using 2
absorbentmat
eri
alsli
kecottonwoolandfoam rubber.
d=148.
5+115.
5=264m (
thi
sist
hewi
dthoft
hecl
i
ff)
Appl
i
cat
ionsofRef
lect
ionofSound
2. At imekeeperi n100m r acestandsatt hefini
shi
ng
a) Deter
minationofSpeedofSound po i
nt.Hes t
artsh i
sw atchthemo me ntheh ear
sthe
sound ofagun.Whater rordoeshemakei nthe
 I nthi
scase, soundisproducedinfr
ontofanobstacl
e ti
mi ngoftherace?(Speedofsoundi nai
ris330ms-1)
whose distance awayi s known.The t
ime forthe
soundtor eacht heobstacleandbacktot ce Sol
hesour ution
(i
.e.t
imef orechot obehear d)ismeasuredusinga
Theer r
orisequaltotheti
met akenforthesoundfrom t
he
stopwatch.
gunt or eachthetimekeeper,i.
e.ti
met akenforsoundto
tr
av el100m atthespeedof330ms-1t hesoundtakes:

100m
T= =0.
303seconds
330ms-1

=============================================

b) Deter
minat
ionofDistancesbyProduci
ngSoundofa
KnownSpeed(pul
se-echotechni
que)
di
stancet
ravel
l
ed,2d 2d  Pulse-echotechni
queinv
olvesmeasur
ingdi
stances
Speedof
sound= =
ti
metaken,t t bypr oduci
ngsoundofknownspeedandmeasur ing
ti
met akentorecei
veanecho.
Exampl
e
 Ultr
asound(soundoff r
equencyofover20KHz )is
1. Amanstandinginav all
eybetweentwocli
ffsstri
kesa usedinpulse-echot
echniquebecauseitpenetr
ates
gong.Hehearsanechof rom onecl
if
f0.7slaterand deepestandcanberef
lectedeasi
l
ybytinygr
ains.
fr
om theother0. 2saf terthefir
st.Determi
net he
-
1
widt
hoftheval
ley.(Speedofsoundinair
,v=330ms ) Exer
cise
Sol
uti
on Af i
shingboatusesul tr
a-soundoff r
equency6.0x104Hz
to detect fish directl
y below. Two echoes of t he
ul
trasoundar erecei
v ed,oneafter0.
09scomingf rom t
he
shoaloff i
shandot herafter0.
12scomi ngfrom thesea
bed.I ft he sea bed i s 84m below the ultr
asound
tr
ansceiver,
calculat
e:

i
. Thespeedoful
tr
asoundwav
esi
nwat
er

i
i
. Thewav
elengt
hoft
heul
tr
asoundwav
esi
nwat
er

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l
etdi
tancef
romnear
est
cli
ff
bexand i
i
i. Thedept
hoft
heshoaloff
ishbel
owt
heboat

t
hat
bet
weent
het
wocl
i
ffsd

di
stance=speedof
sound×t
ime

Appl
i
cat
ionsofPul
se-EchoTechni
que 5. Inanexperi
mentt odet
erminespeedofsoundi nair,a
drum atapoint150m fr
om av er
ti
calwallwasstruck
Used: atvaryi
ngfrequencywhil
elisteni
ngt otheecho.The
echocoinci
deswi ththesoundf rom t
hedr um ata
a) I
ntheshi
ptodet
ermi
net
hedept
hoft
hesea. ti
mewhent osuccessi
vestrikeswer emadewi t
hina
ti
meof18.5s.
b) I
nunderwat
erexpl
orat
ionofgasandoi
l
.
i
. Deter
minet
het
imet
akenf
oranechot
obe
c) Infi
shi
ngboat
swi
thpul
seechoequi
pmentt
olocat
e
heard
shoal
soffi
sh.
i
i
. Det
ermi
net
hespeedofsoundi
nai
ratt
he
d) I
n speci
altypesofspectacl
esused bythebl
ind
pl
ace
peopl
etotel
lhowfarobj
ectsar
eaheadoft
hem.
i
i
i. Whatdiffer
ence wouldyou expectifthe
e) Bybatst
odet
ectt
hepr
esenceofobst
acl
esi
nthei
r
exper
imentwasrepeat
edonacolderday
?
fl
i
ghtpat
h.
6. Aboyst ri
kesar ai
l
wayl inewi t
hahammer .Arail
way
Rev
isi
onExer
cise
walker600m awayhear st wosounds,onef r
om the
1. Stat
ehow t hepitchofsoundwav eisaff
ect
edby rai
lway l
i
n eandtheo t
he rfrom ai
r.Ift
hetimeint
erval
fr
equency betweent hetwos oundsis1 .
65sa ndthespeedo f
soundinairis340ms-1,determinethespeedofsound
2. Thefoll
owingdiagram showsasetupthatwasused i
nt herai
lwayli
ne.
to demonstratet hat sound r
equi
res a mater
ial
medium fort
ransmissi
on.

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i
. Statewhathappenst ot
hesoundfrom the
bellasai
rcont
inuest
obedrawnf
rom t
hejar

i
i
. Whathappenstothesoundi
fsomeai
ris
al
l
owedbackint
othej
ar

i
i
i. Givepossi
bler
easonswhyitisnotpossi
blet
o
reducesoundcomplet
elyi
nthisexper
iment

3. A gir
lstanding somedi stanceawayf r
om theclif
f
blowsawhi stl
eandhear sanecho1. 10slat
er.I
fthe
speedofasoundi nai
ris350ms-1,det
erminehowfor
thegi
rli
sfrom thefootofthecli
ff
.

4. Aloudspeakerplacedbetweentwowallsbutnearert
o
wallA thanwal lB issending outconstantsound
waves.Determinehow f artheloudspeakerisfrom
wallBifiti
s100m f rom wal
lAandt hetimebetween
thetwoechoesr eceiv
edis0.2seconds.( Speedof
soundinai=340ms-1)
r

Chapt
erSi
x HOOKE’
SLAW
Speci
fi
cobj
ect
ives Cont
ent

Byt
heendoft
hist
opi
c,t
hel
ear
nershoul
dbeabl
eto: 1. Hooke’
slaw

a) St
ateandv
eri
fyexper
iment
all
yHooke’
slaw 2. Spr
ingconst
ant

b) Det
ermi
net
hespr
ingconst
ant 3. Spr
ingbal
ance

c) Const
ructandcal
i
brat
easpr
ingbal
ance 4. Pr
obl
emsonHooke’
slaw

d) Sol
venumer
ical
probl
emsi
nvol
vi
ngHooke’
slaw

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41

I
ntr
oduct
ion 5. El
ast
ici
ty

 Theknowl edgeofst r
etchingmat erialswhenf orces  Thisist heabil
i
tyofamat erialtorecov eritsori
ginal
are appl ied i s i mportant par ticularl
y i n t he shapeandsi zeaft
ertheforcecausi ngdef ormati
onis
constructi
oni ndust r
y.Ithelpsengineer st odeter
mi ne remov ed.Themat eri
alswitht hisabi l
ityar ecall
ed
thest r
engthoft hemat er
ialstobeusedf orspecifi
c elasti
ce.g.r
ubberbands,spri
ng, andsomewi res.
wor k.Thist opicdeal swi thstudyofhow mat erial
s
behav ewhenst r
et chedandt herelationshipbetween  A mat eri
alwhichdoesnotr ecoveritsshapebuti s
the extentofst retching and stretching f or
ce.The de f
orme dpermanent
lyiscall
ed plasti
c e.
g. pl
asti
ci
n e.
pioneeroft hetopicist hephysici
stRober tHooke.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofMat
eri
als
Hooke’
sLaw
1. St
rengt
h
 Hooke’ s law r elates t he stret
ching f or
ce and
 I ti
st heabilit
yofamat erialtor esistbreakagewhen ext
e nsi
onp r
o duced.
underst ret
ching,compr essingorshear i
ngf orce.A
str
ongmat eriali
sonewhi chcanwi t
hstandal arge Itst
atest hat“forahel i
calspr i
ngoranyot herelast
ic
for
cewi thoutbreaking. mater
ial, ext
ens i
on is dir
ectly proport
ional to the
st
ret
chingforce,provi
dedel asti
climi
tisnotexceeded”
2. Sti
ffness
i.
e.F∝e;F=ke,
 Ref erst other esi
stanceamat erialoffer
st of orces
whicht endtochangei tsshapeorsi zeorbot h.Stif
f Wher eki stheconstantof
materialsarenotflexi
bleandr esistbending.
proport
ionalit
ycall
edspri
ngconstant.
3. Duct
il
it
y
 Slunitofspr
ingconstantisthenewt
onpermeter
 Thisi st he qual
it
y ofa mat eri
alwhi ch leads to (N/m).
permanent change of shape and si e. Duct
z il
e
 Spri
ng const
ant is defi
ned as t
he measur
e of
materials elongate considerably when under
sti
ff
nessofaspr
ing.
str
etchingforcesandundergopl asti
cdet er
mi nat
ion
unti
ltheybreake.g.l
ead,
copper,plast
ici
ne.

4. Br
it
tl
eness  Gr
aphi
cal
l
y,Hooke’
slawcanbeexpr
essedasbel
ow.
 Thisi st he qualit
y ofa mat eri
alwhich leads to
breakagej ustafterelast
iclimitisexceeded.Br it
tl
e
mat er
ialsdonotunder goextensionandbreakwi t
hout
warningonst r
etching.E.
g.blackboardchalk,bricks,
castiron,gl
ass,anddr ybi
scuit
s.

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Sol
uti
on

F mg
k= =
e e

(
600×10-3×10)
N
k= =500Nm-1
2×10-2m
1.

2. The fi
gur
e below shows a spr
ing when unl
oaded,
whensupporti
ngamassof80gandwhensuppor ti
ng
a stone.Study t
he diagr
ams and use t hem to
det
erminethemassofthestone.

