Page|

232
FORMTWOPHYS I
CS
HANDBOOK
[
Wit
hwel
ldr
awndi
agr
ams
,sol
vedexampl
esandques
tionsf
orexer
cis
e]
(
2015Edi
ti
on)

LABOATOMS

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
 Page|
2

Tabl
eofCont
ent
s
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Page2

BRI
EFPERSONALPROFI
LE Page2

GUI
DELI
NESI
NMYLI
FE Page2

Chapt
er1 MAGNETI
SM Page3

Chapt
er2 MEASUREMENTI
I Page9

Chapt
er3 TURNI
NGEFFECTOFAFORCE Page15

Chapt
er4 EQUI
LIBRI
UM ANDCENTREOFGRAVI
TY Page18

Chapt
er5 SOUND Page21

Chapt
er6 HOOKE’
SLAW Page25

Chapt
er7 MAGNETI
CEFFECTOFANELECTRI
CCURRENT Page30

Chapt
er8 WAVESI Page36

Chapt
er9 FLUI
DFLOW Page40

Chapt
er10 REFLECTI
ONATCURVEDSURFACES Page45

Acknowl
edgement
Fi
rstandf
oremostIt
hankt
heAl
might
yGodf
ort
hegi
ftofl
i
fe,
ener
gy,
knowl
edgeandski
l
lst
opur
suet
hiswor
k.
Iam verygr
atef
ultotheenti
reNyaburur
uGi r
ls’Hi
ghschoolf
rat
erni
tyforgenerousl
ysupport
ingmeallroundasI
workedonthi
smateri
al.Imustspeci
fi
cal
lyappreci
atet
heH.O.
DPhysicsNyabururuGir
ls’Mr
.Alber
tO.Ondit
ifort
he
suppor
tandencour
agement.
ThesupportbyMatongoSecondarySchoolSci
encedepart
mentmembers,Mr.OnyanchaandMr
.Mi
sat
iofPhysi
cs,
Mr.Ondi
ekiofChem,Madam Abigael
,Pr
isci
l
laandJaelofChem/
Biomustbeappreci
ated.
Thecar
eandbestwi shesIreceivedf
rom mymot
herJoyceMokei
raandmysi
bli
ngsdeser
vespeci
alat
tent
ion.They
wereagreatsour
ceofencouragement.

Li
nest
hati
nfl
uenceact
ivi
ti
esi
nmyl
i
fe
1. Godi
sal
wayst
her
etoassi
stpr
ovi
dedyouaskf
orHi
m.
2. Ati
tsbest
,Physi
csel
i
minat
escompl
exi
tybyr
eveal
i
ngunder
lyi
ngsi
mpl
i
cit
y.
3. Ther
eisnomet
hodofchangi
ngyourf
ateexceptt
hroughhar
dwor
k.
4. Cohesi
onwi
thi
mmedi
atenei
ghbour
sanddet
ermi
nat
ional
waysbet
ter
syouri
mmedi
ateenvi
ronment
.

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
 Page|
3

Br
iefPer
sonalPr
ofi
l
e
Chweya,N.E.isaPhysics/Chemi
str
yt eacher
.Hei saFi r
stClassHonorsB.Ed gr
aduat
efr
om MoiUni
ver
sit
y
(Chepkoi
l
el)
.Heal
sohaspr
ofoundknowledgeincomput
erappl
icat
ionsandgr
aphi
cs.

Chapt
erOne MAGNETI
SM
Pr
oper
ti
esofmagnet
s

1. Magnet
icpol
es

 Magnet
icpol
esr ef
ertotheendsofamagnetwher
e
t
hepowerofatt
racti
onorrepul
si
oni
sgr
eat
est.

 Thef orceofattr
actionofamagnetisgr eatestatit
s
poles.Thefor
cer educesawayfr
om poles.Thisiswhy
whenabarmagneti sdippedi
nironfi
l
li
ngs, t
hef i
ll
i
ngs
cl
ingmai nl
yaroundtheendsofthemagnet .

 Repul
sioni
stheonl
ysur
etestf
orpol
ari
tyofmagnet
.
2. Di
rect
ionalpr
oper
tyofamagnet Thi
sisbecauser
epulsi
oncanonlyoccurbet
weenl i
ke
pol
esofmagnets.At
t r
act
ionisnotsur
etestbecause
 Ifamagneti ssuspendedbyat hr
eadandi sf
reeto i
tcan occurbetween unli
ke pol
esofmagnet sor
rot
ateitrot
atesandf i
nal
lyrestsint heintheNort
h- bet
ween a magnet and unmagni f
ied magnet i
c
southdir
ect
ion.Thi
siscall
edt hedirecti
onalpr
oper
ty mater
ial
.
ofamagnet.

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
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4

Exer
cise

1) Descr
ibehow youwoul
dver
if
ythebasiclaw
ofmagneti
sm givent
wobarmagnet
sandapi eceof
thr
ead

Sol
uti
on

Pr
ocedur
e

Suspendonebarmagnet .Br
ingthenor
thpoleofanot
her
magnettowardsthenort
hpol eoft
hesuspendedmagnet
andobservewhathappens.

Bri
ng the same pol
etowar
ds t
he sout
h pol
e oft
he
3. Magnet
icandnon-magnet
icmat
eri
als suspendedmagnet.

 Magnet
icmat
eri
alsar
ethoset
hatcanbeat
tr edby Obser
act vat
ionsandconcl
usi
on
magnetse.g.Ir
on,Ni
ckel
,Cobal
t,I
ronal
l
oyl
i
kest
eel
,
Ni
ckelal
loyetc. Anor
thpol
eat
tract
sasout
hpol
eandr
epel
sanor
thpol
e
whi
l
easout
hpol
erepel
sasout
hpol
e.Hence,l
i
kepol
es
 Non-
magneti
c materi
als arethose thatcannotbe r
epelwhi
leunli
kepol
esat
tract
.
at
tr
actedbyamagnete. g.Copper,Br
ass,Al
umini
um,
Gl
ass,wood,
Graphi
te Magnet
icfi
eldpat
ter
ns

 Ferr
omagneti
cmat er
ial
sar
emagneticmater
ial
sthat Magnet
icfi
eld
arestr
ongl
yatt
ract
edbymagnete.
g.sof
tir
on
 The space around a magnetwher ethe magnet
ic
i
nfl
uence(magneti
cforceofat
tract
ionandrepul
si
on)
i
sfel
t
4. TheBasi
cLawofMagnet
ism
 Thef
iel
disst
rongerneart
hepol
esoft
hemagnetand
I
tstat
est hatli
kepol
esofmagnet
srepelwhi
l
eunl
i
ke i
sweakerf
art
herawayf
rom t
hepol
es.
pol
esatt
ract.

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
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Magnet
icf
iel
dli
nes  Pointxi
scal
ledneutr
alpoint
.Ther
esul
tantmagnet
ic
fi
eldatt
heneut
ralpoi
ntiszero.
 Thesear
eli
nesoff
orcewhi
chr
epr
esentamagnet
ic
f
iel
d.Thesel
i
nesf
orm amagnet
icf
iel
dpat
ter
ns.  Magnet
icf
iel
dli
nesgetconcent
rat
edal
ongt
hesof
t
i
ron.
Di
rect
ionofmagnet
icf
iel
d

 The dir
ect
ion ofmagnet i
cf i
eld ata poi
nti
st he
di
rect
iontowhi chaf reenort
hpol ewouldmoveif
pl
acedatthatpointi
nthefi
eld.

Char
act
eri
sti
cs/pr
oper
ti
esofmagnet
icf
iel
dli
nes

a) Magnet
icf
iel
dli
nesst
artf
rom t
heNor
thPol
eandend
att
heSout
hPole.
 Thesof tir
onr i
ngconcent r
atesthemagnet i
cfiel
d
l
inest husprevent i
ng t
hem from pausi
ng thr
ough
regi
on P.Thi si s caled magnet
l i
c shi
eldi
ng and
regi
onPi sthereforesaidt
obeshi el
dedbyt heri
ng
from magneti
cfields.

Pr
act
icalappl
i
cat
ionofmagnet
icshi
eldi
ng
b) Theyr epeleach ot
hersi
deway
s and f
orm cl
osed
pathsasshownabove.  Thesofti
ronr
odsandri
ngsareusedi
nmagnet i
c
shi
eldi
ng where some elect
ri
cal measur
ing
c) Theydonoti
nter
secteachot
her
. i
nst
rumentsandwatchesareshi
eldedandpr
otect
ed
f
rom st
raymagnet
icfi
elds.

Exer
cise

1. Descri
be how you would shiel
d a magnet i
c
materi
al fr
om a magnet ic fi
eld. St
ate one
appl
icat
ionofmagnet
icshi
eldi
ng.

d) Theyar
ecl
osert
oget
herwher
ethef
iel
disst
ronger
. 2. Expl
aint
hemeani
ngoft
hef
oll
owi
ng

i
. Magnet
icf
iel
d

i
i
. Magnet
icl
i
nesoff
orce

3. Thediagr
am bel
ow themagnet
icf
iel
d pat
ter
ns
bet
weentwomagnet
sPandQ

 Consi
der t
wo bar magnet
s wi
th opposi
te pol
es
adj
acent
.
1. I
dent
if
ypol
esAandB

2. St
atewhi chofthet
womagnet
sP andQ i
s
st
ranger
.Expl
ain.

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
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PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
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4. Sketch the magnet

ic f
iel
d pat
ter
ns f
or t
he Magnet
izat
ion
arr
angementbel
ow.
 Magnetizat
ionist heprocessofmakingamagnet
fr
om magnet i
c mat er
ial
. Dur i
ng thi
s process,
di
poles get ali n a par
gned. I ti
all
y magneti
zed
materi
almostbutnotal ldomai
nsareali
gnedinone
di
recti
on.

 Whenamat er
i sf
ali ull
ymagnet i
zedallt
hedomains
ar
eali
gnedinonedir
ecti
on.Atthisst
atethemat
erial
i
ssai
dt obemagneti
call
ysatur
ated.

 Therearef
ourcommonmet
hodsofmagnet
izat
ion;
thesear
e:

1. I
nduct
ion

2. St
roki
ng

3. Hammer
ingi
nnor
th-
sout
hdi
rect
ion

4. El
ect
ri
calmet
hodusi
ngdi
rectcur
rent
.

1. El
ect
ri
calmet
hod

 Di
rectcur
renti
sused.

 Themagneticmateri
altobemagnet izedisplaced
i
nside t
he sol
enoi
d connected i
n seri
es wi
tht he
batt
ery
.Theswitchisclosedandcurrenti
spassed
thr
oughthesol
enoi
dforsomet i
me.

TheDomai
nTheor
yofMagnet
ism  Thepol
ari
ti
esofthemagnetdependont
hedi
rect
ion
oft
heel
ectri
ccur
rent
.
 Magnetsconsi
stofsmal lmagneti
cgr oupsrefer
red
toasmagneticdomains.Domainshav eacommon  Thepol esofthemagnetcanbei dent i
fi
edusingthe
magneti
c axi
s.Domai ns compri
se smal l
ersub – ri
ghthandgr iprul
ef orcurrentcar ry
ingcoilwhich
atomi
cmagnets( mol
ecularmagnets)caleddi
l pol
es. statest :I
hat facoilcarr
yingacur rentisgraspedin
Thedipol
esinapar t
icul
ardomainpoi nttowardsa the ri
ghthand such thatthe fingers poi
nti nthe
commondirect
ion. direct
ionofcurr
entinthecoil
,thent hethumbpoints
i
nthedi
rect
ionofNor
thPol
e.

Not
es:

I
. Al
l
owi
ngt
hecur
rentt
ofl
owf
oral
ongt
imedoesnot

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
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i
ncreaset
heext entofmagnet
icsat
urat
ion.I
tonly
causesov
erheati
ngofthesol
enoi
dwhichadversel
y
aff
ectsmagneti
sm.

I
I. A sol
enoi
disacoi
lwi
thmanyt
urnsofi
nsul
ated
copperwi
re.

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
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9

Exer
cise

1. I
nanexperi
menttomagneti
zedt
wosubstanceXand
Yusingcur
rentt
wocurveswaveobt
ainedasshown
bel
ow.

Expl
aint
hedi
ff
erencebet
weenXandY

2. Thegraphinthefigur
ebelow show t
her el
ati
onshi
p 5. St
roki
ngmethod
bet
weent heatt
racti
veforceofanel ect
romagneti
c
andthemagneti
zi
ngcurrent  Inthismet
hodamagnet
icmat
eri
albari
srepeat
edl
y
str
okedusi
ngoneendofast r
ongmagnet.Str
oki
ng
al
ignsdomainsandther
efor
ethemagneti
cmat er
ial
becomesamagnet.Ther
earetwoty
pesofstoki
ng:

a) Si
ngl
est
rokemet
hod

 Inthi
smet hodthemagneti
cmat er
ialisst
rokedwith
onepol eoft hemagnetfrom oneendt oanot her
,
l
ift
ingitawayasshown.Thest r
okingisrepeated
Expl
aint
heshapeoft
hecur
veatpoi
ntABusi
ngt
he sever
alt i
meswhi l
e keepi
ng t
he incli
nat
ion ofthe
domai
ntheor
y. ma gnett
he same.

3. Hammer
ing(
mechani
calmet
hod)

 Thi
smet
hodmakest
heuseoft
heear
th’
smagnet
ic
fi
eld.Asteelbartobemagneti
zedisplacedi
nt he
north-
sout
hpositi
onandt
heupperendi
shammer ed.
Theendpointngnor
i t
hwar
dbecomesanor t
hpol
eand
theonepoint
ingsout
hwar
dtheSout
hPole.

 The end ofthe magneti

c mater
ialbarwheret he
magnet fini
shes st
roki
ng acquires an opposi
te
pol
ari
tytothatoft
hestr
okingmagnet.

Di
sadvant
agesofsi
ngl
est
rokemet
hod

 Itpr
oducesmagnetsinwhichonepol
eisnearert
he
endofthemagnet
izedmateri
alt
hant
heother
.

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
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 N/B Thi
sdisadv
antagecan beav
oided byuseof
doubl
estr
okemethod.

4. I
nduct
ion

 I
nthi
smet
hod,amagneti
nducesmagnet
ism i
na
magneticmater
ialincontactwi
thit
.Theendoft he
materi
alincont
actwiththemagnetatt
ainsapol
arit
y
opposi
tetothepoleofthemagnet
.

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
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b)Doubl
est
rokemet
hod Demagneti
zat
ioncanbehast
enedbyanyoft
hef
oll
owi
ng
methods;
 Inthi
smet hod,themagnet icmateri
albarisstr
oked
fr
om t he cent
rer epeatedl
yin opposit
e dir
ect
ions,  Heat
ing
usi
ng opposite polar
it
ies oftwo barmagnet s as
showni n(
a)beloworl i
kepolesasin(b)bel
ow.  Hammer
ingi
neast
-westposi
ti
on

 Dr
oppi
ngonahar
dsur
face

 El
ect
ri
cal
met
hodusi
ngal
ter
nat
ingcur
rent
.

1. Hammer
ing

 Hammer i
ng a magnetplaced int he east
-west
di
rect
ionordroppi
ngitev
ident
lyonthehar dsur
face
fl
oorseveraltimes makes i
tl ose mostof t he
magneti
sm.

2. Heat
ing

 Heat
ing a magnet unt
i ed hot and cool
lr i
ng i
t
suddenl
ywhen r
est
ing i
ntheeast
-westdi
rect
ion
makesi
tlosei
tsmagnet
ism.

3. El
ect
ri
calmet
hod

 Placingamagneti nasolenoi
dpl acedi neastwest
directi
on and passi ng an al ter
nating current
demagnet izesit
.Thisi
sbecauseal t
ernati
ngcurrent
Exer
cise reverses manyt imes persecond,di sori
ent
ing the
magnet icdipol
es.
Wi
tht he ai
d ofa di agr
am expl
ain how you woul
d
magneti
zedasteelbarsoastoobt ai
nasout hpol
eat
markedendoft
hebarby

a. Usi
ngaper
manentmagnet

b. Usi
nganel
ect
ri
ccur
rent

Whichoftheabovemet
hodpr
oducest
rangermagnet
?
Gi
veareason. Har
dandsof
tmagnet
icmat
eri
al

Sof
tmagnet
icmat
eri
al
Demagnet
izat
ion  These ar ethose magnetic materi
als magnet
ized
easi
lybutdo notr et
ainthei
rmagnet ism f
orlong.
 Thi
si st he pr
ocess by which a magnetl osses
Examples:i
ron,al
l
oyofironandnickel
.
magneti
sm.Int hi
s process domains r
ever
se thei
r
di
rect
ionandgetmisal
i
gned( di
sori
ented) Appl
icat
ionsofsoftmagnet
icmateri
als
 Amagnetcanundergosel
f-
demagnetizat
ioni
fpoorl
y 1. Maki
ngel
ect
romagnet
s
st
oredort
heprocesscanbeinf
luencedexter
nal
lyby

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
 Page|
12

giv
ingthedipolesenoughenergyto over
comet
he 2. Maki
ngt
ransf
ormercor
es
for
ceshol
dingthem i
napart
icul
ardi
rect
ion.
3. Usedf
ormagnet
icshi
eldi
ng

Har
dmagnet
icmat
eri
als

 Thesearemagnet i
cmateri
alsthatar
edi ffi
cul
tto
magnet
ize butonce magneti
zed t
hey ret
ainthei
r
magnet
ism foral
ongtme.Exampl
i e–steel.

Appl
i
cat
ionofhar
dmagnet
icmat
eri
als:Usedi
nmaki
ng
per
manentmagnet
s

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
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13

St
ori
ngmagnet
s 6. St
atet
hepol
ari
ti
esofendsXandY.

 Barmagnetsarestoredinpai
rswihsof
t tir s 7. Wi
onkeeper ththeai
dofadiagram expl
ainhow barmagnet s
pl
aced acr oss t hei
r ends t o pr event sel
f- ar
e st
o r
edsoastomi
nimizesel
fdemagn et
izat
ion
demagneti
zati
on.Unl i
ke pol
es ofthe magnet
s ar
e
pl
acedclosetoeachot her
. 8. Descr
ibeasimpl
eexperi
menttoshowt heexistence
ofmagnet
icpol
es

9. Namet
wopr
oper
ti
esofamagnet

10.Whatar
efer
romagnet
icmat
eri
als?

11.Usi
ngt
hedomai
ntheor
yofmagnet
ism,
expl
ainwhy

a) The str
ay ofa magnetcannotbe measur
ed
beyondacert
ainpoi
nt.

 Themagnet smagneti
zesof ti
ron keeper
sthrough b) Thetemper at
urei
ncr
easeweakerordest
roythe
i
nducti
on.Theali
gneddipol
esform aclosedloopor ma gnet
ism ofamagnet
.
chai
nroundt hemagnetsandt hekeepers,wit
hno
12.Thegraphsbelowaref
ortwomagneti
cmateri
als.
fr
eepoles.

Usesofmagnet
s

1. Usedinhospit
alsforr
emov
ingpi
ecesofi
ronf
rom t
he
eyesofpat
ients.

2. Usedt
oindust
ri
esasst
ir
rer
s,l
i
fti
ngi
ronscr
apmet
als.

3. Weat
herst
ati
ons f
orr eset
ti
ng si
x’
s mi
nimum and
maxi
mum t
her
momet er
.

4. Navigat
ion f
orshowi
ng di
rect
ion as i
n compass
needles
a) Whi
chmat
eri
ali
seasi
ert
omagnet
ize?
5. Magnet
ict
apesusedi
naudi
oandv
ideor
ecor
der
s.
b) Whi
chmat
eri
alf
ormsast
rongermagnet
?

c) St
ateoneappl
i
cat
ionofeach.
Revi
sionQuest
ions

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
 Page|
14

14.Whyi
ssof
tir
onusedasmagnetkeeper
? 13.Twosi
mil
arrazorbl
adesar
epl
acedoneonawooden
bl
ockandtheotheronasoftir
onblockasshown
15.Descr
ibehow youwouldshi
eldamagneti
cmateri
al
fr
om a magnet i
cfi
eld.Stat
e one appl
i
cat
ion of
magneti
cshi
eldi
ng

16.Use t
he domai
nt heoryto expl
ain a dif
fer
ence
bet
weenmagnet
icandnon-magnet
icmater
ial
s.

17.Acoilofinsul
atedwi
reiswoundar
oundau- shaped
bel
ow.
sof
tir
oncar eXYandconnect
edt
oabatt
eryasshown
i
nthefigur
ebelow. I
twasobservedthatt
her azorbl
adeont
hewooden
bl
ockwasat t
ract
edtot hemagnetwhil
etheot
her
onthesof
tir
onwasnot .Explai
n.

Chapt
erTwo MEAS
UREMENT I
I
Speci
fi
cobj
ect
ives Cont
ent

Byt
heendoft
hist
opi
c,t
hel
eanershoul
dbeabl
eto: 1. Measur
ementoflength usi
ng v
erni
ercal
i
per
s and
mi
crometerscr
ewgauge
a) Measur
e l engt
h using v
erni
er cal
i
per
s and
mi
crometerscr
ewgauge 2. Deci
mal
places,
signi
fi
cantf
igur
esandst
andar
dfor
m

b) Express quant
it
ies i
n corr
ectnumberofdeci mal 3. Estimation ofthe di
ameteroft he molecul
e ofoi
l
pl
acesandcor r
ectnumberofsigni
fi
cantf
igur
es. (r
elatetothesizeoftheHIVv i
rus,ment
ioneffect
sof
oi
l spil
l
sonhealthandenvironment.
)
c) Expressmeasurementsinst
andardfor
m
4. Problemsi nmeasurement
s.
d) Esti
mat ethedi
ameterofamolecul
eofoil

e) Sol
venumer
ical
probl
emsi
nmeasur
ement
.

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
 Page|
15

Usi
ngVer
nierCal
i
per
s

Ver
nierCal
i
per
s 1. Pl
ace t
he obj
ectwhose di
ameter(l
engt
h)i
sto
measur
edbet
weent
heoutsi
dejaws.

2. Cl
oset
hej
awst
il
ltheyj
ustgr
ipt
heobj
ect
.

3. Recordthereadi
ngoft
hemainscale,opposi
teand
tothel
eftofthezer
omar
koft
hevernierscal
e.

4. Readthev ernierscal
emar kthatcoinci
desexactl
y
wit
hamai nscalemar kandmulti
plyi
twi t
hthel
east
count(accuracy)oftheVerni
ercali
pers.Thi
sisthe
Verni
erscalereadi
ng.

5. Thesum oft hever

nierscal
ereadi
ngandt hemai
n
scalereadi
ng gi
ves the di
ameter(l
engt
h)ofthe
object
.
 TheVer niercali
pershast es.Themai
woscal nscal
e
i
scont ainedont hest
eelfr
ameandi sgraduat
edin Ver
niercali
persreadi
ng = ver
nierscal
ereadi
ng
centi
met ersbutal sohasmill
i
metersdi
vi ons.The
si +mainscal
ereadi
ng
Verni
erscal eiscontai
nedonthesl
idi
ngjawandhas
10equal divi
sions. Example

 ThelengthofVerni
erscal
ei s0.9cm impl
yi
ngt
hat
eachdi
visi
onoft
heverni
erscal
eis0.09cm.

 Thedif
ferencebetweenthemainscaledivi
sionand
theVerni
erscaledivi
sioniscal
ledtheleastcount.
Thisisthe accuracy ofthe Verni
ercali
persi.e.
(
0.9-0. c
09)m =0.
01cm

 Verniercali shas i
per nsi
dej awsused t
o measur
e
i
nternaldi
ametersandoutsi
dejawsusedtomeasur
e
ext
ernaldiameter
s.

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
 Page|
16

Exer
cise (
ii
) Negat
iveEr
ror

1. Descr i
behow youwoul dmeasurethei nternal  Occur swhent
hezer
omarkoft
hemai nscal
eist
othe
diamet er of 100cm3 beaker usi
ng ver nier ri
ghtoft
hezer
omarkoft
hever
nierscal
e
cali
pers.
Example
2. Wr i
te down t he verni
er cal
i
per
sr eading i n
diagram (a)(
b)and(c)showedbel
ow.

Cor
rect
ionoft
heNegat
iveEr
ror

 Thenegati
veerr
oriscor
rect
edbyaddi
ngzer
oer
rort
o
ther
eadingobt
ained.

Exer
cise

Thef
igur
ebel
owshowsaver
niercal
i
per
s

Zer
oEr
roroft
heVer
nierCal
i
per
s St
atet
hecorrectreadi
ngofscal
eift
hei
nst
rumenthasa
zeroer
rorof–0.02cm.
 Verni
ercal
i
persissai
dtohaveazeroer
rori
fthezero
marksoft hemainscaleandverni
erscal
edonot
coi
ncidewhent hejawsofthecali
per
sar eclosed
wit
houtanobject
. Mi
cromet
erScr
ewGauge

 Ther
ear
etwot
ypesofer
ror
s:  I
tisusedtomeasur
ev er
ysmal
llengt
hssuchast
he
di
ameterofat
hinwi
re.

(
i) Posi
ti
veEr
ror

 Occur
swhent hezer
omarkofthemai nscal
eist
o
t
heleftoft
hezer
omarkoft
hever
nierscal
e.

Exampl
e

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
 Page|
17

Cor
rect
ionoft
hePosi
ti
veEr
ror

 Theposi
ti
veer
roriscor
rect
edbysubt
ract
ingt
hezer
o
er
rorf
rom t
hereadi
ngobtai
ned.

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
 Page|
18

 Themi crometerscrew gaugeconsistofa thi

mble
which carr
ies a ci
rcularrot
ati
ng scal
e known as
thi
mblescaleandaspi ndlewhi
chmov esfor
wardand
backwardswhent hethi
mbl ei
srotat
ed.

 Thesleevehasali
nearscal
einmill
imetersandhal
f
mil
li
metercaledsl
l eevescal
eandt hethimbl
ehasa
ci
rcul
arscal
eof50or100equaldi
vi
sions.

 Theratchetattheendoft het hi
mblepr
ev ent
sthe
userf
rom exert
ingmorepressureonanobjectwhen
themicromet
erscrewgaugeisinuse.

 Thedi st
ancemov edbythespindlei
nonecompl ete
rot
ation ofthe t
himbleis cal
l
ed the pi
tch ofthe
micrometer.Aspindl
emov esforwardorbackwards
by0.
5mm peracompl
eter
otat
ionoft
het
himbl
ewi
th
50di
visi
ons.

 Ther
efor
eeachdiv
isi
onoft
himbl
escal
erepr
esent
sa
spi
ndl
etrav
elof Thezer
oer
roroft
hemi
cromet
erscr
ewgauge

0.
5mm  I toccursifthezeromar koft hethimblescaledoes
=0.
01mm notcoincidewi t
ht hehor izontal(centr
e)lineoft he
50
sleevescalewhent hemi cr ometerisclosedwithout
 Thi smeanst hatifthet hi
mbler ot
atesthr oughone anobject.
division,t
hespi ndlemov esforward orf orward by
0.01mm.Thi si sthel eastcount( accur
acy)oft he Posi
tiveerr
orofmicromet erscr ewgauge
mi crometerscrewgauge.
 Occur swhent hezer omar koft het hi
mbl escal
ei s
 Leastcountoft hescr ew gauge i
sdef i
nedast he be l
owthe hor
izontalli
ne.
distance mov ed byt he spindl
e when t he thi
mbl e
Example
rotatesthroughonedi vi
sion.