 Thegr aphofst r
etchi
ngfor
ceagainstextensi
on,f
or
mat eri
althatobeysHooke’slaw,isast rai
ghtli
ne
through t
heor i
gin.Thegradi
ent(sl
ope)ofsuch a
graphgivesthespri
ngconst
antoft
hespringused.

changei
nF
Gr
adi (
ent ope)=
sl =spr
ingconst
ant
changei
ne
Sol
uti
on
ΔF
S= =k
Δe F mg
k= =
e e
 I
ft he st
ret
ching for
ce exceeds a cer
tai
nval
ue,
per
manentstr
etchi
ngoccurs. (
80×10-3×10)
N
k= =16Nm-1
( 5)
10- ×10-2m
 Thepointbeyondwhi
chtheelast
icmater
ialdoesnot
obeyHooke’slawi
scal
ledel
asti
cli
mit
. F=Wstone=ke
 Apointbeyondwhichamat
eri
all
osesi
tsel
ast
ici
tyi
s N
edy
cal
l i
eldpoi
nt. Wstone=16 ×3×10-2=0.
48N
m
 AlongOEt hespri
ng(orelast
icmat
eri
al)i
ssai
ddo W 0.
48N
undergoel
ast
icdef
ormati
on. m= =
g 10Nkg-1
 Along EA t
he spr
ing i
s sai
dt go pl
o under ast
ic =0.
048kg(
thi
sist
hemassof
thest
one)
defor
mati
on
3. Aspir
alspringproducesanext
ensi
onof6mm whena
Fact
orsAf
fect
ingSpr
ingConst
ant for
ceof0. 3N i
sappl i
edtoit
.Calcul
atet
hespring
a) Ty
peofmat
eri
almaki
ngt
hewi
re
const
antf orasy stem whentwosuchspringsare
arr
angedin:
b) Lengt
hoft
hespr
ing
a) Ser
ies
c) Thenumberoft
ermsperuni
tlengt
hoft
hespr
ing

d) Thedi
amet
er(
thi
ckness)oft
hespr
ing

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e) Thet
hicknessoft
hewi
re

Exampl
es

1. Aspr i
ngstret
chesby1. 2cm whena600gmassi
s
suspendedonit.Whati
sitsspr
ingconst
ant
?

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a. Pl
otagraphoft
otall
engt
h(y
-axi
s)agai
nst
wei
ght

Tot
alext on=2x6x10-3m =1.
ensi 2x10-2m

Tot
alf
orce=0.
3N

F=ke(
fromHooke’
sl
aw)

F 0.
3
Ks= = =25Nm-1
2x10-2
e 1.

b) Par
all
el

b. Uset
hegr
apht
odet
ermi
ne

i
. Thel
engt
hoft
hespr
ing

Thelengt
hofthespri
ngisthatwhenfor ceact
ing
oniti
szero.Fr
om t
hegraphiti
s7.1x10-2m
Sincethetwospri
ngswil
lshar
ethewei
ght
,ext
ensi
onof
1 i
i
. Thespr
ingconst
ant
,k.
thesystem i
s x6mm =3mm
2
1
Spr
ingconst
antoft
hesy
stem,
kPi
s spr
ingconst
ant
,k=
sl
ope,
S
F 0.3N ( ×10-2m
kp= = =100Nm-1 8.
8- 8)
7.
e 0.
003m S= 009091mN-1
=0.
(1.
56- 55)
0. N
4. Thedat
abelowrepresent
sthetot
allengt
hofaspr
ing 1
asthel
oadsuspendedoniti
sincr
eased spr
ingconst
ant
,k= 0Nm-1
=110.
009091mN-1
0.
Wei
ght
, 0.
5 1.
0 1.
5 2.
0 2.
5 3.
0 Compr
essi
ngaspr
ing
W(
N)  Compr essi
onr ef
erst ochangeinl engt
ht hatoccurs
when a spr i
ng is squeezed f
rom itstwo ends.A
Total 7.
5 8.
0 8.
5 9.
0 9.
5 10.
0
sketchofl engthagainstcompr essionforaspr ing
l
engt h, L
whichobeysHooke’ slawisasbelow.
(x10-2m)
 Bey ondthepointE,t
heturnsofthespr i
ngarevir
tual
l
y
pressing onto oneanotherand furtherincr
easein
forceachievesnonoti
ceabledecreaseinlengt
h.

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s,
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45

Wor
kDonei
nSt
ret
chi
ngorCompr
essi
ngaSpr
ing

 The area underforce ver

sus extensi
on graph i
s
repr
esent
st oworkdoneinstr
etchi
ngthespri
ng.

Exer
cise

a. The f i
gur
e below shows a si
mpl
e appar
atus f
or
studyi
ngt hebehavi
orofaspri
ngwhensubj
ectedto
forcesofcompressi
on.

1
Ar
eaundert
hegr
aph= Fe,
2

wher
eFi
sthef
orceappl
i
edandet
heext
ensi
on

at
tai
ned.

om Hooke'sl
Fr aw,
F=ke

1 1
Descri
behowtheapparat
usmaybeusedt oobt
ain kdone= (
Wor e= ke2
ke)
2 2
readi
ngsofcompr
essionfor
ceandcor
respondi
nglengt
h
ofspri
ng. Exer
cise
b. I
nasi milarexper
imentt
hef
oll
owi
ngr
eadi
ngswer
e Twospringsofnegl
igi
bleweightsandofconstant
sk1=
obt
ained 50Nm-1andk2=100Nm-1respect i
vel
yareconnect
edend
toendandsuspendedfrom afixedpoint
.Deter
mine

i
. Thet
otalext
ensi
onwhenamassof2.
0kgi
shung
fr
om t
heoneend

i
i
. Theconst
antoft
hecombi
nat
ion.

i
i
i. Workdoneinstr
etchi
ngeachspr
ing(
elast
ic
pot
enti
alener
gyofeach)

Pl
otagr
aphof
:

i
. Compr essi
onforcesv
ersusl
engthoft hespring
andf r
om thegr
aphdeter
minetheminimum force
thatwillmakethespr
ingcoi
lstojustcomei nto
contact.

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46

i
i
. Compr essi
on for
ces ver
sus compressi
on of
spri
ngandf r
om t
hegraphdet
erminethespr
ing
constant.

Rev
isi
onExer
cise

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1. St
ateHooke’
slaw

2. Def
inet
hef
oll
owi
ngt
erms

a) El
ast
ici
ty

b) El
ast
icmat
eri
al

c) Pl
ast
icdef
ormat
ion

d) Spr
ingconst
ant

e) St
if
fness

f
) Ast
if
fmat
eri
al

g) El
ast
icmat
eri
al

Yi
eldpoi
nt

3. A60gmassissuspendedfr
om aspri
ng.When1.
5g
wirei
sadded,t
hespri
ngstr
etchesby1.
2cm.Gi
ven
thatt
hespri
ngobeysHooke’
slaw,fi
nd:

a) Thespr
ingconst
ant

b) Thet
otalext
ensi
onoft
hespr
ing

4. Apieceofwir
eoflengt
h12m i
sstret
chedthr
ough
2.
5cm byamassof5kg.Assumingthatt
hewire
obeysHooke’
slaw

a) Throughwhatl
engt
hwi
l
lamassof12.
5kg
st
retchit
?

b) Whatf
orcewi
l
lst
ret
chi
tthr
ough4.
0cm?

5. Thefol
lowi
ngreadingswher
eobt
ainedi
nan
exper
imentt
ov er
if
yHooke’sl
awusingaspr
ing

a. Foreachr
eadi
ngcal
cul
ate:

i
. Thev
alueoft
hef
orceappl
i
ed

i
i
. Theext
ensi
oni
nmm

b. Plotagr
aphofextensionagai
nstf
orce.Doest
he
spri
ngobeyHooke’slaw?

c. Fr
om t
hegr
aphdet
ermi
ne:

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48

i
. Theel
ast
icl
i
mit(mar
kongr
aph)

i
i
. Thespr
ingconst
ant

i
i
i. Thewei
ghtofabott
leofi
nkhungfrom t
he
spr
ingi
fther
eadi
ngobtai
nedis12cm

i
v. Theext
ensi
oni
nmm whenaf
orceof0.
3Ni
s
appl
i
ed

v
. Thescal
ereadi
ngi
ncm f
oramassof0.
02kg

Chapt
erSev
en MAGNETI
CEFFECTOFANELECTRI
CCURRENT

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Speci
fi
cobj
ect
ives Cont
ent

Byt
heendoft
hist
opi
cthel
ear
nershoul
dbeabl
eto: 1. Magnet
icf
iel
dduet
oacur
rent

a) Perf
orm anddescri
beexperi
mentstodeter
minethe 2. Oersted’sexperiment
di
recti
onofmagnet i
cfiel
droundacur r
entcar
ryi
ng
conductor 3. Magnet icfiel
dpatternsonst r
aightconduct
orsand
solenoids(ri
ghthandgripr
ule)
b) Constructsi
mpl
eelectr
omagnet
4. Simpleelectromagnets
c) Stat
et he f
act
ors aff
ecti
ng the st
rengt
h of an
el
ectromagnet 5. Factorsaffecti
ngstr
engthofanelectr
omagnet

d) Determineexperi
ment
all
ythedi
rect
ionoff ceona 6. Mot
or oreffect(Fl
eming’
sri
ghthandrul
e)
conductorcar
ryi
ngcur
renti
namagnet i
cfi
eld
7. Factor
s af fect
ing for
ce on a cur rent car
ryi
ng
e) Explaintheworki
ngofasi mpl
eelect
ricmotorand conductorinamagnet icfi
eld(qual
i
tat
ivetreat
ment
el
ect r
icbel
l only
)

8. Appl
i
cat
ions:

 El
ect
ri
cbel
l

 Si
mpl
eel
ect
ri
cmot
or

I
ntr
oduct
ion

 Thistopi
cinvolvesthestudyofmagnet i
cfielddueto
the f
low ofelectr
iccur r
enti naconduct orandt he
appli
cati
onsofthiseffect.Thepioneerofthisphysi
cs
topi
cisHansOer sted,
apr ofessorofphysi
cs.

Magneti
cEff
ectofanEl
ect
ri
cCur
rentFl
owi
ngThr
ougha
Conduct
or
 Thedi r
ect
ionofdef l
ecti
onoft hecompassneedl es
 Considerthediagram belowofasetupt hatt hatcan canbepr edi
ctedbyAmper e’sswimmingr ul
ewhi ch
be used toi nvesti
gatet he magnet
ic effectofan stat
es that “
ifone i magines swimming al ong a
el
ectr
iccur r
entf l
owingt hroughaconductor .Thisis conductorinthe dir
ecti
on ofel ectr
ic curr
entand
commonl ycalledOer st
ed’sexperi
ment.AandBar e faci
ngthecompassneedl e,thenthenort
hpol eofthe
magnet i
ccompassneedl es needlewil
lbedeflectedtowar dstheswimmer ’
slef
t
hand”

Not
es:

1. Thedeflect
ionofthecompassneedl
esisduet ot
he
i
nteract
ion bet
ween t
he magneti
cfi
eld due t
othe
el
ectri
ccurrentintheconduct
orandthemagnet i
c
fi
eldofthecompassneedl
e.

2. Whent heterminal
softhebat t
eryareint
erchanged,
thecompassneedlesdefl
ectintheopposi
tedir
ecti
on
becausethedir
ecti
onofcurr
entrever
ses.

3. The ext
entofdef
lect
ion oft
he compass needl
es

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50

 Whent heswitchisclosed,iti
sobservedt
hatt he i
ncreaseswhentheamountofelect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowi
ng
compass needles defl
ect t
owards t
he di
rect
ions t
hroughtheconduct
ori
ncreases.
showninthedi
agram below.