Usi
ngami
cromet
erscr
ewgauge

1. Pl
ace t
he objectwhose di
ameter
/l
engthist
o be
measur
edbetweentheanv
ilandt
hespindl
e.

2. Closethemi crometerusi
ngratchetunt
ilt
heobjecti
s
heldgentlybet weentheanvi
landt hespindl
e.Note  Theposit
iveer
rori
scor
r edbysubt
ect ract
ionoft he
thattherat
chetshouldsli
ponlyoncewhent hegripi
s er
rorfr
om t
her
eadi
nggi
venbythemi
crometerscr
e w
fi
rm enought ogiveaccur
ater
eading. gauge.

3. Readt
hesl
eev
escal
eandr
ecor
ditas: Negat
iveer
ror

Sl
eevescal
ereadi
ng= -
--
--
--
--
--
--
-mm  Itoccur
swhent hezeromarkoft
hethimblescal
eis
abovethehor
izont
all
ineoft
hesl
eevescal
e.
E.
g.consi
dert
hescr
ewgaugebel
ow:
Exampl
e
4. Readt hethi
mblescal
eandmulti
plyi
tbyt heleast
countofthescr
ewgauge(
0.01mm)andrecor
ditas:

Thi
mbl
escal
ereadi
ng=……x0.
01=………….
mm

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
 Page|
19

5. Micr
ometerreadi
ng=sl
eev
escal
ereadi
ng +t
himbl
e
scal
ereadi
ng

Exampl
es

 Thenegat
iveer
rori
scor
r edbyaddi
ect ngt
heer
rort
o
t
her
eadi
ngobt
ainedbyt
hescr
ewgauge

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
 Page|
20

Si
gni
fi
cantFi
gur
es Exer
cise

 Signi
fi
cantfi
guresr
efert
othenumberofdi
git
sused Express t
he fol
l
owi
ng i
n cm gi
vi
ng t
he answer
sin
tospeci
fytheaccur
acyofaval
ue. standar
dform

Not
e: a) 0.
1mm

1. Thedi
git
s1-
9ar
eal
lsi
gni
fi
cantwhent
heyappeari
na b) 125mm
number
.
c) 3.
8m
2. Thefi
rstdi
gitf
rom t
hel
eftofanumberi
sthef
ir
st
si
gni
fi
cantf
igur
es d) 0.
015m

3. Thenumberofsi gni
fi
cantfi
guresisdet
erminedby e) 7.
8km
count
ing the number of digit
s fr
om t he fi
rst
si
gnif
icantf
igur
eonthelef
t. Deci
malplaces

4. Zero maybe si gnif

icantornotdepending on the  Ref ertonumberofdigit
stother i
ghtofthedeci
mal
posit
ionofthedigit pointandthi
sdeter
minestheaccuracyoft
henumber
e.
g.6.0345(4d.
p)
5. If zero occurs between non- zero digi
tsiti s
si
gnifi
cante.g.1004(4sf
),15607(
5sf
),180.
45(5sf
) Exer
cise

6. Whenzerooccursatthelef
tendofanumberi
tisnot Fi
ndthevolumeofacubewhosesi
dei
s2.
22cm.Expr
ess
si
gni
fi
cante.g.0.
00546(3sf
),0.
0002(
1sf
) youranswercor
rectt
o3d.
p

7. Ifthezerooccursattheri
ghthandendofani nt t St
egeri andardPr efi
xesUsedWi thSIUnit
s
mayormaynotbesi gni
ficant
.E.g.60000.
Itcanbe
 Thet ablebelow showsmul t
iplesandsub-mult
ipl
es
correctto1signif
icantfi
guretherefor
ethezerosare
usedwi thSIunits,thei
rpref
ixesandsymbolforthe
notsi gni
fi
cant
.Ifallthezer osarecounted(ended)
pref
ixes.
thenitwil
lbecorrectto6signif
icantfi
gur
es.
Sub- pr
efi
x Symbol f
or
8. I
ft hezerooccursattheri
ghthandendaf t
ert he
mul ti
ple/ pref
ix
decimalpoi
nt,i
tisal
wayssi
gni
fi
cante.
g.2.
000(4sf)
,
mul ti
ple
3.
0(2sf)
10-1 deci d
Exer
cise 10-2 cent i c
10-3 mi l
li m
Wri
tedownthenumberofsi
gni
fi
cantf
igur
esi
neachof mi cro µ
10-6
t
hefol
lowi
ng
10-9 nano n
a) 40000 10-12 pico p
10-15 femt o f
b) 609
10-18 atto a
c) 0.
000675 101 deca da
102 hect o h
d) 5237.
8 kil
o k
103
e) 0.
0000600 106 mega M
109 giga G
f
) 0.
002304 1012 tera T
St
andar
dFor
m 1015 pet a P
1018 exa E
 Thi
sisawayofwr
it
inganumberespeci
all
yav
ery

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
 Page|
21

l
argeorver
ysmallnumberinwhichonl
yonei
nteger
appear
sbef
oret
hedecimalpoi
nt.

 A posi
ti
venumberissaidto beinstandardfor
m
n
whenwrit
tenasAX10,wher
eAi ssuchthat1≤A<10
andt
hei
ndexni
sani
ntegere.
g. 567x103
3567=3.

 I
fthenumberl
iesbetweenzeroand1t henthei ndex
-
4
nbecomesanegat
ivee. 0.
g. 0003567=3.
567x10

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
 Page|
22

TheOi
lDr
opExper
iment Possi
bleSour
cesofEr
rori
ntheExper
iment

 Thi
sis an experi
mentused inthe est
imat
ion of a) Er
rori
nmeasur
ingt
hedi
amet
er(orv
olume)ofoi
l
di
amet
er/si
ze/ t
hicknessofamol
ecul
e. dr
op

 I
nt hi
sexper i
ment,atrayi
sfil
l
edwit
hwatertothe b) Errori
nmeasur
ingdi
amet
erofoi
lpat
ch
bri
m,andl ycopodi
um powderi
sli
ght
lyspr
inkl
edon
thewatersurf
ace. Exer
cise

 Anoildropiscaref
ull
yplacedatt
hecentr
eoft het
ray 1. I
n an experi
mentto est
imatethe si
ze ofan oi
l
andall
owedt ospr
eadont hesur
faceofwaterunt
ili
t molecul
e,thedi
amet
eroft hepat
chwasmeasur ed
i
sonemol ecul
ethick.Thisfor
msapat ch whose tobe200mm f oranoi ldropofradius0.25mm.
di
amet eri
smeasur ed Det
erminethedi
ameteroft
hemoleculeoftheoi
l

2. Inanexper i
mentt oestimatethediameterofoi l
molecul
e100dr opsofoilarerel
easedfrom bur
ett
e
andlevelofoilinburet
techangesf r
om 0.5cm3 t
o
3.
20.
5cm Oneoft hedropsisplacedonwat erand
spr
eadsoveracircul
arpatchofdiameter20cm.

a. Det
ermi
ne:

I
. Thevol
umeoft
heoi
ldr
op

I
I. Thear
eaoft
hepat
chcover
edbyt
heoi
l

I
II
. Thedi
amet
eroft
heoi
lmol
ecul
e

b. St
ate:

i
.Assumpt
ionsmadei
nthi
sexper
iment
 Thi
cknessofoi
lmol
ecul
eisest
imat
edasd i
i
.Two possi
ble sour
ces of er
ror
s i
n t
his
vol
umeofoi
ldr
op=vol
umeofoi
lpat
ch exper
iment

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
 Page|
23

4 3 d2 Revi
sionQuest
ions
πr=π() ×t
hic
kne
ss,
t,ofoi
lpa
tch(
ormol
ecul
e)
3 2
1. Whatar ethezeroerr
orsofthemi cr
omet
erscrew
Funct
ionsofl
ycopodi
um powder gauges shown i n t he f i
gur
es below?(t
he
1. I
tbr
eakssur
facet
ensi
on micrometersarecl
osed).i
fthemi cr
omet
erswere
usedt omeasuret hediameterofawi r
ewhose
2. i
tcl
ear
lyshowst
heext
entofspr
eadoft
heoi
ldr
op di
amet eris1.
00mm,whatwoul dbethereadi
ng
oneach?
Funct
ionofbeams:

 Usedt
oest
imat
edi
amet
eroft
hespr
eadoi
lpat
ch

Assumpt
ionsmadei
noi
ldr
opexper
iment

a) Theoi
ldr
opi
sper
fect
lyspher
ical

b) Theoi
lpat
chi
sper
fect
lycy
li
ndr
ical

c) Theoi
lpat
chi
sonemol
ecul
ethi
ck.

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
 Page|
24

2. Compareandcont
rastt
hescalesoftwo
micr
ometerscr
ewgaugeswithapitchof0.
5mm
and1.0mm.

3. Whatar
ethetwol
i
mit
ati
onsoft
hemi
cromet
er
scr
ewgauge?

4. Listdowntheadvantagesanddi
sadvant
agesof
themi cr
ometerscr
ewgaugeovertheverni
er
cali
pers

5. Sket
chami
cromet
erscr
ewgaugescal
ereadi
ng:

a) O.
23mm

b) 5.
05mm

6. (
a)Whatar
ethezeroerr
orsoft
hever
niercal
i
per
s
i
nfi
gures(
a)and(b)bel
ow?

(
b)Ifthecor
rectdi
ameterofanobjecti
s4.
01cm, what
wouldbethereadi
ngsofbothcal
i
per sf
ort
hisdi
ameter?

(c)Thecal
iper
sinfi
gure(a)wasusedt omeasur ethe
di
ameterofacyli
ndr
icalobjectandrecorded4.
55cm
whil
etheoneinfi
gure(b)wasusedt omeasur ethe
di
ameterofasphereandr ecorded5.05cm.Calculate
3
corr
ectvol
umesoftheseobj ect
sinm .(Takeπ=3. 142)

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
 Page|
25

Chapt
erThr
ee TURNI
NGEFFECTOFAFORCE
MomentofaFor
ce Mome
ntofaf
orc
e=f
orc
e×pe
rpe
ndi
cul
ardi
sta
nce

 Basi
call
y,momentofaf
orcer
efer
stot
het
urni
ng ∴mome
ntoff
orc
eaboutpi
vot=20N×0.
4m
ef
fectofthef
orce.
=8Nm
 I
ti sdefined asthe productoftheforceand the
perpendi
culardi
stancebetweenthepointofsuppor
t
(pi
votorfulcr
um)andt heli
neofact
ionofthefor
ce.
ThePr
inci
pleofMoment
s(t
heLawoft
heLever
)

 Consi
derameterrul
ebal
anced(
atequi
l
ibri
um)ona
piv
otatit
scentr
ebyweight
sW1,W2,W3 andW4 as
shownbel
ow.

Mome
ntofaf
orc
e=f
orc
e×pe
rpe
ndi
cul
ardi
sta
nce

 SIuni
tofmomentofaf
or st
cei henewt
onmet
er
(Nm)

Fact
orsAf
fect
ingMomentofaFor
ce

1. Amountoff orce – momentoff or

ce i
s dir
ectl
y  TheforcesW1andW2t endt omaket her ul
etur
ni nthe
proporti
onaltotheamountoff orceappli
ed. anti
clockwisedi
rectionaboutthepi v
ot .Theref
ore,the
moment sduet ot hesewei ght
sar er eferr
edtoasan
2. Perpendicul
ardi stance between l
ine ofacti
on of
anti
clockwisemoment s.
force and pointofsuppor t– momenti s dir
ectl
y
0
proporti
onalthedistance90.  Simil
arly,t
heforcesW3andW4t endt omaket her ul
e
tur
ni n a clockwise directi
on and t herefor
e,t hei
r
ExamplesofAct i
vit
iesinWhi chForcePr
oducesaTur ni
ng moment saboutt hepivotareclockwisemoment s.
Ef
fect
Sum ofcl
ockwi
semoment =W3d3+W4d4
1. Openi
ngandcl
osi
ngadoor
Sum ofant
icl
ockwi
semoment =W1d1+W2d2
2. Cl
osi
ng a li
d of a cont
ainer e.
g.(geomet
ri
cal
i
nst
rumentbox) Atequi
l
ibr
ium (
bal
ance)
,Sum ofcl
ockwi
semoment=
Sum ofant
icl
ockwi
semoment
3. Apai
rofsci
ssor
sorgar
denshear
sinuse
W3d3+W4d4=W1d1+W2d2
4. Chi
l
drenpl
ayi
ngon“seesaw”
 Thiscanbesummar i
zedbytheprinci
pleofmoments
5. Awheel
bar
rowbei
ngusedt
oli
ftheav
yloads whichstates“f
orasystem i
nequil
ibr
ium t
hesum of
6. A scr
ewdr
iverbei
ng used t
oti
ght
en orl
oosen a
cl
ockwisemoment saboutapointmustbeequalt o
scr
ew.
thesum ofant
icl
ockwi
s emo mentsaboutthesame
point
”.
7. Beam bal
ancei
nuse.
N/
B:A bodyi
s sai
dto be atequi
l
ibr
ium when i
tis
Exampl
es bal
ancedundert
heact
ionofanumberoff
orces.

Fi
ndt
hemomentoft
hef
orceaboutt
hepi
voti
nthe

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f
igur
esbel
ow

PHYSI
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27

Exampl
es Exer
cise

1. St
atet
hel
awoft
hel
ever(asabove) Ahal fmeterrul
ei ssuspendedver
ti
call
yf r
om apivotat
the0cm mar k.Itismaintai
nedintheverti
calposit
ion
2. Auni for
m meterr ul
epivotedatit
scent
rei
sbal
anced byf ourhor
izontalfor
cesactingi
nthedirecti
onsshown
byaf orceof4.8Nat20cm mar kandsomeot
hertwo i
nt hefigur
ebelow
forces,Fand2. 0N ont he66cm and90cm marks
respecti
vel
y.Calculat
ethef or
ceF.

The10.0Nf or
ceactsthr
ought
he15cm mar k,4.0N
for
cethrought
he20cm markand5.0Nforcethrough
the40cm mark.Cal
cul
ateFwhi
chactst
hroughthe30
cm mark.
Atequi
l
ibr
ium (
bal
ance)
,
Par
all
elf
orces
Sum ofcl
ockwi
se moment= Sum ofant
icl
ockwi
se
moment  Considerauni
for
mrodbel
owbal
ancedbyt
hef
orces
F1,F2,F3,
F4,
F5andRwhi
chi
sthenor
mal
react
ionon
F×0.
16+2.
0×0.
40=4.
8×0.
30 piv
ot .
0.
16F+0.
80=1.
44

0.
16F=0.
64

0.
64
F=
0.
16

F=4.
0N

3. Aboyofmass40kgsi tsatapoint2.
0m f
rom the
pivotofaseensaw.Fi ndtheweightofagirlwho  Thefor
cesF1,F2,
F3,F4,
F5andRar
epar
all
el.
canbalancethesee-sawbysitt
ingatadi
stanceof
3.2m fr
om t
hepivot.(Takeg=10nkg)  Forpar
all
elf
orces:

sol
uti
on a) Thesum off or
cesacti
ng on onesideofthe
system isequaltothesum off or
cesact
ingon
opposite di
recti
on i.
e.the al
gebrai
c sum of
parall
elf
orcesiszer
o.

b) Thesum ofclockwisemomentsi sequaltothe

sum ofant
icl
ockwisemomentsi.e.t
healgebr
aic
sum oft
hemoment sofpar
all
elf
orcesiszer
o.

Exer
cise

Atequi
l
ibr
ium (
bal
ance)
, Auniform met
alrodoflengt
h80cm andmass3. 2kgi
s
support
edhori
zont
all
ybytwover
ti
calspr
ing’
sbal
ancesC

PHYSI
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Sum ofcl
ockwi
se moment= Sum ofant
icl
ockwi
se andDbalanceCisalsof
rom oneendwhil
ebalanceDi s
moment 30cm fr
om the ot
herend.Find t
he r
eading on each
bal
ance.
( N
)
2m = 40kg×10 ×2.
Wg×3.
kg
0m

2Wg=800
3.

800
Wg=
3.
2

wg=250N

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Ant
i–par
all
elf
orces(
Coupl
es) I
II
. For
cesappli
edonthest
eer
ingwheelofacarwhen
goi
ngroundabend
 Ant
i– par al
l
elforcesoracoupl
eref
erst
o equal
,
par
all
elbutopposi
tefor
ces. I
V. For
cesappl
i
edonbi
cycl
ehandl
e

 The totalmomentof ant i

-par
all
elfor
ces isthe
productofoneoftheforcesandt heper
pendi
cul
ar
di
stancebet
weenthefor
ces.

Revi
sionExer
cise
Exampl
e
1. Expl
ainwhyt hehandl eofadoori splacedasfaras
Twover ti
calequalandopposit
ef or
cesactonamet er possi
blefrom thehinges.
rul
eat20cm and90cm mar ksrespect
ivel
y.I
feachof
theforceshasamagni tudeof4. 0N,calcul
atethei
r 2. Expl
ainwhyi tiseasiertoloosenatightnutusinga
momentont hemeterr
uleaboutthe40cm mark. spannerwithal onghandlethantheonewi t
hashor t
handl
e.
sol
ution
3. Thefigurebelow showsauni for
m barinequil
i
br i
um
Totalmoment undertheinf
luenceoft wofor
ces
=oneofthef
orce,FXper
pendi
cul
ardi
stancebet
weent
he
f
orces,
d

=4.
0N×(
0.9-
0. m
2)

=4.
0N ×0.
7

=2.
8Nm

Exampl
esofcoupl
es

I
. For
cesappli
edonawheelspannerwhent
ight
eni
ng
orl
ooseni
nganut

I
I. For
cesappl
i
edwhenopeni
ngawat
ert
ap

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Chapt
erFour EQUI
LIBRI
UMANDCENTREOFGRAVI
TY
Cent
reofGr
avi
ty 3. Forcir
cul
arplateconstr
uctdi
amet
ers.Thepointof
i
nter
secti
on,whichisthecent
reofthecir
cle,i
sthe
 Cent
reofgr
avi
ty( st
COG)ofabodyi hepoi
ntof cent
reofgrav
ity
.
appli
cati
on oft
he r
esult
antfor
ce due t
o ear
th’
s
att
racti
on.I
tist
hepointwher
ethewholewei
ghtof
t
hebodyappear
stoactfr
om.Ther
esul
tantf
orcei
s
t
hewei
ght(W =mg)oft
hebody.

Cent
reofGr
avi
tyofRegul
arShapes

 Thecentreofgr avi
tyofauni form body(bodywith
weight evenly dist
ri
buted) lies at the body’s
geometr
icalcent
re.Forexample, auni
for
m meterr
ule
Exampl
es
bal
ancesatthe50cm mar kwhensuspended.
1. A uni
for
m meterrul
eisbalancedat20cm mar
k
whenaloadof1.
2Nishungatt
hezer
omar k.

a) Draw adi
agram ofmet
err
uleshowi
ngal
lthe
for
cesact
ingonit
.

 Thecent
reofgravi
tyofregularshapescanal
sobe
det
er nedbyconst
mi r
uct
ione.g.

1. Forsquar e and r
ectangularplat
es,diagonal
s are b) Cal
cul
atet
hewei
ghtandmassoft
hemet
err
ule
constr
ucted.Thepointofinter
sect
ioni
sthecentreof
gravi
ty.
sol
uti
on

Atequi
l
ibr
ium (
bal
ance),
Sum ofcl
ockwi
semoment
=Sum ofant
icl
ockwi
semoment

W ×0.
3m =1.
2N×0.
2m

0.
3W =0.
24
2. Fortri
angul
arpl at
e,perpendi
cul
arbisect
orsofthe
si
desareconstruct
ed.Thepointofi
nter
secti
oni
sthe 0.24
∴W = =0.
8N
cent
reofgravi
ty. 0.
3

c) Det
ermi
net
her
eact
ionont
hepi
vot
.

sol
uti
on

t
ota
lupwa
rdf
orc
es=t
ota
ldownwa
edf
orc
es

PHYSI
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R=1.
2+W

R=1.
2+0.
8

R=2.
0N

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2. Thediagram bel
owshowsamet alpl
ate3m l
ong,1m 4. Thef i
gur ebelow showsadi agr
am,ofmass150kg
wideandnegl i
gibl
et hi
ckness.Ahorizont
alfor
ceof andr adius0.5m bei ngpul
ledbyhor i
zontalforceF
100N appliedatpointD j ustmakest heplat
et i
l
t. againstastep0. 1m high.Whati
nit
ialforce,F,i
sjust
Calcul
atetheweightoftheplat
e. suffi
cienttotur nthedrawnsothatitrisesovert he
step.I fthedi agram bel
ow showsspher i
calbal l
s
placedatdiff
er entposi
ti
onsonasurface.

Sol
uti
on
Equi
l
ibri
um St
ates
Atequi
l
ibr
ium (
bal
ance),
Sum ofcl
ockwi
semoment
=Sum ofant
icl
ockwi
semoment  St at
eofequili
bri
um r
efer
stost
ateofbal
anceofa
body
.Ther
ear
ethr
eest
atesofequi
l
ibr
ium:
100N×3m =W ×0.
5m

300=0.
5W
1. St
abl
eequi
l
ibr
ium
300
∴W = =600N
0.
5  Abodyi ssaidtobeinast ableequi
l
ibri
um ifi
tretur
ns
totheor i
ginalposi
ti
onaf t
erbeingdispl
acedslight
ly.
Exer
cise Thef unneldoesnott oppleoversince thelineof
acti
on ofwei ghtstil
lf al
l
si nsi
de the base ofthe
1. Auni
for
m hal
f-met
err
ulei
spi
vot
edatt
he10cm funnel
.
mark.Fi
ndtheposi
ti
onofa2. 0Nwei
ghtt
hatwil
l
bal
ancetherul
ehorizont
all
yift
hewei
ghtofthe
rul
eis0.
4N.

2. Thef igurebelowshowsauni form plankoflength

6.0m acteduponbyt hef
or cesshown.I ftheplank 2. Unstabl
eequil
i
bri
um.
hasawei ghtof300N,drawt hedi agram showing
allthef orcesact
ingont hepl ank.Calculat
et he  Abodyi si
nunstabl
eequil
i
bri
um i
fonbeingdispl
aced
tensionTi nthest
ri
ngandther eacti
onatthepi vot
. sl
ightl
y,i
tdoesnotret
urntoit
sori
ginalposi
ti
onsbut
occupi
esanew posi ti
on.Thefunnelbel
ow toppl
es
overbecausetheli
neofact
ionofweightf
all
soutsi
de
thebaseofthefunnel
.

3. Neut
ralequi
l
ibr
ium

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 Abodyi ssaidtobei nneut

ralequil
i
bri
um i
fonbei
ng
displ
aceditoccupiesanew posi t
ionwhichi
ssi
mil
ar
totheori
ginalposi
tion.

3. Def
inet
hecent
reofgr
avi
tyofabody

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Condi
ti
onsf
orEqui
l
ibr
ium Exer
cise

1. Thesum off orcesonthebodyinonedi

rect
ionis 1. Statet
hecondi
ti
onsofequi
li
bri
um f
orabody
equalt
othesum off or
cesact
ingont
hebodyinthe acteduponbyanumberofparal
l
elf
orces.
opposi
tedi
recti
on
2. Expl
ainwhy:
2. Thesum oft
heclockwi
semoment saboutanypoi
nt
i
sequaltothesum oft heant
icl
ockwi
semoment s a)I
tisnotsaf
eforadoubl
eDeckerbust ocar
ry
aboutt
hesamepoint
. st
andi
ngpassenger
sontheupperdeck.

Fact
orsAf
fect
ingt
heSt
abi
l
ityofaBody b)Bus body- bui lders bui l
d l uggage
compartment
sundertheseat
sratherthanon
1. Thepositi
on ofCOG oft
hebody-thelowerthe roofr
acks.
posi
ti
onoft hecent
reofgr
avi
tyt
hemorestabl
ea
bodyis. c)Labor
ator
yst
andsar
emadewi
thawi
deheavy
base.
2. Baseareaofthebody-abodyismorestabl
ewhen
thebaseiswide.Anarr
ow basemakest
hebodyto 3. Wheni
sanobj
ectsai
dtobei
nequi
l
ibr
ium?
belessst
abl
e.
4. Whatt
ypeofequi
l
ibr
ium has:

I
. A marbl
e att
he bot
tom ofa wat
ch
Exampl
esofAppl
i
cat
ionofSt
abi
l
ity gl
ass?

1. Contai
nersforhol
dingl
i
quidssuchasconi
calf
laskin I
I. At
ightr
opewal
ker
?
thelaborat
ory havebr oad baset
oimprovet hei
r
stabi
li
ty. I
II
. Acyl
i
ndersi
tt
ingoni
tsbase?

2. Raci
ngcars(e.
g.for
mulaonecar
)havewiderwheel
s I
V. Aspher
eonal
evelt
abl
etop?
andlowerposi
ti
onsofcent
erofgr
avi
tyt
hanor di
nar
y
V. A bi
rd per
ched on a t
hin hor
izont
al
car
s.
br
anchofatree?
3. Mostbusescar r
ythei
rcar go in spacebel
ow the
5. St
ate:
passengerl
eveli
nst
eadoft heroofr acki
norderto
keepthecent
reofgr
avi
typosit
ionslow. I
. Twowaysinwhi
cht
hest
abi
l
ityofabodycanbe
i
ncr
eased.
4. A hydrometeris ableto stay upr
ightinal i
qui
d
becauseitisweightedatitsbaseandt her
efor
eit
s I
I. Twopr
act
icalappl
i
cat
ionofst
abi
l
ity.
centr
eofgravi
tyi
satt hebase.
6. Expl
ainhowacycl
i
stmai
ntai
nst
hest
abi
l
ityofa
5. ABunsenbur
nerhasawi
deheavybaset
oincr
ease movingbicycl
e.
st
abi
l
ity
7. Descr
ibethest
ateofequi
l
ibr
ium oft
hebal
lin
6. Apersoncarr
yingabucketofwateri
nonehandhas eachposi
ti
on
tolean hi
s bodytothe otherside t
o adj
ustt
he
posi
ti
onhiscentr
eofgr
avit
y.

7. Chai
rs,stools,t r
ipod 73 stands,tables etc are
pr
ovi
dedwi tht hr
eeormor elegs.Thel egsareoften
madesli
ghtl
yi ncl
inedoutwar
dst oimprovestabi
li
ty.

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Chapt
erFi
ve SOUND
Speci
fi
cobj
ect
ives Cont
ent

Byt
heendoft
hist
opi
cthel
eanershoul
dbeabl
eto: 1. Sound:natur
eandsour
ces(
exper
iment
alt
reat
ment
requi
red)
a) Perfor
m anddescr
ibesi
mpleexperiment
stoshow
thatsoundi
spr
oducedbyvi
brat
ingbodi
es 2. Pr
opagat
ionofasound

b) Perfor
m anddescribeanexper imenttoshow t hat 3. Compr essi
onsandraref
acti
on
soundrequi
resamat er
ial
medium forapropagat
ion.
4. Speedofasoundbyechosound
c) Explai
nthenatur
eofsoundwav es.
5. Factorsaff
ect
ingthespeedofasound
d) Determinethespeed ofsound inairbyt heecho
method. 6. Problemsonv el
ocit
yofasound

e) St
atet
hef
act
orsaf
fect
ingt
hespeedofsound.

f
) Sol
venumer
ical
probl
emsi
nvol
vi
ngv
eloci
tyofsound.

Def
ini
ti
onofSound

 Sound i
saf or
m ofener
gy thatori
ginat
es f
rom
vi
brat
ing obj
ect
s.I
tisal ongit
udi
nalmechanical
wave.