Exer
cise
 Not
e:Thesy
mbol r
epr
esent
scur
renti
ntot
he
The fi
gur
e bel
ow shows a compass pl
aced undera
sur
faceand cur
rentoutoft
hesur
face.
ver
ti
calwi
reXY

Alar
gecurr
enti
spassedfrom Xt
oY.Dr
awt
heposi
ti
on
ofthemagnet
iccompassneedl
e. Magnet
icFi
eldonaCur
rentCar
ryi
ngSol
enoi
d

 A sol
enoi
drefer
sto a wire wound int
oal
ong
cy
li
ndr
ical
coi
lwit
hmanyconnect
edloops.
Magneti
cFiel
dPat
ter
nsonaSt
rai
ghtCur
rentCar
ryi
ng
Conduct
or

 Whenal ar
geelectr
iccurrentf
lowst hroughawi re
passi
ngthroughacar dboardonwhi chironf
il
ingsis
spri ed,t
nkl he fi
l
ings for
m a pattern ofconcentr
ic
ci
rcl
esaroundthewireasshownbel ow.  Fleming’srighthandgr ipr ul
ef oracur rentcarryi
ng
solenoidisusedt opr edi
ctt hedirect
ionofmagnet i
c
fi
eldpat t
erninsi
det hesol enoidduetot hecur r
ent.It
statesthat“Ifacoilcarry
ingel ect
ri
ccurr entisheldin
ther i
ghthandsucht hatthef inger
sencir cletheloops
whilepoi nt
ing i
nt hedi recti
onofcur rentf low,the
thumbpoi ntsinthedirecti
onoft heNor t
hPol e”

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 Thisbehav iorofi ronf i

l
ingsshow t hatt hemagnet i
c
fi
eld ar ound a st raightcur rentcar rying conductor  Not e that a sol
enoid car
rying elect
ric cur
rent
forms a pat t
ern of concent ri
c ci rcles and is producesamagnetf i
eldpat
ternl i
kethatofabar
perpendi cul
art otheconduct or. magnet ;oneendbehavesNorthPol eandt heother
endSout hPol
e.
 Thedi rect i
onoft hismagnet i
cf i
eldpat ter
ncanbe
predicted by Fl emi ng’
sr ighthand gr ipr ulefora Exercise
currentcar ryingstraightconduct orwhi chst at
esthat
“i
facur rentcar ry
ingconduct orisgrippedi ntheri
ght Showt hemagneti
cfi
eldpatt
erni
nsideloopbelow
handwi tht het humbpoi ntingalongt hewi reinthe
dir
ect i
onofcur r
ent,theot herfingerswi l
lpointinthe
dir
ect i
onoft hemagnet i
cfield”.

Si
mpl
eEl
ect
romagnet EndBwasbr oughtnearthei
ronf
il
ingsandmanyoft
hem
wereat
tract
edwhent heswit
chwasclosed.
 Anelect
romagneti
smadebyplaci
ngasofti
roncor
e
i
nsideasolenoi
dcarr
yinganel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Thi s I
si . Expl
ainwhyt
hei
ronf
il
ingsgotat
tract
edatendof
shownbelow. thecor
e.

I
I. Expl
ainwhati
sobser
vedwhent
heswi
tchi
sopened.

I
II
. Ifsof tir
on was r
epl
aced wi
th st
eeland switch
closed:St
atewhati
sobser
vedwhensteeli
sbrought
nearironfi
li
ngs

I
V. Menti
on t
hree di
ff
erencesbetween sof
tir
on and
st
eelasi
ll
ustr
atedi
nt heabov
eexperi
ment.

V. Expl ain whathappens ifsteeli srepl

aced wi
th
 Ther
ighthandgri
prul
eforacurr
entcar
ryi
ngsolenoid
copperanddippedinthei
ronf
il
ings.
canaswel lbeusedtopredi
ctthepolar
it
iesoft he
el
ect
romagnet. 2. Thediagram below showsawirewoundonanopen
pipeatbot
hends.Thewir
eisthenconnect
edtoad.c
Fact
orsAf
fect
ingt
heSt
rengt
hofanEl
ect
romagnet
suppl
y.Anort
hpoleofthemagneti
sneart heendof
I
. Theamount(si
ze)ofcurr
entint
hesolenoid– the thecor
eB.
st
rengt
hofanelect
romagneti
sdi
rect
lypropor
ti
onal

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totheamountofel ectr
iccur
renti
nthesolenoi
d.
Therefor
e,the l
arge t
he cur
rentt
he st
rong the
el
ectromagnet
.

I
I. Thenumberoft ur
nsinthesol enoi
d–t hestr
ength
oftheelect
romagneti
sdi rect
lyproporti
onalt
ot he
numberofturnsi
nthesolenoid.Theref
ore,t
hemor e
thenumberoftur
nsthest
r ongtheelectr
omagnet.

I
II
. Thel engthoft hesolenoi
d– t hestrengthoft he
electr
omagnetisdi r
ectl
yproport
ionalthelengthof I
. Whatis observ
ed att
he magnetwhen t
he
thesol enoi
d.Ther
eforethelongerthesolenoidthe swi
tchi
sclosed?
strongertheel
ectr
omagnet.
I
I. Expl
aint
heobser
vat
ioni
nthequest
ionabov
e.
I
V. Theshapeoft hecor e-horse-shoeshapedcor e
I
II
. I
ftheter
minal
softhecel
lsarerev
ersedst
ate
producesastrongerelectromagnetthanu-shaped
whati
sobser
vedonthemagnet
s.
core whi
le a u-shaped core pr
oduces a st
ronger
el
ectromagnetthanast r
aightcor
e. I
V. Whatnameofmakingamagneti
sil
l
ust
rat
edi
n
t
heabovear
rangement
?
Exer
cise
V. Whatar
ethetwoadvantagesoft hi
smet
hod
1. I
nthediagram below t
hesofti
ron cor
eispl
aced
ov
erot
hermet
hodsofmagneti
zat
ion?
i
nsi
deacoilconnect
edtoad.
csource.
3. In an exper
imentto deter
minet hestrengt
h ofan
elect
romagnet,the weight of pins that can be
supported by the electr
omagnet, was recorded
againstthenumberoft urns.Thecurrentwaskept
constantthr
oughoutt
heexperiment.

Thet
abl
ebel
owshowst
hedat
athatwasobt
ained.

I
. Pl
otagr
aphofwei
ght
,W,agai
nstnumberoft
urns,
n.

I
I. Uset
hedomai
ntheor
ytoexpl
aint
henat
ureoft
he
gr
aph

I
II
. Sket
ch on t
hesameaxest
hecur
vet
hatwi
l
lbe
obt
ainedusi
ngahi
ghercur
rent

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For
ceonacur
rentcar
ryi
ngconduct
or(
TheMot
orEf
fect
) Exer
cise

 A conduct
orcarry
ingcurr
entplacedi
namagnet
ic Show theresult
antmagnet
icf
iel
danddirect
ionoff
orce
fi
eldexper
iencesaforce.Thi
si ed t
scal
l hemot
or oftheconductori
neachoft
hefol
lowi
ng.
eff
ect.

 Consi
derthesetupdi
agram below f
oraconduct
or
car
ryi
ngcurr
enti
namagneti
cfi
eld.

 Forr ectangul
arcoilin a magnet
icfiel
d,one side
 Themagnet i
cf i
eld concent rat
esatt het op oft he experiencesanupwar dforceandt heothersi
dea
conductorthan att he bot t
om thereby creati
ng a dow nw ardforceandthec oi
lissetintoarotat
ion.
regi
onofst rongfield.Ther easonforthisisthatt he Belowi san exampl
e.
fi
eldduet oelect
ri
ccur r entintheconductorandt hat
ofthemagnet sreinforceeachot hersincet heyar e
dir
ectedinthesamedi r
ect i
on.

 The r el
ati
vel
y weak f i
eld at t
he bott
om of the
conductorisasr tofcancel
esul lat
ionbet
weenthetwo
fi
eldssincetheyar edir
ectedinopposi
tedi
rect
ions.
Ther esul
tantforcether
eforeact
sont heconductor
downwar ds.

 Thedirecti
onoffor
ceonconductorcanbepr edict
ed
byFleming’sl
efthandrul
ewhi chstatesthat“I
fthe
thumb,fir
standsecondfi
ngersarehel dmutuall
yat
ri
ghtangleswit
hthefi
rstf
ingerpoi
ntingthedir
ecti
on

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ofmagneti
cfi
eld,t
hesecondfi
ngeri
nthedirect
ionof
cur
rent
,then t
he thumb poi
ntsinthe di
recti
on of
for
ce”

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For
ce bet ween Parall
el St
rai
ght Current Car
ryi
ng Whenacurr
entispassedthroughthecoi
lint
hedirect
ion
Conduct
ors PQRSthecoilst
art
st otur
n,andev ent
ual
lybecomest o
rest
.Wi
tht
heaidofdiagr
amsexpl ai
n:
a. Paral
l
el Conductor
s Carry
ing Cur
rent i
n Same
Dir
ecti
on I
. Whyt hecoi
lbegi
nstot ur
n

I
I. I
nwhi
chdi
rect
ioni
tbegi
nst
otur
n

I
II
. Whyi
tcomest
orest

I
V. Theposi
ti
oni
nwhi
chi
tcomest
orest

2. Theappar
atusshownbel
ow maybeusedt
ocause
 Themagnet i
cfi
eldbetweentheconductorsi
sweaker ri
derABmoveal
ongther
odsCandD
duetocancell
ati
onthant hef
iel
dfrom theout
ersi
de.
Theresul
tantforceont heconductor
sact stopush
them t
owardseachother
.

b. Paral
l
elConduct
ors Car
ryi
ng Cur
rentI
n Opposi
te
Dir
ecti
on

I
. Whencurrentfl
owsal
ongAB,i
nwhatdi
rect
ion
wi
lli
trol
l
?Explai
n.

 Thef i
eldsbetweentheconductor
srepeleachot her I
I. What happens t
othe r
ider when cur
rent i
s
sincetheyaredi r
ect
edinsamedi r
ecti
on.A force, i
ncr
eased?
theref
ore,act
sont heconduct
orstopullthem apart
I
II
. St
atet herul
et hatcanbeusedt o pr
edi
ctt
he
(outwards)
di
rect
ionoffor
ceacti
ngonther
ider
.
Fact
orsAf
fect
ingFor
ceonaConduct
orCar
ryi
ngCur
rent
i
naMagneticFiel
d
Appl
icati
onsofMagnet
icEf
fectofanEl
ect
ri
cCur
rent
1. Magnit
ude ofel
ect
ri
c cur
rent
-f
orce i
ncr
eases wi
th
cur
rent 1. Elect
ri
cbell
2. St
rengt
h ofmagneti
cf i
eld– f
orce i
ncr
eases wi
th
st
rengt
hofthemagnet
icfi
eld

3. Lengt
hoft heconduct
ori
nthef
iel
d– t
hel
ongert
he
l
engththestr
ongert
hefor
ce

4. Angletheconduct
ormakeswit
ht hemagnet
icf
iel
d–
for
ceincreaseswit
htheangl
e.Itismaximum when
theconductori eof900 wi
satanangl ththemagneti
c
fi
eld

Exer
cise

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vel
s,
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ate
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56

1. Thefigurebelow showsar ectangul

arcoilPQRSof
manyt urnsofwir
el ocat
edinamagnet i
cfi
elddueto
twopolesnor t
handsouth.Thecoili
sfreetorot
ateon
thev
er t
icalaxi
sCD.

 Thecapaci
tori
susedt or
educespar
kingeff
ectatthe
contact
s.The ci
rcui
tis compl
eted atthe cont
act
spri
ngandcont
actscrew.

No
vel
s,
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ate
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57

Wor
kingMechani
sm ofanEl
ect
ri
cBel
l  Thecur rentisthenr ev
ersedinthecoi landtheforces
acti
ngoneachsi der everseindirection.SideABi s
 When cur renti sswi t
ched on,i tflowst hr ough the nowont her i
ghtwi t
hadownwar dforcewhi l
esideCD
cir
cuitandt hesof tir
oncor ebecomesmagnet ized. i
sont heleftwithanupwar dfor
ce.Thecoi lconti
nues
Themagnet i
zedi r
oncor ethenat tractsthesoti r
on torotate.
armat ure,whi ch has a hammerati ts end. On
att
ract i
on,thehammerknockst hegongandt hebell
ri
ngs.
3. Simplemagnet i
crelay
 Whent hesof tir
onar maturei satt
racted,thecont act
att he contactscr ew is broken and curr entstops  I namagnet i
cr elay,oneci r
cuitisusedt o control
fl
owi ng.Theel ectr
omagnetl osesi t
smagnet i
sm and anothercircui
twi t
houtanydi r
ectelectri
calconnecti
on
rel
easest hesof tir
onar mat ureandt hiscl osest he betweent hem.
contactagai n.

 This process is r
epeated and t
he bellr
ings
conti
nuouslyasl
ongastheswi
tchi
scl
osed.

2. El
ect
rcMot
i or

 I
tisadev i
sewhich conv
ert
sel
ect
ri
calener
gyi
nto
r
otat
ionalki
net
icener
gy.

 Theper manentmagnet sar ecurved attheendsto Worki

ngMechani sm ofMagnet i
cRelay
produceradi
almagnet i
cf i
eld.
 When t he swi t
ch is cl
osed,currentfl
ows through
Functi
onsofCarbonBr ush ci
rcuitX;electromagnetismadeont hesolenoi
dand
i
nt urnatt
ractst hesofti
ronarmature.Theclosesthe
a) Pressesli
ghtlyagai hecommut
nstt at
orssothatt
hat contact
si ncircuitY.
thecoil
rotat
esf r
eelyandeasi l
y.
4. Cir
cuitBreaker s
b) Connectthecoiltotheelectri
ccurr
entsource.
 Ci r
cuit breaker s are used t o prot
ect electr
ical
Reasonswhycar bonbrushesandcommut at
orsaremade component sf r
om excessiv
ef l
owofcurrent
.
ofgraphi
te

a) Gr
aphi
t sagoodconduct
ei orofel
ect
ri
cit
y.

b) I
tser
vesasal
ubr
icantsi
ncei
tissl
i
pper
y.

Wor
kingMechani
sm oft
heEl
ect
ri
cMot
or

 When t
he coi
lis hor
izont
aland cur
rent passes

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58

thr
ough i t as shown on t he di
agr
am,si de AB
experi
encesanupwar df or
cewhileBCexper
iencesa
downwar dforce.Thetwoforcesmakethecoilr
otat
e
i
nt heclockwisedi
rect
ion.

 Whent hecoili
sinthevert
icalposi
ti
onwit
hABatt he
top and CD atthebottom,t hebrushestouch t
he
spacesbetweenthetwosplitr
ings.

 Duetomoment um,t
hecoi lcont
inuest
or ot
ateand
thecommutat
orsint
erchangethecontactposi
ti
ons
wit
hthebr
ushes.

No
vel
s,
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ate
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59

Wor
kingMechani
sm ofaCi
rcui
tBr
eaker

 When excess current f

lows thr
ough t he ci
rcui
t,
i
ncreased magneti
c power of the electr
omagnet
openstheswi
tch,t
husstoppingcur
rentf
low.

Rev
isi
onexer
cise

a. St at
et wo f
act
orst
hataf
fectst
rengt
h ofan
el
ect
romagnet

b.I
nt hesetup bel
ow thesuspended meterr
uleis
bal
ancedbythemagnetandtheweightshown.The
i
roncorei
sfi
xedonthebench.

i
. St
ateand expl
aintheeffectont
hemet
err
ule
whent
heswitchiscl
osed.

i
i
. Whatwouldbet
heef
fectofr
ever
singt
hebat
ter
y
t
erminal
s?

i
i
i. Suggesthow the setup i
nt he f
igur
e can be
adopted t
o measurethecurr
entflowi
ng inthe
curr
entcir
cui
t.

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vel
s,
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ate
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vel
s,
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ate
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61

Chapt
erEi
ght WAVESI
Speci
fi
cobj
ect
ives Cont
ent

Byt
heendoft
hist
opi
cthel
eanershoul
dbeabl
eto: 1. Pul
sesandwav
es

a) Descr
ibet
hef
ormat
ionofpul
sesandwav
es 2. Tr
ansv
erseandl
ongi
tudi
nal
wav
es

b) Descr
ibet
ransv
erseandl
ongi
tudi
nal
wav
es 3. Amplit
ude (
a),wav
elengt
h(λ)
,fr
equency (
f),
per
iodi
cti
me(T)
c) Defineampli
tude(a)
,wavel
engt
h(λ)
,fr
equency
(f
),andper
iodi
cti
me( T) 4. V=f
λ

d) Der
ivet
her
elat
ionV=f
λ 5. Pr
obl
emsi
nvol
vi
ngV=f
λ.

e) Sol
venumer
ical
probl
emsi
nvol
vi
ngV=f
λ

I
ntr
oduct
ion Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofMechani
calWav
es

 I nthist opi
cbasi cconceptsaboutwav esar estudied. a. Transversewav es
Knowl edgeaboutwav eshasbeenbr oadlyappl i
edin
dail
yl i
fee. g.inradioandt el
ev i
si
on,mobi lephones,
remotecont rol
system,heatenergyradi
ationetc.
 Thesear ewav esinwhichdispl
acementofmedi um
Def
init
ionofawav e parti
cles i
s at ri
ght angl
e t
o the di
recti
on of
propagation oft he wave.Examples oftransverse
 Awav er ef
erst othetr
ansmissionofadi sturbance.A wav earewat erwaves,wavesonaropeswungupand
wav et hereforetransmit
sener gyfrom onepoi ntto down.Tr ansversewav estr
avelasaser esofcr
i ests
another. andt r
oughs.

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofWav
es

 Wavescanbebroadl
ycl
assi
fedasel
i ect
romagnetor
mechani
cali
nnat
ure.

1. El
ect
romagnetwav
es

 These ar e waves whi ch do notrequir

e mat eral 
i Acresti
sthehi
ghestpoi
ntofat
ransv
ersewav
ewhi
l
e
medi um f or tr
ansmi ssi
on. Such waves can be at
roughisthel
owestpoi
ntofat
ransver
sewave
propagatedinv acuum.Exampl esofel
ectromagneti
c
wav esareRadi owav es,Radi
antheate.g.from sun,  For
mat i
onoftransv
ersewav
ecanbei l
lust
rat
edby
l
ight,Microwavesetc. swingi
ngasl
inkyspri
ngorar
opef
ixedatoneendup
anddown.
 NB:
Elect
romagnet
icwav et
esar r
ansv
ersei
nnat
ure

b. Longi
tudi
nalwav
es
2. Mechani
calwav
es
 Thesearewav
esi nwhi
chdispl
acementofmedium
 Thesear
ewav
eswhi
chdor
equi
reamat
eri
almedi
um part
icl
esi
spar
all
eltot
hedi
recti
onofpropagat
ionof

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vel
s,
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ate
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62

f
ortransmissi
on.Suchwavescannotbepr
opagat
ed t
hewav e.Exampl
esoflongi
tudi
nalwaveareSound
i
nvacuum.Exampl esofmechani
calwav
esarewater wave,wavesonasli
nkyspri
ngfixedatoneendand
wav
es, soundwaveset
c. vi
brat
edtoandtwoet
c.

 Longtudi
onal wav es consi sts of sect i
ons of
rar
efacti
ons andcompr essi
ons. Compr essi
ons ar e
secti
ons ofhi gh pr essurein which parti
cles are
ppushed closer t ogether while rar
efacti
ons ar e
secti
onsoflowpr essur einwhichparti
clesarepulled
sli
ghtl
yf ur
thera par tf r
om one anot herPr
. essure
vari
ati
oninal ongtudionalwav eiswhatcauseswav e
mot i
on.
Ter
msAssoci
atedwi
thWav
es

 Considert
het r
ansver
sewavef
orm andanosci
l
lat
ing
pendulum bobshownbel
ow.

 For
mat on oflongt
udi
nalwave ca be i
l
lust
rat
ed by
vi
brat
ingasl i
nkyspri
ngfi
xedatoneendt oandfro
al
ongitslengt
h.

Exampl
es

a. Whati
sapr
ogr
essi
vewav
e?

I
tisawav ethatmovescont
inual
yawayf rom t
he
sour
ce. 1. Osci
l
lati
on– anosci ll
ati
onisacompl etetoandffo
moti
on.Forexampl e,intheaboveoscill
ati
ngbob,a
b. Expl
ainwhytheampli
tudeof apr ogr
essi
vewave complet
eoscil
lati
onisD-E-F-
E-D.
decr
easesgr
adual
lyf
rom t
hesource.
2. Ampli
tude,A -itisthemaximum displacementofa
Ast hewavemov eaway f rom thesource,t
he

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vel
s,
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ate
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63

ener
gyi
sspr
eadov
erani
ncr
easi
ngl
ylar
gear
ea. par
ti
clef
rom meanposition.It
sSIunitisthemet
re
(m)
.Foranoscil
lat
ingpendulum bobaboveDEorEF
Exer
cise i
stheampli
tude.
1. Di
fer
entiate bet ween el ectromagneti
c and 3. Wav el
ength,λ– iti
sthedistancebet
weenanyt wo
mechanicalwavegivingoneexampleineach part
icl
esinawav et
hatar
einphase.Iti
sdenotedby
Greeklet
terlambda,
λ.I
tsSIuni st
ti hemeter(
m).
2. St
atetwocat egori
eswav es.
Note:Parti
clesinawavearesaidtobeinphaseifthey
3. St
atetwot y
pesofmechani calwaves.Stat
ethe areoscil
lat
inginsamedir
ect
ionandatthesamelevelof
di
ff
erencebet weenthem. di
splacement .
4. Gi
vet
woexampl
esofmechani
calwav
es.

Pul
se

 A pul
seisasi ngl
edi st
urbancet hati
st r
ansimit
ted
t
hroughamedi um.Itcanbetransv erseorl
ongtudi
onal
i
nnature.Generati
onofapul secanbei l
l
ustrat
edby
j
erki
ngar opef
ixedatoneendj ustonce. Part
icl
esAandD,BandEar
einphase.CandDar
eout
ofphaseby1800.

 From thewav eequat

ion,
ifspeedofthewav eis
const
ant ,
frequencyi
sinversel
yproporti
onal
to
wavelength.Thi
scanbepr esentedgraphi
cal
lyas
shownbel ow.

Exampl
e

Thefi
gurebelow showsadi
spl
acement
-t
imegr
aphofawav
e
tr
avel
l
ingat2500cms-1
4. Per
iod,T-it
’sthetimetakenbyapart
icl
etocompl
ete
oneoscil
l
ation.SIuni
tofperi st
odi hesecond(
s)

5. Frequency,f– iti s t he number of complet

e
oscil
lat
ions(
ful
lwavelengths)madebyapar t
icl
ein
onesecond.SIuni
toffrequencyi
sher
tz(Hz)
.