SomeSour
cesofSound

1. Vi
brat
ingwoodenst
ri
p

2. Vi
brat
ingwi
ree.
g.gui
tarwi
rebei
ngpl
uck.

3. Vi
brat
ingdr
um
Exer
cise
4. Tuningfor
k-theprongsoftuni
ngforkar
emadet
o
vi
bratebyst
ri
kingt
hem agai
nstahar
dsurf
ace. 1. Thef
igur
ebel
ow showsavi
brat
ingf
ork.Thet
ime
i
nter
valf
ort
hepr
ongt
ogof
rom At
oBi
s0.
005s.
5. Vi
brat
ingai
rcolumnse.
g.bl
owi
ngai
racr
osst
he Fi
nd:
mouthofat
est
-tube.
a) Thef
requencyoft
hef
ork
6. Airsir
en-itisafor
m ofdiskwi tharingofequal l
y
spacedholeswhi
chareequidi
stantf
rom thecentr
e.I
t b) Thewavel
engthoft
hevi
brat
ions,i
fthevel
oci
ty
i
sr ot
atedataconstantrat
easai risblownt hr
ough ofsoundi
nairi
s340m/s.
theholes.

7. Cog-
wheel
andcar
d

8. Voi
cebox(
lar
ynx)

Pr
opagat
ionofSoundEner
gy

PHYSI
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 Soundwav eispropagatedinform ofcompressi

ons
(areasofhi ghpr e)andr
essur aref
acti
ons(areasof
l
ow pr essur
e)throughpr opagat
ingmedium.Sound
requir
esamat er
ialmedium forpr
opagati
on.

2. The di
agr
am bel
ow shows sound waves passing 2. Closetheswitchandobservewhathappens.
thr
oughai
r.St
udyitandanswerthequesti
onst hat
fol
low. Observat
ion:I
tisobservedthatt
hebellbegi
nstori
ngand
thesoundisheardoutside.

3. Gradual
l
ypumpoutsomeairandnot
etheef
fectt
his
hasonsoundr
eachi
ngyou.

Obser
vat
ion:Thei
ntensi
tyofsounddecr
easesgr
adual
l
y.

4. Pumpasmuchairoutoft
hej
araspossi
bleandl
i
sten
a. Labelt
hef
oll
owi
ng: tot
hesoundpr
oduced.

i
. Compr
essi
on Obser
vati
on:Soundi
sfoundtohavealmostdi
sappear
ed
t
houghthehammercanbeseenvibr
ati
ng
i
i
. Rar
efact
ion
Concl
usi
on
i
i
i. wavel
engt
h
The above obser
vat
ions show thatt
he sound cannot
b. I
fthewavef
rontt
akes0.
1st
otr
avelf
rom At
oB, tr
avelthr
oughavacuum.I tneedsamater
ialmedium for
f
ind: propagat
ion.

i
. Thef
requency Fact
orsAf
fect
ingVel
oci
tyofSoundI
nAi
r

i
i
. Thewavelengt
h,i
fvel
oci
tyofsoundi
nai
r a) Temperatur
eoftheair-soundt
rav
elsf
ast
eri
n
i
s330m/ s. hotai
rthanincol
dai
r.

Exper
iment b) Humidi
tyoft
heair-thev
eloci
tyofsoundonai
r
i
ncr
easeswit
hhumidi
ty
Ai
m:

PHYSI
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Toshowt hatsoundr
equiresamater
ialmedi
um t
otr
avel
. c) Di
recti
on ofwind -
wind blowing inthe same
(I
.e.sounddoesnott
raveli
nvacuum) di
recti
onassoundincreasesthev el
oci
tyofthe
l
atter
.
Appar
atus
SoundTr
ansmi
ssi
oni
nSol
i
ds,
Liqui
dsandGases
El
ect
ri
cbel
l
 Soundtravel
sfast
esti
nsol
i
ds,
fol
l
owedbyl
i
qui
dsand
Swi
tch thengases.

Bel
lgl
ass-j
ar  Speedofsoundinmat er
ial
svariesfr
om solidtosol
id,
l
iqui
dt oliqui
d and gas to gas depending on t
he
Vacuum pump densi
tyoft he mat
erial
.Densermat eri
alt r
ansmit
s
soundfast
er.
Wi
res
Ref
lect
ionPr
oper
tyofSoundWaves
Cel
l
s
 Ref
lect
edsoundiscal
led echo.Soundi
sref
lect
ed
Gl
asspl
ate
whenitfal
l
sonhar
dsur
faces.
Pr
ocedur
e
 Refl
ecti
onsofsoundwav
esal he l
soobeyt awsof
1. Setupt
heappar
atusasshowni
nthedi
agr
am bel
ow. ref
lect
ion:

i
. Theangleofi ncidenceisequalt
otheangl
eof
ref
lect
ionatpointofinci
dence

i
i
. Theinci
dentsound,t
heref
lect
edsoundandt
he
nor
malli
eont hesamepl
ane.

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Rever
ber
ati
on m
∴2x=330 ×0.
7s
s
 Rev
erber
ati
on r
efer
st heef
ot fecti
nwhi
chor
igi
nal 330×0.
7
soundseemsprolongedduetoover
lapwi
ththeecho x= =115.
5m
sound.Itoccur
si n some hal
l
s,sound waves ar
e 2
refl
ectedfr
om wal l
s,floorandcei li
ngandsi ncethe m
Al
so,2(d-x
)=330 ×( 0.
7+0. 2)s
echot i
meisshor t
;theechoov erlapswit
ht heori
ginal s
sound.
297
d= +x
 Tor educereverberat
ioninpl aceslikebroadcasti
ng 2
studi
os and concer thalls,walls are made using
d=148.
5+115.
5=264m ( t
hisi
sthewi
dthoft
hec
li
ff
)
absorbentmat eri
alsl ike cott
on wooland f oam
rubber. 2. At i
mekeeperin100m racestandsatthef i
nishi
ng
point.Hestar
tshiswat chthemomenthehearst he
Appl
i
cat
ionsofRef
lect
ionofSound
sound ofagun.Whater r
ordoeshemakei nt he
a) Det
ermi
nat
ionofSpeedofSound ti
mi ngoft
herace?(Speedofsoundi
nai
ris330ms-1)

 Inthi
scase, soundisproducedinfr
ontofanobstacl
e Sol
uti
on
whosedi stanceawayi sknown.Thet i
mef orthe
soundtor eacht heobstacl
eandbackt ot hesour
ce
Theerrorisequalt
otheti
met akenforthesoundfrom t
he
(i
.e.t
imef orechot obehear d)ismeasuredusinga
guntor eachtheti
mekeeper,i.
e.ti
met akenforsoundto
stopwatch. tr
avel100m atthespeedof330ms-1thesoundtakes:
100m
T= =0.
303s
econds
330ms-1

=============================================

b) Deter
minat
ionofDistancesbyProduci
ngSoundofa
KnownSpeed(pul
se-echotechni
que)

 Pulse-echotechni
queinv
olvesmeasur
ingdi
stances
bypr oduci
ngsoundofknownspeedandmeasur ing
di
sta
ncet
rave
lle
d,2d 2d ti
met akentorecei
veanecho.
S
pee
dof
sound= =
ti
meta
ken,t t
 Ult
rasound(soundoffrequencyofover20KHz )is
Exampl
e usedinpulse-echot
echniquebecausei
tpenet
rates
deepestandcanber
efl
ect
edeasi
l
ybyt
inygr
ains.
1. Amanst andi
nginav al
leybetweentwocl i
ffsst
ri
kes
agong.Hehearsanechof rom onecl
if
f0.7sl erand Exer
at ci
se
f
rom theother0.2saf t
erthef i
rst
.Determinethe
widt
hofthevall
ey.(
Speedofsoundi nair
,v=330ms-1) Afi
shi
ngboatusesul
tr
a-soundoff
r 0x104Hz
equency6.
to detect fish direct
ly bel
ow. Two echoes of the
Sol
uti
on ul
trasoundar erecei
ved,oneafter0.
09scomingfrom t
he
shoaloff i
shandot heraf
ter0.12scomi
ngf r
om thesea
bed.I ft he sea bed i s 84m below the ul
tr
asound
tr
ansceiver,
calculat
e:

i
. Thespeedoful
tr
asoundwavesi
nwat
er

i
i
. Thewavel
engt
hoft
heul
tr
asoundwavesi
nwat
er

i
i
i. Thedept
hoft
heshoaloff
ishbel
owt
heboat

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
 Page|
39

l
etdi
tanc
efr
omne
are
stc
li
ff
bex
and

t
hat
bet
wee
nthe
twoc
li
ff
sd

di
sta
nce=s
pee
dof
sound×t
ime

Appl
i
cat
ionsofPul
se-EchoTechni
que 5. Inanexperi
mentt odet
erminespeedofsoundi nair,a
drum atapoint150m fr
om aver t
icalwallwasstruck
Used: atvaryi
ngfrequencywhil
elisteni
ngt otheecho.The
echocoinci
deswi ththesoundf rom thedr um ata
a) I
ntheshi
ptodet
ermi
net
hedept
hoft
hesea. ti
mewhent osuccessi
vestrikesweremadewi t
hina
ti
meof18.5s.
b) I
nunderwat
erexpl
orat
ionofgasandoi
l
.
i
. Deter
minet
het
imet
akenf
oranechot
obe
c) I
nf i
shi
ng boat
s with pul
se echo equi
pmentt
o
heard
l
ocat
eshoal
soffish.
i
i
. Det
ermi
net
hespeedofsoundi
nai
ratt
he
d) I
nspecialtypesofspectacl
esusedbyt hebli
nd
pl
ace
peopl
etotel
lhowfarobj
ectsareaheadoft
hem.
i
i
i. Whatdiffer
ence would you expectift he
e) Bybatst
odet
ectt
hepr
esenceofobst
acl
esi
nthei
r
exper
imentwasrepeat
edonacol derday?
fl
i
ghtpat
h.
6. Aboyst ri
kesar ai
l
wayl i
newi t
hahammer .Arail
way
Revi
sionExer
cise
walker600m awayhear stwosounds,onef r
om the
1. Stat
ehow t hepitchofsoundwavei saff
ect
edby rai
lwayli
nea ndtheo t
herfrom ai
r.Ift
hetimeint
erval
fr
equency betweenthetw os oundsis1 .
65sa ndthespeedo f
soundinai s340ms-1,det
ri erminethespeedofsound
2. Thefol
lowingdiagram showsasetupthatwasused i
nt herai
l
wayline.
to demonstrat
et hat sound r
equi
res a mater
ial
medium f
ortransmissi
on.

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
 Page|
40

i
. Statewhathappenstothesoundfr
om t
he
bellasai
rcont
inuest
obedrawnfr
om t
hej
ar

i
i
. Whathappenstothesoundi
fsomeai
ris
al
l
owedbackint
othej
ar

i
i
i. Givepossi
bler
easonswhyi
tisnotpossi
ble
to reduce sound complet
ely in this
exper
iment

3. A gir
lstandingsomedistanceawayf r
om t heclif
f
blowsawhi stl
eandhearsanecho1. 10slater.I
fthe
speedofasoundi nai
ris350ms-1,det
erminehowf or
thegi
rli
sfrom thef
ootofthecl
if
f.

4. Aloudspeakerpl
acedbet weent wowal l
sbutnearer
towallAthanwal lBi ssendingoutconstantsound
waves.Determi
nehow f art heloudspeakerisfr
om
wallBifi
tis100m from wallAandt hetimebetween
thetwoechoesr eceivedis0. 2seconds.(Speedof
soundinai
r=340ms-1)

Chapt
erSi
x HOOKE’
SLAW
Speci
fi
cobj
ect
ives Cont
ent

Byt
heendoft
hist
opi
c,t
hel
ear
nershoul
dbeabl
eto: 1. Hooke’
slaw

a) St
ateandv
eri
fyexper
iment
all
yHooke’
slaw 2. Spr
ingconst
ant

b) Det
ermi
net
hespr
ingconst
ant 3. Spr
ingbal
ance

c) Const
ructandcal
i
brat
easpr
ingbal
ance 4. Pr
obl
emsonHooke’
slaw

d) Sol
venumer
ical
probl
emsi
nvol
vi
ngHooke’
slaw

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
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41

I
ntr
oduct
ion 5. El
ast
ici
ty

 Theknowl edgeofst r
etchingmat erialswhenf orces  Thisist heabil
i
tyofamat eri
altorecov eritsori
ginal
are appl i
ed i s i mportant par ticular
ly in t he shapeandsi zeaft
ertheforcecausingdef ormati
onis
constructi
oni ndust r
y.Ithelpsengineer stodetermine remov ed.Themat eri
alswiththisabi l
ityar ecall
ed
thest r
engthoft hemat eri
alstobeusedf orspecifi
c elasti
ce.g.r
ubberbands,spri
ng,andsomewi res.
wor k.Thist opicdeal swi thstudyofhow mat erial
s
behav ewhenst r
et chedandt herelationshi
pbetween  A mat eri
alwhichdoesnotr ecoveritsshapebuti s
theext entofst retching and stretching for
ce.The de f
orme dpermanent
lyiscal
ledplasti
c e.
g. pl
asti
ci
n e.
pioneeroft hetopici sthephy si
cistRober tHooke.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofMat
eri
als
Hooke’
sLaw
1. St
rengt
h
 Hooke’s law r el
ates the str
etchi
ng f or
ce and
 Iti
stheabi
li
tyofamat eri
altor
esi
stbreakagewhen ext
ensi
onp r
oduced.
underst
ret
chi
ng,compr essi
ngorsheari
ngf ce.A
or
str
ongmateri
alisonewhi chcanwit
hstandal ge I
ar tst
atesthat“forahel i
calspri
ngoranyot herelast
ic
for
cewit
houtbreaki
ng. mater
ial
, ext
ension is di
rect
ly pr
oport
ional to the
st
ret
chi
ngf
orce,
provi
dedel
ast
icl
i
miti
snotexceeded”
2. St
if
fness
i
.
e.F∝e
;F=ke
,
 Ref
erst otheresi
stanceamat eri
alofferstofor
ces
whi
cht endtochangei t
sshapeorsi zeorboth.St
if
f Whe
reki
sthec
ons
tantof
mater
ialsarenotf
lexi
bleandr
esistbending.
pr
opor
tiona
lit
yca
lle
dspr
ing
cons
tant
.
3. Duct
il
it
y
 Sluni
tofspr
ingconst st
anti henewt
onpermet
er
 Thisi st he qual
it
y ofa mat eri
alwhi ch leads to (N/
m) .
permanent change of shape and si ze. Ductil
e
materials elongate considerably when under
 Spr
ingconst
anti
sdef
inedast
hemeasur
eofst
if
fness
str
etchingforcesandundergopl asti
cdet er
mi nat
ion
ofaspri
ng.
unti
ltheybreake.g.l
ead,
copper,plast
ici
ne.