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vel
s,
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ate
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64

Rel
ati
onshi
pbet
weenFr
equencyandPer
iod

I
 Fr
equencyi
sther
eci
procal
ofper
iodi
.e.f=
T

6. Speedofthewav e-Iti
sthedi
stancecov
eredbya
waveinonesecond.

TheWav
eEquat
ion
Det
ermi
nef
ort
hewav
e:
 Thewaveequati
onrel
atesSpeed,V,Wav
elengt
h,λ
andFr
equency
,fofaWave a) Ampl
i
tude

di
stance Sol
uti
on
 Gener
all
y,speed=
ti
me
A=maxi
mum di
spl
acementf
rom meanposi
ti
on
 Foradist
anceofwav elengt
hcover
edbyawave,t
ime
takeni
sequiv
alentt
ot heperi
odoft
hewave. =3cm OR 0.
03m i
nSIuni
ts

wavel
ength b) Per
iodi
cti
me
∴speed=
per
iod
Sol
uti
on
λ I
V= =λ× T=(
9- x10-3s
1)
T T
=8x10-3s
I
But
,f= andt
her
efor
eV=λf
T

Thi
siscal
l hewav
edt espeedequat
ion

No
vel
s,
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ate
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65

c) Fr
equency 10.Waterwavesareobser
vedastheypassaf i
xedpointata
rat
eof30crest
sperminut
e.Aparti
cul
arwavecrestt
akes2
Sol
uti
on secondst
otrav
elbet
weentwopoint
s6m apart
.Deter
mine:

I 1 i
. Thef
requency
f= = Hz
T 8X10-3
i
i
. Thewav
elengt
h
125×10-3Hz=125Hz
=0.
11.Calcul
atethe wavel
engt
h oft he KBC FM r
adi
o wav
e
d)Wav
elengt
h tr
ansmitt
edatafr
equencyof95.
6MHz

Sol
uti
on 12.Theaudibl
efr
equencyrangeforacertai
nper soni
sbetween
30Hzand16500Hz.Det erminethelargestwavel
engthof
V=f
λ soundinairt
hepersoncandet ect
(speedofsoundinairis
333m/s)
V 250ms-1
λ= = =2m
f 125s-1. 13.Thef
igur
ebel
owr
epr
esent
sadi
spl
acement
-t
imegr
aphf
or
awave.
Rev
isi
onExer
cise

1. St
atet
hewav
efor
mul
a

2. Sketcht
hev ar
iat
ionoffr
equencywit
hwav
elengt
hgi
vent
hat
speedofthewaver emai
nsconstant

3. Namet
wot
ypesofpr
ogr
essi
vewav
emot
ion.

4. Avibr
atorsendsout12r i
pplespersecondacr
ossar i
pple
t
ank.Ther i
pplesareobserv
edt obe5cm apart.Fi
ndt he i
. Det
ermi
net
hef
requencyoft
hewav
e
v
eloci
tyoftherippl
es.
i
i
. Sketchonthesameaxesthedi spl
acement-
ti
me
5. Awat
erwavetr
avels2m in5seconds.I
fthef
requencyof graphoft
hewaveofsamefrequencybut1800out
t
hewavei
s10Hz,cal
cul
atethe: ofphaseandwi
thsmall
erampli
tude.

I
. Speedoft
hewav
e

I
I. Wav
elengt
hoft
hewav
e

6. Thediagr
am bel
owshowsadi
spl
acement
-t
imegr
aphf
ora
cer
tai
nwav e.

I
. Howmanyosci
l
lat
ionsar
eshownabov
e?

I
I. Cal
cul
atet
hef
requencyoft
hewav
e

I
II
. Cal
cul
atet
heper
iodi
cti
meoft
hewav
e

7. Sket
cht hewav
efor
m oft
wicet
hef
requencyoft
hewav
e
above.

8. El
ect
romagneti
cwav
estravelsatavel
oci
tyof3.0x108ms-1
i
n ai
r,cal
culat
ethe wavelengt
hin ai
rofr adio waves

No
vel
s,
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ate
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t
ransmi
tt
edataf
requencyof200MHz.

9. Wav eri
ppl
esarecausedtotravelacrosst hesurfaceofa
shall
ow t
ankbymeansofasui t
ablestraightvi
brator
.The
dist
ancebet
weensuccessi
vecrestsis6.0cm andthewaves
tr
avel50.
4cm i
n3.
6seconds.Calculat
e:

i
. Thewav
elengt
h

i
i
. Vel
oci
ty

i
i
i. Fr
equencyoft
hev
ibr
ator
.

No
vel
s,
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ate
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Chapt
erNi
ne FLUI
DFLOW
Speci
fi
cobj
ect
ives Cont
ent

Byt
heendoft
hist
opi
cthel
eanershoul
dbeabl
eto: 1. St
reaml
i
neandt
urbul
entf
low

a) Descr
ibest
reaml
i
nef
lowandt
urbul
entf
low 2. Equat
ionofcont
inui
ty

b) Der
ivet
heequat
ionofcont
inui
ty 3. Ber
noul
l
i’
sef
fect(
exper
iment
alt
reat
mentr
equi
red)

c) Descr
ibeexper
iment
stoi
l
lust
rat
eBer
noul
l
i’
sef
fect
s 4. Appl
icat
ionofBernoul
li
’
sef f
ect
:Bunsenburner
,spr
ay
gun,
carburet
or,
aerofoi
l,spi
nni
ngballet
c.
d) Expl
aint
heBer
noul
l
i’
sef
fect
5. Pr
obl
emsonequat
ionofcont
inui
ty
e) Descr
ibet
heappl
i
cat
ionofBer
noul
l
i’
sef
fect

) Sol
f venumer
icalpr
obl
emsi
nvol
vi
ngt
heequat
ionof
cont
inui
ty

Fl
uid Char
act
eri
sti
csofSt
reaml
i
neFl
ow

 Af luidref
erst o anysubst ancet hati scapableof I . Streamlinesareparallelt
oeachot her
.
fl
owi ngduet opr essur
edi f
ference.I tincl
udesbot h
l
iquids and gases.Exampl esoff luidf l
ow include: I
I. Streamlinefl
owi ssmoot handsteady.
perfumespr ayfrom aper f
umebot t
le,flow ofwat er
alongar i
verbed,smokef rom chimneyet c.Af l
owing  Some shapes and bodi es are designed to be
fl
uidexperi
encesi nt
ernalr
esistancecal edv
l i
scosity
. streamli
ne dtoenh ancet hei
rmoti
o ninflui
ds.Abody
issai dtobest reamlinedifitdoesnotaf f
ectthe
Ty
pesofFl uidFl
ow dist
ribut
ionofstreamlinesbehindit.

 Theretwot y
pesoff
lui
dfl
ow:st
reaml
i
ne(
steady
)and
tur
bulentf
lows

1.St
reaml
i
ne(
steady
)fl
ow

 I
tisaf l
owi
nwhi chatanygi
venpointeachandever
y
par
ticl
eoft
hef l
uidtr
avel
sinthesamedi r
ecti
onand
wit
hsameveloci
ty.

 Astr
eamli
neref
erst
othepat
hfoll
owedbyt
hepar
ti
cl
e  Examplesofst
reamlinedbodi
esi ude:car
ncl s,j
umbo
i
nastreaml
inef
low.I
tisr
epr
esentedbyal
i
newit
han j
ets,bi
rdst
hatf
ly,f
ishetc.
ar
rowhead.

 Note:St
reaml
inesdonotcr
osseachot
herbutar
e
cl
oserwheret
hefl
uidi
smovi
ngf
ast
er

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2.Tur
bul
entFl
ow  I
ft he v el
ocityoff lui
dt hr
ough regi
on B isvB
,the
average cross-sect
ion area oft s AB and t
ube i he
 I
tisaf low inwhichthespeedanddi
rect
ionofthe di
stancecov er
edbyt hefl
uidindir
ecti
onoffl
owi sf or
fl
uidparti
clespassi
ngatanypointvarywit
htime. ti
me, t ,i
s d ,t
henthev ol
umef l
ux t
hrought
ha tr
e gi
o n
Turbul
entfl
owoccursdueto: B B
i
s:
I
. Abruptchangeofcr
osssect
ionalar
eaoft
he
vol
ume V
tubeoffl
ow. v
olumef
luxorf
lowr
ate= =
ti
me t B

Butv
olume=cr
oss–sect
ionar
ea×l
engt
h

V=AB×dB

d×A d
I
I. Speedoft hefl
uidfl
ow changessharpl
yor Vol
umef
lux= B B = B×AB
suddenl
yandbeyondacr
iti
calvel
oci
ty. t
B
tB

I
II
. An obstacl
e i
s pl
aced on t
he path of d
,B =Vel
But oci
tyv
,
st
reaml
ines and bl
ocks or br
eaks the tB
B

st
reaml
ines.
∴Vol
umef
lux=v
B
×AB

Vol
umef
lux=v
eloci
ty×cr
osssect
ionar
eaoft
ubeoff
low

MassFl
ux

 Iti
st hemassofaflui
dthatfl
owsthr
oughagi
ven
sect
ionoft
ubeoff
lowperuni
tti
me.
Char
act
eri
sti
csofTur
bul
entFl
ow
mass
massf
lux=
i
. Thest
reaml
i
nesar
enotcont
inuous t
ime

i
i
. Par
ti
clesdonott rav
eli
nsamedi
rect
i e But
onandhav ,
mass=density×v
olume.
di
ff
erentv
eloci
ty.
Thatis,
m =ρ×V.
Not
es:
ρ×V
∴massfl
ux=
1. When bodies which are not str
eaml i
ned (non- t
str
eamli
ned) mov ei nflui
ds,they cause eddies
V
(t
urbul
ence)intheflui
d.A bodyissaidt obenon- But, =v ol
umeflux.
t
str
eamli
nedifi
tproduceseddi
esbehi
ndit.
massf
lux=densit
yofflui
d,ρ×vol
umef l
ux
2. Cr
it
icalveloci
tyist hespeedoff l
ow off
lui
dbey
ond
whi
cht heflui
dexhibit
stur
bulentf
low. ∴massfl
ux
=densityofflui
d×vel
oci
tyoff
lui
d×cr
oss
Vol
umeFl ux(FlowRate) -sect
ionareaoftube
 Thi sisthevolumeofaf l
uidpassingthr
oughagiven TheEquationoftheConti
nui
ty
secti
onofat ubeoff
lowperunitti
me.
Assumpti
ons made i n derivi
ng t
he equat
ion of t
he
v
olumeofflui
dpassinggiv
ensect
ion conti
nui
ty
Vol
umef l
ux= .
t
imetheflui
dtakestopassthesecti
on
1. Thef lui
disf l
owing st
eadil
y(i
.e.hasast r
eamli
ne
 SIuni tofvolume fl
uxis cubic meterpersecond fl
ow)
(m3/s)
2. Thefluidi
sincompressi
ble

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 Consideraf
lui
dfl
owi
ngt
hroughasect
ionBoff
low 3. Thef
lui
disnon-v
iscous.
tubeshownbel
ow.

Der
ivi
ngEquat
ionofCont
inui
ty a) Whati
sthev
eloci
tyoft
hel
i
qui
dbet
weenAandB?

 Considerthetubeofflowbel owwithchangi ngcross- Sol

uti
on
sect
ionareas.
Fl
owrate
 Secti
on1hasacr osssectionareaofA1whi lesecti
on
2 hascr osssection area ofA2.
Veloci
tyoff l
uidin v
olume
= =cr
oss-
sect
ionar
ea,
A×v
eloci
ty,
v
sect
ion1i sv whil
e i
ns ect
ion2isv . v >v t
ime
1 2 1 2

8×10-6m3
 Volumeoff lui
df l
owi
ngt hr
oughsecti
on1peruni t =1×10-4m2×v
1s
ti
me i s equaltov ol
ume off l
uidfl
owing t
hrough
secti
on2peruni tt
imeie.f
. l
owrate/v
olumefl
uxisa 8×10-6m3
constant
. v= =8×10-2ms-1
1s×1×10-4m2
Vol
umef
luxi
nsect
ion1=v
olumef
luxi
nsect
ion2
b) Whati
sthev
eloci
tyoft
hel
i
qui
dbet
weenBC?
A1v=A2v
1 2 Sol
uti
on
i
.e.cr
osssect
ionar
ea×v
eloci
ty=const
ant A1v=A2v
1 2

Av=const
ant
.

 Thi
si heequat
st ionofcont
inui
tywhi
chi
sal
socal
l
ed

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f
lowr
ateequat
ion. 1×10-4m2×8×10-2ms-1=1×10-6m2×v
2

1×10-4m2×8×10-2ms-1
v = =8ms-1
2 1×10-6m2

Exampl
es

1. Waterf
lowst hr
oughahor i
zontalpipeatar ateof
00m3/
1. min.Determi
nethev el
ocityofthewaterata
poi
ntwherethediameterofthepipeis1.00cm Exer
cise

Sol
uti
on 1. Agar densprinkl
erhassmallhol
es,each2.00mm2i n
area.Ifwaterissuppl
iedattherat
eof3. 0x10-3m3s-1
f
lowr
ate=Av and the average vel
ocit
y ofthe spray is 10ms-1,
00m3
1.
calcul
atethenumberoftheholes.
1.
=π( 00×10-2 2)
2 2
m ×v
60s 2. Oilf
lowsthrougha6cm internaldi
ameterpipeatan
aver
agevelociyof5ms-1.Fi
t ndtheflow r
ateinm3/s
1.
00
v= 18ms-1
=212. andcm/s
5×10-5
60×π×2.
3. Thevelocit
yofgl ycer
ini
na5cm i nt
ernaldi
ameter
2. I
nf i
gurebel
ow,t
hetubeABCi
sfi
ll
edwi t
hal
i
qui
d.
pi
peis1. 00m/s.Findthevel
oci
tyina3cm inter
nal
Thepist
onmovesfr
om At
oBin1second.
di
ameterpi pe thatconnect
s wit
hi t
,both pipes
fl
owi
ngf ull
.

Ber
noul
l
i’
sEf
fect

 Itstates t
hat:provi
ded a fl
uidisnon-v iscous,i
n
compr essi
bleanditsfl
ow streamlineani ncreasei
n
i
tsv eloci
typroducesacor respondingdecr easesi
n
a) Whati
sthev
olumeoft
hel
i
qui
dinpoi
ntAB thepressureitexer
tswhil
eadecr easeinitsv el
oci
ty
producesacor r
espondi
ngincreaseinpressure.
Sol
uti
on
Ber
noul
l
i’
sEf
fecti
nPr
act
ice
v
olume=cr
oss-
sect
ionar
ea×l
engt
h
1. Consi
dertheset
-upbel
owi
nwhi
chpi
peAandChav
e
v
olume=1×10-4m2×8×10-2m =8×10-6m3 somediametert
ubes

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s,
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ate
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4. Al i
ghtpaperhel dinf r
ontofthemout handai rblown
horizontal
lyoveritisobservedtor i
se.Thisisbecause
thev elocit
yofai rabov epaperi ncreasesleadingto
reduction in pr essure. The hi gher at mospheri
c
pressur eacti
ngfrom belowpr oducesaf orcethatli
ft
s
thepaperupwar ds.

 Whenai ri
sblowni ntothet ubebyabl ower
,iti
s
obser
vedthatwaterr
isestosamel ev
eli
ntubeDand
F.I
nEt hel
evelofwat
erishighert
hanDandF.

 Vel ocit
yofai rinpi peAandCar et hesameduet o Ber
noul l
i’
sPr incipl
e
samecr oss-sectionalar eas.Mov ing aircausesa
reducti
onofpr essureandsi ncer esulti
ngairpressure  I tst ates t hat:” prov
ided the fl
uidis non-v i
scous
i
st he same,at mospher icpr essure pushesup t he incompr essi bl
eandhasast r
eamlinefl
ow,thesum of
watertot hesamel ev el
. pressur e,ki neti
cener gyperunitvolumeandpot ent
ial
energyperuni tvolumei saconstant”.
 Thespeed ofmov ing ai
ri n nar r
owersect ion B is
higherandt heresultingpressur eismuchl owert han Mathemat icalExpr essi
onf orBernoul
li
’
sPr i
ncipl
e
AandC, hencewaterr i
sestohi gherlevelinE.
 Consi dera f l
uid ofdensi t
y,ρ,mass,m,f l
owing
throughapi pewi thav eloci
ty,
vandpr essureatany
givenpoi nt,P.
2. Whenai risblownabov et heopeni ng ofthef lask
shown t he pit
h bal lis obser ved tor ise f
rom t he
bottom.

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s,
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ki
neti
cener
gy
Theki
net
icener
gyperuni
tvol
ume=
vol
ume;

1 2
mv 2
2 mv m
= ; butρ=
V 2V V

1
∴ki
net
icener
gyperuni
tv ume= ρV2
ol
2

pot
enti
alener
gy
Pot
ent
ial
ener
gyperuni
tvol
ume=
vol
ume

 Thebl ownaircausesreducti
onofpressur
eatt
het op mgh=ρgh
theref
ore,t
hereisanetforceupwardsasthepr
essure V
diff
erencepushesthepithbal
lupwards.
∴Ber
noul
l
i’
spr
inci
plecanbeexpr
essedas:

1
P+ ρV2+ρgh=const
ant
2
3. When ai r is blown hor
izontal
l
y between t wo
suspended bal
l
oonsinthehor i
zontaldi
rect
ion,the Appl
icat
ionsofBer
noul
l
i’
sPr
inci
ple
ball
oonsareobser
vedtomovetowardseachother.
1. TheAerofoi
l

 I
tisastruct
uredesi
gnedi
nsuchwayt hatt
hefl
uid
movi
ngaboveitmoveswit
hahigherspeedt
hanthe
onemov
ingbelow

 Mov i
ngairl eadstor educedpressureont heinner
si
des of t he balloons. The higher atmospher i
c
pressur
e acting on the out
ersurfaces causes the
ball
oonstomov ecl
osertoeachother.

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vel
s,
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ate
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 Thepr essureabovetheaerof oi
list her
efor
el ower  Airveloci
tyatconstri
cti
onishigher.Thi
smakest he
thanthepr essurebel
ow it
.Thepr essuredif
ference pressureattheconst ri
cti
ondrop.Theat mospheri
c
betweenthet opandbott
om gi
vesr i
setotheli
ftofthe pressure bei
ng higher pushes the pet
roltot he
aerofoil
.Thisi eddy
scal
l namiclif
t. constri
cti
on.

Rev
isi
onExer
cise

2. Bunsenbur
ner 1. Thefi
gur
ebelow showsapit
hballpl
acedinafl
ask.
Whenajetofai
risblownov
erthemouthofthef
lask
asshown,thepi
thballi
sobserv
edtor i
sefr
om the
bot
tom.

 Whengasi smadet ofl

owi ntotheBunsenbur ner
,it
s
veloci
tyincr
easesasi tpassesthroughthenozzle;
thi
s Explai
nthisobserv
at i
on
decreasesthepr essur
eabov ethenozzle.Becauseof
higheratmospher i
cpressureoutsidethebarrel
,ai s 2. St
ri ateBernoul
l
i’
spri
nciple
thendr awnin.
3. Api peofradi
us6mm i sconnectedtoanotherpi
peof
 Theai randthegast henmi xastheyriseupandwhen radius9mm.I fwaterflowsint hewiderpipeatthe
i
gni t
edaf l
amei sproduced. speedof2ms-1,whati sthespeedi nt henarr
ower
pipe?

4. Thefigur
ebelowshowsat ubeofvar
yingcross-
3. Spr
ayGun secti
onarea.v v
, v andv repr
esentthespeedof
1 2,3 4
waterasitfl
owssteadil
ythroughthesecti
onsofthe

t
ube

Arrangethespeedsv vv andv
,
1 2,3 4
i
ndecr
easi
ng
or
derst
art
ingwiththehi
ghest
.

5. Thefigur
ebel
owshowsasheetofpaperr
oll
edi
ntoa
tube.
 Whent hepist
onispushedforwardairismadet ofl
ow
thr
ought hebarr
elandther
eforecausesl owpressure
i
nt he barrel
.Hi gh at
mospher i
c pressure on the
surf
aceoft heli
quidcompelst heli
quidt omov eup
thetube.
Whenafaststr
eam ofai
risbl
ownint
othetubeasshown
 Thev el
oci
tyoftheli
qui
di sincr
easedasi tpushes
i
nt hediagr
am thepapertubecoll
apses. Expl
aint
he
thr
oughthenozzl
eduetoreducedcrosssect
ionar
ea.
obser
vat
ion.
Theli
quidt
heref
oreemer
gesasaf i
nespray.
6. Thef igurebelow showsahor i
zontalt
ubewithtwo
vert
icalt ubes X and Y.wat erflows thr
ough the
4. Thecar
bur
etor
. hori
zont altubefr
om righttoleft
.Thewat erl
evelin
tubeXi shighert
hanwat erl
eveli
nt ubeY.

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s,
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ate
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Expl
aint
hisobser
vat
ion

Chapt
erTen REFLECTI
ONATCURVEDSURFACES
Speci
fi
cobj
ect
ives Cont
ent

Byt
heendoft
hist
opi
cthel
ear
nershoul
dbeabl
eto: 1. Concav
e,conv
exandpar
abol
i
cref
lect
ors

a) Descr
ibeconcav
e,conv
exandpar
abol
i
cref
lect
ors 2. Pri
ncipalaxi
s,pr
inci
palf
ocus,cent
reofcur
vat
ure
andrelat
edterms
b) Descr
ibe usi
ng ray di
agr
ams the pri
nci
palaxi
s,
pr
inci
palf
ocuscentr
eofcur
vat
ureandr
elat
edter
ms. 3. Locati
onofimagesf or
medbycur v
edmirr
orsby
constr
ucti
on met hod (exper
iment on cur
ved
c) Locat
e images f
ormed by cur
ved mi
rr
ors by mirr
orsrequi
red)
const
ruct
ion
4. Magni
fi
cat
ionf
ormul
a
d) Det
ermi
ne exper
iment
all
y t
he char
act
eri
sti
cs of
i
magesfor
medbyconcavemi
rr
or 5. Appl
i
cat
ionsofcur
vedr
efl
ect
ors

e) Def
inemagni
fi
cat
ion

f
) Expl
aint
heappl
i
cat
ionsofcur
vedr
efl
ect
ors

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s,
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ate
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75

I
ntr
oduct
ion 3. Par
abol
i
cRef
lect
or/Mi
rr
or

 Curvedrefl
ector
sareobt ai
nedf r
om holl
ow spher es,  Itis a curved refl
ect
orwhose r efl
ecti
ng sur
face
cones orcy l
i
nders.The surfaces ofthese hollow curves morei nwards than that of t
he concave
sol
idsaret hen hi
ghlypoli
shed from the i
nside or ref
lect
or.I
tisobtainedbyhighl
ypoli
shingtheout
side
outsi
de dependi
ng on the ty
pe ofcur ved r
eflector ofaglasscone.
bei
ngmade.Concav eandconv exmi r
rorsareal so
cal
ledspheri
calmirr
ors.