4. Br
it
tl
eness  Gr
aphi
cal
l
y,Hooke’
slawcanbeexpr
essedasbel
ow.
 Thisi st he qualit
y ofa mat eri
alwhi ch l
eads t
o
breakagej ustafterelasti
climi
tisexceeded.Brit
tl
e
mat er
ials do not under go extensi
on and break
withoutwar ni
ngonst r
etchi
ng.E.
g.blackboar
dchalk,
bri
cks, casti
ron,glass,anddr
ybiscuit
s.

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
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42

Sol
uti
on
F mg
k= =
e e
( N
600×10-3×10)
k= -
2
=500Nm-1
1.
2×10 m

2. The fi
gur
e below shows a spr
ing when unl
oaded,
whensupporti
ngamassof80gandwhensuppor ti
ng
a stone.Study t
he diagr
ams and use t hem to
det
erminethemassofthestone.

 Thegr aphofstretchingfor
ceagainstextensi
on,f
or
mat eri
althatobeysHooke’ slaw,isast rai
ghtli
ne
throughtheor i
gin.Thegr adi
ent(slope)ofsucha
graphgivesthespringconst
antofthespri
ngused.

cha
ngeinF
Gr
adi
ent
(sl )=
ope =s
pri
ngc
ons
tant
chang
eine
Sol
uti
on
ΔF
S= =k F mg
Δe k= =
e e
 I
ft he str
etching f
orce exceeds a certai
nv al
ue,
(80×10-3×10) N
permanentstr
etchi
ngoccurs. k= =16Nm-1
-
2
(10- 5)×10 m
 Thepointbeyondwhicht heelasti
cmater
ialdoesnot
obeyHooke’slawiscaledel
l asticl
imi
t. F=Wstone=ke

 Apointbeyondwhichamat
eri
all
osesi
tsel
ast
ici
t s Wstone=16N ×3×10-2=0.
yi 48N
edy
cal
l i
eldpoi
nt. m
W 0.
48N
 AlongOEt hespri
ng(orelast
icmat
eri
al)i ddo m = =
ssai
g 10Nkg-1
undergoel
asti
cdefor
mati
on.

 Al
ong EA t
he spr
ing i
s sai
dt go pl
o under ast
ic =0.
048kg(
thi
si
sthe
mas
sof
the
stone
)
def
ormat
ion 3. Aspir
alspringproducesanext
ensi
onof6mm whena
Fact
orsAf
fect
ingSpr
ingConst
ant for
ceof0. 3N i
sappl i
edtoit
.Calcul
atet
hespring
const
antf orasyst em whentwosuchspringsare
a) Ty
peofmat
eri
almaki
ngt
hewi
re arr
angedin:

b) Lengt
hoft
hespr
ing a) Ser
ies

c) Thenumberoft
ermsperuni
tlengt
hoft
hespr
ing

d) Thedi
amet
er(
thi
ckness)oft
hespr
ing

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
 Page|
43

e) Thet
hicknessoft
hewi
re

Exampl
es

1. Aspr
ingst
ret
chesby1.
2cm whena600gmassi
s
suspendedoni
t.Whati
sit
sspr
ingconst
ant
?

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
 Page|
44

a. Pl
otagraphoft
otall
engt
h(y-
axi
s)agai
nst
wei
ght

Tot
ale
xte
nsi
on=2x
6x10-3m =1.
2x10-2m

Tot
alf
orc
e=0.
3N

F=ke(
fromHooke
’sl
aw)

F 0.
3
Ks= = =25Nm-1
e 1.
2x10-2

b) Par
all
el

b. Uset
hegr
apht
odet
ermi
ne

i
. Thel
engt
hoft
hespr
ing

Thelengt
hofthespri
ngisthatwhenfor ceact
ing
Si
ncet
het
wospr
ingswi
l
lshar
ethewei
ght
,ext
ensi
onof oniti
szero.Fr
om t
hegraphiti
s7.1x10-2m
1
t
hesyst
em i
s x6mm =3mm i
i
. Thespr
ingconst
ant
,k.
2
1
Spr
ingconst
antoft
hesyst
em,
kPi
s s
pri
ngc
ons
tant
,k=
sl
ope,
S
F 0.3N
kp= = =100Nm-1 (8.
8-7.
-2
8)×10 m
e 0.
003m S= 009091mN-1
=0.
(
1. N
55)
56-0.
4. Thedat
abelowrepresent
sthetot
all
engthofaspr
ing
asthel
oadsuspendedoniti
sincr
eased 1
s
pri
ngc
ons
tant
,k= =110.
0Nm-1
009091mN-1
0.
Wei
ght
, 0. 1.
0 1.
5 2. 2.
5 3.
0
5 0 Compr
essi
ngaspr
ing
W(
N)
 Compr essi
onr ef
erst ochangeinl engt
ht hatoccurs
Total 7. 8. 8.
5 9. 9.
5 10. when a spr i
ng is squeezed f
rom itstwo ends.A
l
ength, L 5 0 0 0 sketchofl engthagainstcompr essionforaspr ing
-
2
(x10 m) whichobeysHooke’ slawisasbelow.

 Bey ondthepointE,t
heturnsofthespr i
ngarevir
tual
l
y
pressing onto oneanotherand f ur
therincr
easein
forceachievesnonoti
ceabledecreaseinlengt
h.

PHYSI
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CALLI
FE.
 Page|
45

Wor
kDonei
nSt
ret
chi
ngorCompr
essi
ngaSpr
ing

 The area underforce ver

sus extensi
on gr
aph i
s
repr
esent
stowor kdoneinstr
etchi
ngthespr
ing.

Exer
cise

a. The f i
gur
e bel
ow shows a si
mpl
e appar
atus f
or
studyi
ngthebehavi
orofaspri
ngwhensubj
ectedto
forcesofcompr
essi
on.
1
Ar
eaunde
rtheg
raph= Fe
,
2

whe
reFi
sthef
orc
eappl
ieda
ndet
hee
xte
nsi
on

a
tta
ine
d.

omHooke
Fr '
sl
aw,
F=ke

1 1
Descri
behowtheapparat
usmaybeusedt oobt
ain Workdone= (
kee= ke
) 2
2 2
readi
ngsofcompr
essionfor
ceandcor
respondi
nglengt
h
ofspri
ng. Exer
cise
b. I
nasi milarexper
imentt
hef
oll
owi
ngr
eadi
ngswer
e Twospringsofnegl
igi
bleweightsandofconstant
sk1=
obt
ained 50Nm-1andk2=100Nm-1respect i
vel
yareconnect
edend
toendandsuspendedfrom afixedpoint
.Deter
mine

i
. Thet
otalext
ensi
onwhenamassof2.
0kgi
shung
fr
om t
heoneend

i
i
. Theconst
antoft
hecombi
nat
ion.

i
i
i. Workdoneinstr
etchi
ngeachspr
ing(
elast
ic
pot
enti
alener
gyofeach)

Pl
otagr
aphof
:

i
. Compr essi
onforcesver
suslengt
hoft hespring
andf r
om thegr
aphdetermi
netheminimum force
thatwillmakethespri
ngcoil
stojustcomei nto
contact.

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
 Page|
46

i
i
. Compr essi
on for
ces ver
sus compressi
on of
spri
ngandf r
om t
hegraphdet
erminethespr
ing
constant.

Revi
sionExer
cise

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
 Page|
47

1. St
ateHooke’
slaw

2. Def
inet
hef
oll
owi
ngt
erms

a) El
ast
ici
ty

b) El
ast
icmat
eri
al

c) Pl
ast
icdef
ormat
ion

d) Spr
ingconst
ant

e) St
if
fness

f
) Ast
if
fmat
eri
al

g) El
ast
icmat
eri
al

Yi
eldpoi
nt

3. A60gmassissuspendedfr
om aspri
ng.When1.
5g
wirei
sadded,t
hespri
ngstr
etchesby1.
2cm.Gi
ven
thatt
hespri
ngobeysHooke’
slaw,fi
nd:

a) Thespr
ingconst
ant

b) Thet
otalext
ensi
onoft
hespr
ing

4. Apieceofwir
eoflengt
h12m i
sstret
chedthr
ough
2.
5cm byamassof5kg.Assumingthatt
hewire
obeysHooke’
slaw

a) Throughwhatl
engt
hwi
l
lamassof12.
5kg
st
retchit
?

b) Whatf
orcewi
l
lst
ret
chi
tthr
ough4.
0cm?

5. Thefol
lowi
ngreadi
ngswhereobt
ainedi
nan
exper
imentt
overif
yHooke’
slawusingaspr
ing

a. Foreachr
eadi
ngcal
cul
ate:

i
. Theval
ueoft
hef
orceappl
i
ed

i
i
. Theext
ensi
oni
nmm

b. Plotagr
aphofextensionagai
nstf
orce.Doest
he
spri
ngobeyHooke’slaw?

c. Fr
om t
hegr
aphdet
ermi
ne:

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
 Page|
48

i
. Theel
ast
icl
i
mit(mar
kongr
aph)

i
i
. Thespr
ingconst
ant

i
i
i. Thewei
ghtofabott
leofi
nkhungfrom t
he
spr
ingi
fther
eadi
ngobtai
nedis12cm

i
v. Theext
ensi
oni
nmm whenaf
orceof0.
3Ni
s
appl
i
ed

v. Thescal
ereadi
ngi
ncm f
oramassof0.
02kg

Chapt
erSev
en MAGNETI
CEFFECTOFANELECTRI
CCURRENT

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
 Page|
49

Speci
fi
cobj
ect
ives Cont
ent

Byt
heendoft
hist
opi
cthel
ear
nershoul
dbeabl
eto: 1. Magnet
icf
iel
dduet
oacur
rent

a) Perf
orm anddescr
ibeexperi
mentstodetermi
nethe 2. Oersted’sexperiment
di
recti
onofmagnet i
cfiel
droundacur r
entcar
ryi
ng
conductor 3. Magnet icfiel
dpatternsonst r
aightconduct
orsand
solenoids(ri
ghthandgripr
ule)
b) Constructsi
mpl
eelectr
omagnet
4. Simpleelectromagnets
c) Stat
et he f
act
ors aff
ecti
ng the st
rengt
h ofan
el
ectromagnet 5. Factorsaffecti
ngstr
engthofanelectr
omagnet

d) Determineexperi
ment
all
ythedi
rect
ionoff
orceona 6. Mot oreffect(Fl
eming’
sri
ghthandrul
e)
conductorcar
ryi
ngcur
rentinamagneti
cfi
eld
7. Factor
s af fect
ing for
ce on a cur rent car
ryi
ng
e) Explaintheworki
ngofasimpleelect
ri
cmot orand conductorinamagnet icfi
eld(qual
i
tat
ivetreat
ment
el
ect r
icbel
l only
)

8. Appl
i
cat
ions:

 El
ect
ri
cbel
l

 Si
mpl
eel
ect
ri
cmot
or

I
ntr
oduct
ion

 Thistopi
cinvolvest hestudyofmagnet i
cfielddueto
theflow ofelectriccur r
enti naconduct orandt he
appli
cati
onsofthi seffect.Thepioneerofthisphysi
cs
topi
cisHansOer sted,apr of
essorofphysics.

Magneti
cEff
ectofanEl
ect
ri
cCur
rentFl
owi
ngThr
ougha
Conduct
or
 Thedi r
ecti
onofdef l
ecti
onoft hecompassneedl es
 Considerthediagram belowofasetupt hatt hatcan canbepr edi edbyAmper
ct e’sswimmingr ul
ewhi ch
be used toi nvesti
gatet he magnet
ic effectofan stat
es that “i
fone i magines swimming al ong a
el
ectri
ccur r
entf l
owingt hroughaconductor .Thisis conductorint he di
rect
ion ofelectr
ic curr
entand
commonl ycalledOer st
ed’sexperi
ment.AandBar e faci
ngthecompassneedl e,thenthenort
hpol eofthe
magnet i
ccompassneedl es needlewil
lbedef l
ectedt owardstheswimmer ’
slef
t
hand”

Not
es:

1. Thedeflect
ionofthecompassneedl
esisduet ot
he
i
nteract
ion bet
ween t
he magneti
cfi
eld due t
othe
el
ectri
ccurrentintheconduct
orandt hemagneti
c
fi
eldofthecompassneedl
e.

2. Whent heterminal
softhebat t
eryareinter
changed,
thecompassneedlesdefl
ectintheopposi
tedir
ecti
on
becausethedir
ecti
onofcurr
entrever
ses.

3. The ext
entofdef
lect
ion oft
he compass needl
es

PHYSI
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 Whent heswitchisclosed,iti
sobservedthatthe i
ncreaseswhentheamountofelect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowi
ng
compass needles def
lecttowards t
he di
rect
ions t
hroughtheconduct
ori
ncreases.
showninthedi
agram below.

Exer
cise
 Not
e:Thesy
mbol r
epr
esent
scur
renti
ntot
he
The f
igur
e bel
ow shows a compass pl
aced undera
sur
faceand cur
rentoutoft
hesur
face.
ver
ti
calwi
reXY

Alarge curr
entispassed f
rom X to Y. Dr
aw t
he
posi
ti
onoft hemagnet
iccompassneedl
e. Magnet
icFi
eldonaCur
rentCar
ryi
ngSol
enoi
d

 A sol
enoi
drefer
sto a wire wound int
oal
ong
cy
li
ndr
ical
coi
lwit
hmanyconnect
edloops.
Magneti
cFiel
dPat
ter
nsonaSt
rai
ghtCur
rentCar
ryi
ng
Conduct
or

 Whenal argeelectr
iccurr
entfl
owst hroughawi re
passi
ngthroughacardboardonwhi chironf
il
ingsis
spri ed,t
nkl hef i
l
ingsform a pat
tern ofconcentr
ic
ci
rcl
esaroundthewireasshownbelow.  Fl
emi ng’sri
ghthandgr ipr ul
eforacur rentcarr
ying
solenoi
di susedt opredictthedi
rect
ionofmagnet i
c
fi
eldpat t
erninsi
dethesol enoi
dduetot hecurrent.I
t
statesthat“I
facoilcarryi
ngelect
ri
ccurrentisheldin
t
heri
ghthandsuchthatt
hefinger
senci
rcl
etheloops
whi
l
epointi
ng i
nt hedir
ecti
onofcur r
entf l
ow,the
t
humbpoint
sinthedir
ect
ionoftheNor
thPole”

PHYSI
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 Thisbehav iorofir
onf i
l
ingsshow thatthemagnet ic
fi
eld around a straightcur r
entcarry
ing conductor  Note t hat a sol
enoid car
ryi
ng elect
ri
c curr
ent
forms a pat t
ern of concent ri
c ci rcl
es and i s producesamagnetf iel
dpatter
nlikethatofabar
perpendiculart
otheconduct or. magnet ;oneendbehavesNorthPoleandt heot
her
endSout hPol
e.
 Thedi recti
onoft hismagnet i
cfiel
dpat t
erncanbe
predi ed by Fl
ct emi ng’srighthand gripr ulefora Exer
cise
currentcarryi
ngstraightconductorwhichst at
esthat
“i
facurrentcarr
yingconduct orisgri
ppedintheri
ght Showt
hemagnet
icf
iel
dpat
ter
ninsi
del
oopbel
ow
handwitht hethumbpoi ntingal ongthewir
ei nthe
di
rect
ionofcur r
ent,t
heot herfingerswil
lpoi
ntinthe
di
rect
ionoft hemagneti
cfield”.

Si
mpl
eEl
ect
romagnet EndBwasbr oughtnearthei
ronf
il
ingsandmanyoft
hem
wereat
tract
edwhent heswit
chwasclosed.
 Anelect
romagneti
smadebyplaci
ngasofti
roncor
e
i
nsideasolenoi
dcarr
yinganel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Thi s I
si . Expl
ainwhyt
hei
ronf
il
ingsgotat
tract
edatendof
shownbelow. thecor
e.

I
I. Expl
ainwhati
sobser
vedwhent
heswi
tchi
sopened.

I
II
. Ifsof tir
on was r
epl
aced wi
th st
eeland switch
closed:St
atewhati
sobser
vedwhensteeli
sbrought
nearironfi
li
ngs

I
V. Menti
on t
hree di
ff
erencesbetween softir
on and
st
eelasi
ll
ustr
atedi
nt heaboveexper
iment.

V. Expl ain whathappens i fsteeli srepl

aced wi
th
 Ther i
ghthandgri
pruleforacurrentcarr
yingsolenoid
copperanddippedintheir
onfil
ings.
canaswel lbeusedt opredictthepolarit
iesoft he
el
ectr
omagnet. 2. Thedi agram below showsawi rewoundonanopen
pipeatbot hends.Thewi reist
henconnectedtoad.c
Fact
orsAffect
ingt
heStrengt
hofanEl ectr
omagnet
supply.Anor t
hpol eofthemagneti sneartheendof
I. Theamount( si
ze)ofcurrentinthesolenoid– t he thecor eB.
st
rengt
hofanel
ect
romagneti
sdi
rect
lypr
opor
ti
onal

PHYSI
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totheamountofel ectr
iccur
renti
nthesolenoi
d.
Therefor
e,the l
arge t
he cur
rentt
he st
rong the
el
ectromagnet
.

I
I. Thenumberoft
urnsi
nthesol
enoi
d–t
hest
rengt
h
oftheel
ect
romagneti
sdirectl
ypropor
ti
onaltot
he
numberoft ur
ns i
nthe solenoi
d.Therefor
e,t
he
more the number of turns the strong t
he
el
ectr
omagnet.

I
II
. Thel
engt
hoft
hesol
enoi
d– t
hest
rengt
hoft
he I
. Whatis observed att
he magnetwhen t
he
electr
omagneti sdi
rectl
yproport
ionalt
helengthof swi
tchi
sclosed?
thesolenoid.Ther
eforethelongerthesol
enoidthe
I
I. Expl
aint
heobser
vat
ioni
nthequest
ionabove.
strongert
heelectr
omagnet.
I
II
. I
ftheter
minal
softhecel
lsarerever
sedst
ate
I
V. Theshapeoft
hecor
e-hor
se-shoeshapedcor
e
whati
sobser
vedonthemagnet
s.
producesastrongerel
ectromagnetthanu-shaped
corewhileau- shaped coreproducesast r
onger I
V. Whatnameofmakingamagneti
sil
l
ust
rat
edi
n
el
ectromagnetthanastr
aightcore. t
heabovear
rangement
?
Exer
cise V. Whatarethetwoadvantagesoft hi
smet
hod
overot
hermet
hodsofmagneti
zat
ion?
1. I
nthediagram below t
hesofti
roncorei
spl
aced
i
nsi
deacoilconnect
edtoad.
csource. 3. In an exper
imentto deter
minet hestrengt
h ofan
elect
romagnet,the weight of pins that can be
supported by the electr
omagnet, was recorded
againstthenumberoft urns.Thecurrentwaskept
constantthr
oughoutt
heexperiment.

Thet
abl
ebel
owshowst
hedat
athatwasobt
ained.

I
. Pl
otagr
aphofwei
ght
,W,agai
nstnumberoft
urns,
n.

I
I. Uset
hedomai
ntheor
ytoexpl
aint
henat
ureoft
he
gr
aph

I
II
. Sketch on t
hesameaxest hecur
vet
hatwi
l
lbe
obtainedusi
ngahi
ghercur
rent

PHYSI
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For
ceonacur
rentcar
ryi
ngconduct
or(
TheMot
orEf
fect
) Exer
cise

 A conduct
orcarry
ingcurr
entplacedi
namagnet
ic Showt heresul
tantmagneti
cfiel
danddir
ect
ionoff
orceof
fi
eldexper
iencesaforce.Thi
si ed t
scal
l hemot
or theconductori
neachoft hefoll
owi
ng.
eff
ect.

 Consi
dert
hesetupdi
agr
am bel
ow f
oraconduct
or
car
ryi
ngcur
renti
namagnet
icf
iel
d.

 Forr ectangul
arcoilin a magnet
icfiel
d,one side
 Themagnet i
cf i
eldconcent r
atesatt het opoft he experiencesanupwar dforceandt heothersi
dea
conductorthan att he bot
tom therebycr eati
ng a dow nw ardforceandthec oi
lissetintoarotat
ion.
regi
onofst rongfield.Thereasonforthisisthatt he Belowi sane xampl
e.
fi
eldduet oelect
ri
ccur renti
nt heconductorandt hat
ofthemagnet sreinforceeachothersincet heyar e
dir
ectedinthesamedi r
ecti
on.

 The relati
vel
y weak f i
eld atthe bottom of the
conductorisasr tofcancel
esul l
ati
on bet
weent he
two fields si
nce they are di
rected in opposi
te
dir
ecti
ons.Ther esult
antforcet
herefor
eactsont he
conductordownwards.

 Thedirecti
onoffor
ceonconductorcanbepr edict
ed
byFleming’sl
efthandrul
ewhi chstatesthat“I
fthe
thumb,fir
standsecondfi
ngersarehel dmutuall
yat
ri
ghtangleswit
hthefi
rstf
ingerpoi
ntingthedir
ecti
on

PHYSI
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FE.
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ofmagneti
cfi
eld,t
hesecondfi
ngeri
nthedi
rect
ionof
cur
rent
,thenthet humb poi
ntsinthedir
ecti
onof
for
ce”

PHYSI
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For
ce between Parall
el Str
aight Curr
ent Carr
ying Whenacurr
entispassedthroughthecoi
lint
hedirect
ion
Conduct
ors PQRSthecoilst
art
st otur
n,andeventual
lybecomest o
rest
.Wi
tht
heaidofdiagr
amsexpl ai
n:
a. Paral
l
elConductors Car
rying Cur
rent i
n Same
Dir
ecti
on I
. Whythecoilbegi
nstot ur
n

I
I. I
nwhi
chdi
rect
ioni
tbegi
nst
otur
n

I
II
. Whyi
tcomest
orest

I
V. Theposi
ti
oni
nwhi
chi
tcomest
orest

2. Theappar
atusshownbel
ow maybeusedt
ocause
 Themagneticfi
eldbetweentheconductorsi
sweaker ri
derABmoveal
ongther
odsCandD
duetocancell
ati
onthant hef
iel
dfrom theout
ersi
de.
Theresul
tantforceont heconductor
sact stopush
them t
owardseachother.

b. Paral
l
elConduct
orsCar
ryi
ng Cur
rentI
n Opposi
te
Dir
ecti
on

I
. Whencurrentfl
owsal
ongAB,i
nwhatdi
rect
ion
wi
lli
trol
l
?Explai
n.

 Thef i
eldsbetweentheconductor
srepeleachot her I
I. What happens t
othe r
ider when cur
rent i
s
sincetheyaredi r
ect
edinsamedi r
ect
ion.A force, i
ncr
eased?
theref
ore,act
sont heconduct
orstopullthem apart
I
II
. St
atet herul
et hatcanbeusedt o pr
edi
ctt
he
(outwards)
di
rect
ionoffor
ceacti
ngonther
ider
.
Fact
orsAf
fect
ingFor
ceonaConduct
orCar
ryi
ngCur
rent
i
naMagneticFiel
d
Appl
i
cat
ionsofMagnet
icEf
fectofanEl
ect
ri
cCur
rent
1. Magnit
ude ofel
ect
ri
c cur
rent
-f
orce i
ncr
eases wi
th
cur
rent 1. El
ect
ri
cbel
l
2. St
rengt
h ofmagneti
cf i
eld– f
orcei
ncr
easeswi
th
st
rengt
hofthemagnet
icfi
eld

3. Lengt
hoft heconductori
nthef
iel
d–t
hel
ongert
he
l
engththestr
ongerthefor
ce

4. Angletheconduct
ormakeswit
ht hemagnet
icf
iel
d–
for
ceincreaseswit
htheangl
e.Itismaximum when
theconductori eof900wi
satanangl ththemagneti
c
fi
eld

Exer
cise

PHYSI
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1. Thefigurebel ow showsar ect

angul
arcoi
lPQRSof
manyt urnsofwi r
el ocat
edinamagneti
cfi
elddueto
twopol esnor t
handsout h.Thecoi
lisf
reetorot
ate
onthever t
icalaxi
sCD.

 Thecapaci
tori
susedt or
educespar
kingeff
ectatthe
contact
s.The ci
rcui
tis compl
eted atthe cont
act
spri
ngandcont
actscrew.

PHYSI
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Wor
kingMechani
sm ofanEl
ect
ri
cBel
l  Thecur
renti
sthenr
ever
sedi
nthecoi
landt
hef
orces
act
ingoneachsi derev
erseindirecti
on.SideABi s
 Whencur
renti
sswi
tchedon,i
tfl
owst
hrought
he nowont heri
ghtwit
hadownwar dforcewhil
esideCD
ci
rcuitandthesofti
roncor ebecomesmagnetized. i
sont helef
twit
hanupwar df
orce.Thecoilconti
nues
Themagnet i
zedir
oncoret henattr
act
sthesoti r
on tor
otate.
armature,whi
ch has a hammerati t
s end. On
att
racti
on,t
hehammerknockst hegongandt hebell
ri
ngs.
3. Si
mpl
emagnet
icr
elay
 Whent hesoftir
onarmatur
ei satt
ract
ed,thecontact
atthecont actscrew i
sbroken and currentstops  Inamagnet i
crel
ay,onecircuiti
sused to cont
rol
fl
owing.Theelectr
omagnetlosesit
smagnet i
sm and anotherci
rcui
twi
thoutanydi
rectel
ect
ri
cal
connecti
on
rel
easest hesofti
ronarmatureandt hi
scl osesthe betweenthem.
contactagai
n.

 This process i
s repeated and the bel
lri
ngs
conti
nuouslyasl
ongastheswit
chiscl
osed.

2. El
ect
rcMot
i or

 I
tisadev i
sewhich conv
ert
sel
ect
ri
calener
gyi
nto
r
otat
ionalki
net
icener
gy.

manentmagnet
 Theper sar
ecur
vedatt
heendst
o Wor
kingMechani
sm ofMagnet
icRel
ay
pr
oducer
adi
almagnet
icf
iel
d.
 When t he switch i
s cl
osed,cur
rentfl
ows t
hrough
Funct
ionsofCar
bonBr
ush ci
rcuitX;elect
romagnetismadeont hesol
enoi
dand
i
nt urnatt
ractsthesofti
ronarmat
ure.Thecl
osesthe
a) Pressesli
ghtl
yagai hecommut
nstt ator
ssot
hatt
hat contact
sinci r
cuitY.
thecoil
rotat
esfr
eel
yandeasi
l
y.
4. Ci
rcui
tBr
eaker
s
b) Connectt
hecoi
ltot
heel
ect
ri
ccur
rentsour
ce.
 Cir
cui
t breaker
s are used to prot
ect el
ect
ri
cal
Reasons why car
bon br
ushes and commut
ator
s ar
e componentsfr
om excessi
vef
lowofcur
rent
.
madeofgraphi
te

a) Gr
aphi
t sagoodconduct
ei orofel
ect
ri
cit
y.

b) I
tser
vesasal
ubr
icantsi
ncei
tissl
i
pper
y.