Ty
pesofCur
vedRef
lect
ors

1. Concav
eRef
lect
or/Mi
rr
or

 Thi
sisar efl
ectorwhoser ef
lect
ingsurf
acecurves
i
nwards.Iti
sobt ai
nedbyhighl
ypol i
shi
ngtheout
side
ofaglasssphereport
ion. Ter
msAssoci
atedwi
thCur
vedRef
lect
ors

 Consi
dert
hedi
agr
amsbel
ow;

2. Conv
exRef
lect
or/Mi
rr
or

 Thi
sisar efl
ectorwhoserefl
ecti
ngsurfacecurv
es
out
wards.I
tisobtai
nedbyhighl
ypoli
shi
ngt hei
nsi
de
ofagl
asssphereport
ion.

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s,
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ate
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a. Aper
tur
e

 Thi
sist
hewi
dthoft
hemi
rr
or

b. Pol
e,P
j
. Focall
engt
h,f
 Thi
sist
hegeomet
ri
cal
cent
reoft
hemi
rr
or.
 Thi
sisthedist
ancef
rom t
hepol
eoft
hemi
rr
ort
oit
s
c. Cent
reofcur
vat
ure,
C pri
nci
palf
ocus.

 Thisisthecentr
eofthesphereofwhichthemir
ror Note:Inopti
csful
lli
nesr epr
esentrealray
sandobj ect
s
for
msapar t.Thecentr
eofcur v
atur
eofaconcav e whil
edottedl
inesr
epresentvi
rt
ualraysandimages.
mirr
orisinf r
ontwhil
et hatofaconv exmir
roris
behindt
hemirror
. Exerci
se

d. Radi
usofcur
vat
ure,
r Thef i
gur
ebelow showstwoparal
lelray
sinci
dentona
concavemir
ror
.Fisthef
ocalpoi
ntofthemir
ror
.
 I
tist
heradi
usofaspher
eofwhi
cht
hecur
vedmi
rr
or
f
ormsapart
.

e. Pr
inci
pal
/mai
naxi
s

 Thisisthe l
i
ne passi
ng thr
ough t
he pol
e and t
he
cent
reofcur
vatur
eofthecurvedmi
rror
.
Sketchonthesamedi
agr
am t
hepat
hoft
her
aysaf
ter
f
. Par
axi
alr
aysandmar
ginalr
ays str
iki
ngthemirr
or.
 Thesear er ayswhi charecloseandpar al
l
eltot he Relationship bet
ween Radius ofCur vat
ure and Focal
pri
nci
palaxi swhi l
emar gi
nalray
sar ethosethatare Lengt h
paral
l
el butnotclosetothepri
nci
palaxi
s.
 I tcanbeshownt hroughgeometrythattheradi
usof
g. Pri
ncipalfocus,F,ofaconcavemirr
or curvaturei
stwicethefocal
lengt
hi.e.
 Itist hepoi ntatwhichalltherayspar
allelandcl
oset o r=2f
thepr inci
palaxisconv ergeaf t
erref
lection.Pr
inci
pal
focusofaconcav emi rrorisrealbecauser efl
ect
ed LawsofRef lect
ioni
nCurv
edMi r
ror
s
raysact uall
ypassthroughi t.
 Reflect
ion atcurv
ed sur
faces al
so obey
slaws of
h. Principalfocus,F,
ofaconv exmirr
or ref
lecti
on:

 Thesei
sthepointatwhi
challr
ayspar
all
elandcl
ose 1. The angle ofinci
dence i
sequaltot
he angl
e of
tothepr
inci
palaxi
sappeart
oemerge/diver
gefr
om ref
lect
ionatthepointofi
nci
dence

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s,
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aft
erref
lect
ion.Theprincipalfocusofaconvexmi
rr
or 2. Thei
nci
dentr
ay,t
henormalandtheref
lect
edrayal
l
i
sv i
rt
ualbecauser ef
lectedr aysonlyappeart
opass l
ieont
hesameplaneatt
hepointofi
nci
dence.
thr
oughit.

i
. Focalpl
ane

 Thisisapl aneper pendi

culartotheprinci
palaxi sand
passest hrought hepr i
ncipalfocus.Foraconcav e
mirror,paral
lelray s which ar
e notpar alleltot he
pri
ncipalaxisconv ergeatapoi ntont hef ocalplane
aft
err efl
ection.Fora conv ex mirr
or,par al
lelrays
whichar enotpar all
eltot hepri
ncipalaxisappeart o
emer gefr
om apoi ntonf ocalpl
aneaf t
errefl
ection.

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3. Araythroughthecent
reofcurv
ature(f
orconcave)or
appeari
ngt opassthroughcentr
eofcur vat
ure(for
convexmirror
)isr
efl
ectedal
ongthesamepath.

RayDi
agr
ams

 Raydiagrams are used t

o show and expl
ain how
i
mages ar ef or
med by cur ved mir
rors and the
char
acter
ist
icsofthesei
mages.

FourMaj
orCasesi
ntheConst
ruct
ionofRayDi
agr
ams

1. A rayclose and paral

lelto pr
inci
palaxis passes 4. Arayatanangletot
heprinci
palaxi
sandi nci
dentat
thr
ough princi
palfocus ( f
or concave mir
ror) or t
hepoleisref
lect
edinsuchawayt hattheangl
eof
appearsto emerge from the pri
ncipalf
ocus ( f
or i
nci
dencei
sequaltot
heangleofrefl
ecti
on.
convexmirr
or)aft
errefl
ect
ion.

2. A raythr
oughtheprinci
palfocusofaconcav eor
appear
ing t
o bedi
rected t
ot hepri
nci
palfocusof
convexmirrori
srefl
ected paral
l
elt
ot he pr
inci
pal Char
acter
ist
icsofImagesFor
medbyCur
vedRef
lect
ors
axi
s.
A. Concavemirr
ors

i
. Obj
ectati
nfi
nit
y

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 I
mageisreal
,for
medatF,i
nver
tedandsmal
l
ert
han
t
heobj
ect
.

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80

i
i
. Obj
ectatc  Thei
magef or
medisbehi
ndt
hemi
rr
or,
vir
tual
,upr
ight
andl
argert
hantheobj
ect
.

B. Conv
exmi
rr
or

 Irr
espect
iveofthedist
anceoftheobjecti
nf rontof
the mirr
or,images f
ormed byconvex mirr
ors are
magef
 I or
medi
satC,r
eal
,inv
ert
edandsamesi
zeas
alwaysupri
ght,
small
erthant
heobjectandbetweenP
t
heobj
ect
.
andF.

i
i
i. Obj
ectbey
ondC

Exampl
e

Aladyhol
dsal argeconcav
emi
rr
oroff
ocall
engt
h1m,
 ImageformedisbetweenCandF,r
eal
,inv
ert
edand 80cm f
rom herface.
small
erthant
heobject
.
a. Usi
ng sui
tabl
e const
ruct
ion i
l
lust
rat
e how her
i
mageisformed

i
v. Obj
ectbet
weenCandF

b. St
atetwo char
act
eri
sti
cs ofheri
mage i
nthe
mir
ror
.

o I
mageupr
ight
 Theimagefor
medi sbeyondC,r
eal
,inv
ert
ed,l
arger
thant
heobj
ect(magni
fi
ed) o I
magemagni
fi
ed
v
. Obj
ectatF Exer
cise

1. Thefigur
ebelow showsar
ayofl
i
ghti
nci
dentona
conv
exmi rr
or

 The i
mage isformed atinfi
nit
ybecause t
he r
ays
emergepar
all
elaf
terr
efl
ect
ion.
Usi
ngsuit
abl
econstr
uct
ion,det
ermi
net
her
adi
usof
v
i. Obj
ectbet
weenFandP cur
vat
ureoft
hemirr
or.

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81

2. Thefigur
ebelow showsparabol
icsur
facewi
tha
sour
ceofli
ghtpl
acedati
tsf
ocalpoi
ntF

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Draw r
aystoshow r
efl
ect
ionfr
om thesur
facewhen i
i
. Si
zeoft
hei
mage
ray
sf r
om thesour
cest
ri
kethesurf
aceatpoi
ntsA,B,C
andD i
i
i. Nat
ureoft
hei
mage

3. Thefi
gurebel
owshowsav
ert
icalobj
ect
,O,
placedi
n i
v. magni
fi
cat
ion
fr
ontofaconvexmi
rr
or
sol
uti
on

Onthesamediagr
am dr
awt
heappr
opr
iat
eray
sand
l
ocat
etheimagef
ormed.

4. Thef igur
ebel ow showsabr i
ghtbehi ndascr een
whichhasahol ecover
edwit
hwi r
egauze.Aconcav e
mirroroffocallengt
h25cm isplacedinf r
ontofthe
screen.Theposi t
ionofthemir
rorisadjustedunt
ila i
. I
mageposit
ionis13.
6X2=27.
2cm f
rom Pi
n
sharpimageoft hegauzeisf
ormedont hescreen. f
rontoft
hemir
ror.

i
i
. Si
zeoft
hei
magei
s6.
6X2=13.
2cm

i
i
i. Natur
eofthei
mage: t
hei
magei
sinv
ert
ed,r
eal
andmagni
fi
ed

imageheight 13.
2cm
i
v. magni
fi
cat
ion= = =4.
4
obj
ecthei
ght 3cm

Det
ermine t
he di
stance bet
ween t
he scr
een and t
he
mi
rr
or.
2. Aconvexmirr
oroffocall
ength15cm producesan
Gr
aphi
calConst
ruct
ionofRayDi
agr
ams i
mage10cm awayf r
om themirr
or.I
fthei
magei s3
cm hi
gh,
det
erminebyscal
edrawi
ng
 I
magesar edr
awnt oscal
einar
aydi
agr
am andt
hisi
s
bestdoneongraphpaper
. i
. Theobj
ectdi
stance

Li
near(
Transv
erse)Magni
fi
cat
ion i
i
. Obj
ecthei
ght
/si
ze

 I
tistherati
ooftheimageheighttotheobj
ectheight
. ii
i. Magni
fi
cat
ion
I
tcan also be defi
ned as the r
ati
o ofthe i
mage
di
stancetotheobj
ectdi
stance. Sol
uti
on

Li t
near(ransv
erse)magni
fi
cat
ion

imagehei
ght imagedi
stance
= =
obj
ecthei
ght obj
ectdi
stance

Exampl
es

1. Anobject3cm highisplaced6cm infrontofa

concav
emir
rorofr
adiusofcurv
atur
e10cm.Byscal
e

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83

dr
awi
ngdet
ermi
net
he:

i
. Posi
ti
onoft
hei
mage

i
. Theobj
ectdi
stancei
s6X5=30cm

i
i
. Obj
ecthei
ght
/si
zei
s1.
4X5=7cm

imageheight
i
i
i. Magni
fi
cat
ion=
obj
ecthei
ght

3cm
= =0.
4285
7cm

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Exer
cise 2. Anobj ectisplaced10cm i
nf r
ontofaconvexmi rr
or
off ocallength20cm.Det erminetheposit
ionand
1. Aconcav emi rr
oroff ocall
engt h10cm f ormsa natureoftheimage.
sharpi mageat40cm f rom themi r
ror
.Det er
mine
graphicall
y the posi ti
on of t he obj ect and Solut i
on
magni fi
cati
onoft hei
mage.
fis negat iv
e( -
20 cm) accordi
ng tor eal
-i
s-posi
ti
ve
2. Aconcav emi rr
oroff ocall
engt h20cm f ormsa conv enti
on
realimaget wot i
mest hesizeoft heobject.I
fthe
objectheightis10cm, deter
mi nebyscaledr awing: 1 1 1
= +
f u v
i
. Theobjectdi
stance
1 1 1
- = +
i
i. Theimagedistance 20 10 v

TheMi
rr
orFor
mul
a 1 1 1 3
=- - =-
v 20 10 20
Theobjectdistanceu,t
hefocall
engt
hfandt
hei
mage
di
stancevrel
atedbythemir
rorf
ormul
a: 20
v=- =-
6.667cm
3
1 1 1
= +
f u v Theimageisvi
rtual(becausevisnegat
ive)
,upr
ightand
di
minished(
becausevi ssmall
erthanu)
Real
-I
s-Posi
ti
veConv
ent
ion
3. A concav e mi r
rorwithradius ofcurvature 10 cm
 Thisisasignconvent
ionusedwi ththemirr
orformul
a producesani nver
tedimaget woti
mest hesi zeofan
i
nor dertodeter
minethepositi
onandnat ur
eofthe objectplacedi nfrontofitandper pendicul
artot he
i
magef or
medbyacur vedmi r
ror.Accor
dingtothe pri
ncipalaxis.Determi
nethepositi
onof :
real
-i
s-posi
ti
vesignconvent
ion:
a. Theobj
ect
a) Al
ldi
stancesar
emeasur
edf
rom t
hemi
rr
orast
he
or
igi
n. b. Thei
mage

b) Dist
ances of real obj
ects and i mages are Sol
uti
on
consi
deredposi
ti
vee.g.focallengthofconcave
mirr
ors. r 10 v
f= = =5cm ;
m = =2;
v=2u
2 2 u
c) Dist
ances of vi
rt
ualobjects and images are
consi
derednegati
vee.g.focallengt
hofconv ex 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3
= + ; = + ↔ = + =
mirr
or. f u v f u 2u 5 u 2u 2u

Exampl
es 3 1
= ↔u=7.
5cm and∴v=2×7.
5cm =15cm
2u 5
1. Anobj ectispl
aced10cm i
nfr
ontofaconcav
emirr
or
off ocallengt
h20cm.Det er
minetheposit
ionand Exer
cise
natureoftheimage.
1. The dist
ance bet
ween an er ectimage and t
he
Sol
ution obj
ectis40cm.Thei magei stwiceastal
lasthe
obj
ect.Deter
mine:
1 1 1
= + i
. Theobj
ectdi
stance.
f u v

1 1 1 i
i
. Ther
adi
usofcur
vat
ure.
= +
20 10 v
2. Aver
ticalobj
ect10cm hi
ghispl
aced20cm away
f
rom aconv exmir
rorofr
adi
usofcur
vat
ure30cm.

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1 1 1 1 det
ermi
ne:
= - =-
v 20 10 20
i
. Thei
magedi
stance.
v=-
20cm
i
i
. Thehei
ghtoft
hei
mage.
Theimagei
sv i
rt
ual(becausevi
snegati
ve)
,upr
ightand
magnif
ied(
becausevisgreat
ert
hanu) i
i
i. Themagni
fi
cat
ionoft
hei
mage.

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s,
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3. Thedistancebetweenanobjectandit
smagnifi
ed  Therefore,agraphofuvagai sast
nstu+vi r
aightl
i
ne
reali
magepr oducedbyaconcavemirr
oris40cm through theor i
gin whosegradi
enti
sposi
ti
ve.The
whent heobjectispl
aced20cm from thepol
eof gradientofthegraphgivesf
themirror
.Deter
minethe:

i
. Tr
ansv
ersemagni
fi
cat
ionoft
hei
mage.
3. Gr
aphofm agai
nstv
i
i
. Thef
ocall
engt
hoft
hemi
rr
or.
1 1 1
 Fr
om t
hemi
rr
orf
ormul
a = + ,mul
ti
ply
ingal
l
Gr
aphi
calAnal
ysi
soft
heMi
rr
orFor
mul
a f u v
t
hroughbyvgi
ves
1 1
1. Gr
aphof agai
nst
u v v v v v v
= + ↔ = +1
f u v f u
 I
tisast r
aightli
negraphwithanegat i
vegradi
ent
,
i
mplyi
ng t
hatt he i
mage i
sinver
ted r
elat
ivetothe v v
=m + 1,si
nce =m
obj
ect
. f u

v
∴m = -1
f

 1 1 1
The -i
nter
ceptort
he -i
nter
ceptgi
ves
u v f

2. Gr
aphofuvagai
nstu+v

1 1 1  Theref
ore,agraphofm againstvi
sastr
aightl
i
newit
h
 Fr
om t
hemi
rr
orf
or a = + ,
mul
f u v 1
agradi
entof and m- i
nter
ceptis-1.Also t
he
f
1 v+u uv v-i
nterceptgi
vesthefocall
ength,f
= ; f=
f uv v+u

Exer
cise

Aconcav
emirr
orandani
ll
uminat
edobjectar
eusedt o
pr
oduceashar
pimageoftheobjectonascreen.The

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87

obj
ectdi
stancesandi
magedi
stancesar
egi
venbel
ow.

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Object 80.
0 26.
7 22.
4 20.
6 19.
6
dist
ance,
u(cm)
Image 20.
0 40.
0 56.
0 72.
0 88
dist
ance,
v(cm)
u+v( cm)
uv(cm2)
Magni fi
cati
on,
m
1. Compl etethet
abl
e 5. Usedassol
arconcent
rat
orst
obr
ingl
i
ghtener
gyi
nto
focus.
2. Usi
ngsui
tabl
eval
ues:

1 1
i
. Pl
otagr
aphof agai
nst
u v B. Conv
exMi
rr
ors

i
i
. Deter
mi net
her
adi
usofcur
vat
ure,ff
rom
thegraph
1. Used ascarand mot
orcy
clesi
demi
rr
orsbecause
3. Plotagraphofuvagai
nstu+vandusei
ttof
indt
he theyfor
m upr
ighti
magesandhaveawidef
iel
dof
radi
usofcurv
atur
e,f view

4. Plotagraphofmagni
fi
cati nstvandusei
on,m agai t 2. Used i
n supermar
ketsto moni
tor movement of
tofi
ndtheradi
usofcur
vatur
e,f cust
omersbecausetheyfor
m upri
ghtimagesand
haveawidef
iel
dofvi
ew
Appl
icati
onsofCur
vedMirr
ors

A. Concav
eMi
rr
ors

1. Used as shaving mirr

ors because they pr
oduce
magni
fied and upri
ghtimages when the obj
ectis
bet
weenprinci
palfocus,
Fandt hepol
e,P.

2. Usedbydenti
stwhenexami ni
ngteeththeyproduce
magni
fi
ed and upri
ghtimages when the obj
ectis  Note:The def ect of spher
icalmi r
ror
si n whi
ch
bet
weenpr
inci
palfocus,
Fandthepole,P. ma r
gin alr ays are notb r
oughti nt
o focus att
h e
pri
ncipalf ocusr esul
ti
ngi nbl
ur r
edimagesi scal
l
ed
sphericalaberrati
on.

Di
sadv
ant
ageofConv
exMi
rr
or

1. Convexmi rr
orforms di
mi ni
shed i
mages gi
vi
ng an
i
mpr essi
onthatthevehi
clesbehi
ndarefar
theraway
thantheyact
ual
lyare.

3. Usedasr ef
lect
orbehi
ndproj
ect
orlamptor
efl
ectli
ght
tr
avell
i
ngawayf rom t
heproj
ect
or.Thel
ampisplaced
atthecentr
eofcurvat
ureoft
heconcavemi
rr
or. C. Par
abol
i
cMi
rr
ors

 Usedforpropagat
ionofpar al
l
elli
ghtbeamsofhi
gh
i
ntensi
tyi
nhandt orches,searchl
i
ght
sandcarhead
l
ight
s.

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s,
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ge,
HighSc
hoo
l,
Pri
mar
yNo
tes&Re
vis
ionKi
ts0714497530
 isabokemicah@gmail.com Page|
89

Adv
ant
ageofPar
abol
i
cMi
rr
orsov
erConcav
eMi
rr
ors

 Unli
keconcav emirr
orsinwhi chmarginalraysar
enot
converged at pr i
ncipal focus, paraboli
c mi r
ror
converges allrays paral
lelt o pr
inci
palaxis and
i
ncidentonitssurf
aceati t
spr i
nci
palfocus.

4. Usedintel
escopestobri
ngdist
anceobject
s(object
s
ati
nfi
nit
y)l
ikestar
sint
ofocusatthef
ocalpoi
nt.

No
vel
s,
Upd
ate
dKASNE
B,I
CT,
Col
le
ge,
HighSc
hoo
l,
Pri
mar
yNo
tes&Re
vis
ionKi
ts0714497530
 isabokemicah@gmail.com Page|
90

Rev
isi
onquest
ions
1. Wi
ththeaidofawel
llabel
eddi
agram,expl
aint
he
wi
defiel
dofvi
ewofaconvexmir
ror.

2. St
ateonappl
i
cat
ionofeachoft
hef
oll
owi
ng

i
. Conv
exmi
rr
or.

i
i
. Par
abol
i
cmi
rr
or

3. Thefigur
ebelowwhichisdr
awnt oascal
eof1:
5
repr
esentanobjectOandi
tsimageIf
ormedbya
convexmirr
or.

Bydrawingsui
tabl
erays,l
ocateandmar kont
he
fi
guretheposi
ti
onoftheprinci
palfocus,Foft
he
mirr
or.Det
ermi
nethefocall
ength,f
.

4. Thefi
gurebel
owshowsapoi
ntobj
ectOpl
acedi
n
fr
ontofaconvexmi
rr
or.

Draw appr
opr
iat
eray
stol
ocat
ethei
mageoft
he
object
.

5. Stat
etheadvantagepar
abol
i
cmi
rr
orov
er
concavemir
ror.

No
vel
s,
Upd
ate
dKASNE
B,I
CT,
Col
le
ge,
HighSc
hoo
l,
Pri
mar
yNo
tes&Re
vis
ionKi
ts0714497530