Wor
kingMechani
sm oft
heEl
ect
ri
cMot
or

 When t
he coi
lis hor
izont
aland cur
rentpasses

PHYSI
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thr
ough i t as shown on t he di
agr
am,si de AB
experi
encesanupwar df or
cewhileBCexper
iencesa
downwar dforce.Thetwoforcesmakethecoilr
otat
e
i
nt heclockwisedir
ect
ion.

 Whent hecoi
lisi
nthevert
icalposi
ti
onwithABatt
he
topandCD att hebottom,t hebrushestoucht
he
spacesbetweent
hetwosplitri
ngs.

 Duetomoment um,t
hecoi lcont
inuest
or ot
ateand
thecommutat
orsint
erchangethecontactposi
ti
ons
wit
hthebr
ushes.

PHYSI
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Wor
kingMechani
sm ofaCi
rcui
tBr
eaker

 When excess curr

ent fl
ows thr
ough the ci
rcui
t,
i
ncreased magnet
ic power of t
he el
ectr
omagnet
openstheswi
tch,t
husstoppi
ngcurr
entf
low.

Revi
sionexer
cise

a. St at
et wo f
act
orst
hataf
fectst
rengt
h ofan
el
ect
romagnet

b.I
nt hesetupbelow thesuspendedmet err
uleis
bal
ancedbythemagnetandtheweightshown.The
i
roncorei
sfi
xedonthebench.

i
. St
ateandexplai
ntheeff
ectont
hemet
err
ule
whent
heswit
chiscl
osed.

i
i
. Whatwouldbet
heef
fectofr
ever
singt
hebat
ter
y
t
erminal
s?

i
i
i. Suggesthow the setup i
nt he f
igur
e can be
adoptedtomeasur ethecurr
entflowi
ngi nthe
curr
entci
rcui
t.

PHYSI
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PHYSI
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Chapt
erEi
ght WAVESI
Speci
fi
cobj
ect
ives Cont
ent

Byt
heendoft
hist
opi
cthel
eanershoul
dbeabl
eto: 1. Pul
sesandwav
es

a) Descr
ibet
hef
ormat
ionofpul
sesandwav
es 2. Tr
ansv
erseandl
ongi
tudi
nal
wav
es

b) Descr
ibet
ransv
erseandl
ongi
tudi
nal
wav
es 3. Amplit
ude (
a),wav
elengt
h(λ
),f
requency (
f),
per
iodi
cti
me(T)
c) Defineampli
tude(a)
,wavel
engt
h(λ
),f
requency
(f
),andper
iodict
ime(T) 4. V=f
λ

d) Der
ivet
her
elat
ionV=f
λ 5. Pr
obl
emsi
nvol
vi
ngV=f
λ.

e) Sol
venumer
ical
probl
emsi
nvol
vi
ngV=f
λ

I
ntr
oduct
ion Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofMechani
calWaves

 I nthi
st opi
cbasi cconceptsaboutwav esar estudied. a. Transversewaves
Knowledgeaboutwav eshasbeenbr oadlyappl i
edin
dail
ylif
ee. g.inradioandt el
evisi
on,mobi lephones,
remotecont rol
system,heatenergyradiati
onet c.
 Thesear ewav esinwhichdispl
acementofmedi um
Def
init
ionofawave parti
cles i
s at ri
ght angl
e t
o the di
recti
on of
propagation oft he wave.Examples oftransverse
 Awav er ef
erstot hetr
ansmissionofadi sturbance.A wavear ewat erwaves,wavesonaropeswungupand
wav ethereforetransmit
sener gyfrom onepoi ntto down.Tr ansversewav estr
avelasaser esofcr
i ests
another. andtroughs.

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofWav
es

 Wavescanbebroadlycl
assi
fedasel
i ect
romagnetor
mechani
cali
nnatur
e.

1. El
ect
romagnetwaves

 These ar e wav es whi

ch do notrequir
e materal  Acr
i estisthehighestpoi
ntofat r
ansver
sewav ewhil
e
medium f or tr
ansmissi
on. Such waves can be atr
oughi sthelowestpointofatr
ansver
sewav e
propagatedinv acuum.Examplesofel
ectr
omagneti
c
wavesar eRadi owaves,Radi
antheate.g.fom sun,  For
r mat i
onoft r
ansversewav ecanbei ll
ustr
atedby
l
ight,Microwavesetc. swi
n gi
ngas l
i
n kyspr
ingo raropefi
xedato neendup
anddown.
 NB:
Elect
romagnet
icwav et
esar r
ansver
sei
nnat
ure

b. Longi
tudi
nalwaves
2. Mechani
calwaves
 Thesearewav
esi nwhi
chdispl
acementofmedium
 Thesear
ewav
eswhi
chdor
equi
reamat
eri
almedi
um part
icl
esi
spar
all
eltot
hedi
recti
onofpropagat
ionof

PHYSI
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CALLI
FE.
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f
ortr
ansmissi
on.Suchwavescannotbepropagat
ed t
hewav e.Exampl
esoflongi
tudi
nalwaveareSound
i
nvacuum.Examplesofmechani
calwavesarewater wave,wavesonasli
nkyspri
ngfixedatoneendand
waves,
soundwaveset
c. vi
brat
edt
oandt
woet
c.

 Longtudi
onal wav es consi st
s of sect i
ons of
rar
efacti
ons andcompr essions.Compr essi
ons ar e
secti
ons ofhi gh pressurei n which parti
cles are
ppushed closer together whi e r
l aref
acti
ons ar e
secti
onsoflowpr essureinwhi chpar t
icl
esarepulled
sli
ghtl
yf ur
thera par tf r
om one anot herPr
. essure
var
iati
oninal
ongt
udi
onalwavei
swhatcauseswave
motion.
Ter
msAssoci
atedwi
thWav
es

 Considert
het r
ansver
sewavef
orm andanosci
l
lat
ing
pendulum bobshownbel
ow.

 For
mat onoflongt
udi
nalwavecabei l
l
ust
rat
edby
vi
brat
ingasli
nkyspri
ngfi
xedatoneendtoandf
ro
al
ongitsl
engt
h.

Exampl
es

a. Whati
sapr
ogr
essi
vewave?

I
tisawavet hatmovesconti
nual
yawayf rom t
he
sour
ce. 1. Osci
l
lati
on– anosci ll
ati
onisacompl etetoandf f
o
moti
on.Forexampl e,intheaboveoscill
ati
ngbob,a
b. Expl
ainwhytheamplit
udeofapr ogressi
vewave complet
eoscil
lati
onisD-E-F-
E-D.
decr
easesgr
adual
lyfr
om thesour
ce.
2. Ampli
tude,A -itisthemaximum displacementofa
Asthewavemoveaway f rom thesource,t
he

PHYSI
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CALLI
FE.
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ener
gyi
sspr
eadoverani
ncr
easi
ngl
ylar
gear
ea. par
ti
clef
rom meanposi
ti
on.I
tsSIuni
tist
hemet
re
(
m).Foranosci
l
lat
ingpendul
um bobaboveDEorEF
Exer
cise i
stheampl
it
ude.
1. Di
fer
entiate bet ween el ect
romagneti
c and 3. Wavelength,λ– iti
sthedistancebet
weenanyt wo
mechanicalwavegivingoneexampleineach part
icl
esinawav et
hatar
einphase.Iti
sdenotedby
Greeklet
terlambda,
λ.I
tsSIuni st
ti hemeter(
m).
2. St
atetwocat egori
eswaves.
Note:Parti
clesinawavearesaidtobeinphaseifthey
3. St
atetwot ypesofmechani calwaves.Stat
ethe areoscil
lat
inginsamedir
ect
ionandatthesamelevelof
di
ff
erencebet weenthem. di
splacement .
4. Gi
vet
woexampl
esofmechani
calwaves.

Pul
se

 A pul
sei
sasi
ngl
edi
stur
bancet
hati
str
ansi
mit
ted
through a medi um.I
t can be t r
ansver
se or
l
ongt udionali
nnatur
e.Generat
ionofapul secanbe
i
llustr
ated byjer
king aropefixed atoneend just Part
icl
esAandD,BandEar
einphase.CandDar
eout
once. ofphaseby1800.

 From thewav eequat

ion,
ifspeedofthewav eis
const
ant ,
frequencyi
sinversel
yproporti
onal
to
wavelength.Thi
scanbepr esentedgraphi
cal
lyas
shownbel ow.

Exampl
e

Thefi
gurebelow showsadi
spl
acement
-t
imegr
aphofawave
tr
avel
l
ingat2500cms-1
4. Per
iod,T-it
’stheti
met akenbyapar
ti
cletocomplet
e
oneoscil
l
ation.SIuni
tofperi st
odi hesecond(s)

5. Fr
equency, f
– i
tis t
he number of compl
ete
osci
l
lat
ions(ful
lwavel
engths)madebyapart
icl
ein
onesecond.SIuni
toff
requencyi
sher
tz(
Hz)
.

PHYSI
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CALLI
FE.
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Rel
ati
onshi
pbet
weenFr
equencyandPer
iod
I
 Fr
equencyi
sther
eci
procal
ofper
iodi
.e.f=
T

6. Speedofthewave- Iti
sthedi
stancecov
eredbya
waveinonesecond.

TheWaveEquat
ion
Det
ermi
nef ort
hewave:
 Thewaveequati
onrel
atesSpeed,V,Wav
elengt
h,λ
andFr
equency
,fofaWave a) Ampli
tude
di
sta
nce Sol
uti
on
 Gener
all
y,s
pee
d=
ti
me
A=ma
ximumdi
spl
ace
mentf
romme
anpos
iti
on
 Foradist
anceofwav elengt
hcov er
edbyawave,
time
takeni
sequiv
alentt
ot heperiodofthewav
e. =3c
mOR0.
03mi
nSIuni
ts

wa
vel
ength b) Per
iodi
cti
me
∴s
pee
d=
per
iod
Sol
uti
on
λ I
V= =λ× T=(
9-1)
x10s
-
3
T T
-
3
I =8x
10s
But
,f= andt
her
efor
eV=λ
f
T

Thi
siscal
l hewav
edt espeedequat
ion

PHYSI
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CALLI
FE.
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c) Fr
equency 10.Waterwavesareobservedastheypassaf i
xedpointata
rat
eof30crestsperminut
e.Aparti
cul
arwavecrestt
akes2
Sol
uti
on secondst
otravelbet
weentwopoint
s6m apar
t.Deter
mine:
I 1 i
. Thef
requency
f= = Hz
T 8X10-3
i
i
. Thewavel
engt
h
125×10-3Hz=125Hz
=0.
11.Calcul
atethe wavel
engt
h oft he KBC FM r
adi
o wave
d)Wavel
engt
h tr
ansmitt
edatafr
equencyof95.
6MHz

Sol
uti
on 12.Theaudibl
efr
equencyrangeforacertai
npersonisbetween
30Hzand16500Hz.Det erminethelargestwavel
engthof
V=f
λ soundinairt
hepersoncandet ect
(speedofsoundinairis
333m/s)
V 250ms-1
λ= = =2m
f 125s-1. 13.Thefi
gur
ebel
owr
epr
esent
sadi
spl
acement
-t
imegr
aphf
or
awave.
Revi
sionExer
cise
1. St
atet
hewavef
ormul
a

2. Sketchthevari
ati
onoffr
equencywithwavel
engt
hgi
ven
thatspeedoft
hewaver
emainsconst
ant

3. Namet
wot
ypesofpr
ogr
essi
vewavemot
ion.

4. Avi br
atorsendsout12r i
pplespersecondacr
ossar i
pple
tank.Ther i
pplesareobservedtobe5cm apart.Fi
ndt he i
. Det
ermi
net
hef
requencyoft
hewave
veloci
tyoftherippl
es.
i
i
. Sketchonthesameaxesthedi spl
acement-
ti
me
5. Awat
erwavetr
avels2m i
n5seconds.I
fthef
requencyof
t
hewavei
s10Hz,cal
cul
atet
he: graphoft
hewaveofsamefrequencybut1800out
ofphaseandwi
thsmall
erampli
tude.
I
. Speedoft
hewave

I
I. Wavel
engt
hoft
hewave

6. Thediagr
am bel
owshowsadi
spl
acement
-t
imegr
aphf
ora
cer
tai
nwave.

I
. Howmanyosci
l
lat
ionsar
eshownabove?

I
I. Cal
cul
atet
hef
requencyoft
hewave

I
II
. Cal
cul
atet
heper
iodi
cti
meoft
hewave

7. Sketchthewavef
orm oft
wicet
hef
requencyoft
hewave
above.

8. El
ect
romagneti
cwavest
ravelsatavel
oci
tyof3.0x108ms-1
i
n ai
r,cal
culat
ethe wavelengt
hin ai
rofr adio waves

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
 Page|
66

t
ransmi
tt
edataf
requencyof200MHz.

9. Waver i
pplesarecausedt otr
avelacr
osst hesurfaceofa
shall
ow tankbymeansofasui t
ablestr
aightvibr
ator
.The
dist
ance between successi
ve cr
estsis 6.0cm and the
wavestravel50.
4cm i
n3.6seconds.Cal
culate:

i
. Thewavel
engt
h

i
i
. Vel
oci
ty

i
i
i. Fr
equencyoft
hevi
brat
or.

PHYSI
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CALLI
FE.
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67

Chapt
erNi
ne FLUI
DFLOW
Speci
fi
cobj
ect
ives Cont
ent

Byt
heendoft
hist
opi
cthel
eanershoul
dbeabl
eto: 1. St
reaml
i
neandt
urbul
entf
low

a) Descr
ibest
reaml
i
nef
lowandt
urbul
entf
low 2. Equat
ionofcont
inui
ty

b) Der
ivet
heequat
ionofcont
inui
ty 3. Ber
noul
l
i’
sef
fect(
exper
iment
alt
reat
mentr
equi
red)

c) Descr
ibeexper
iment
stoi
l
lust
rat
eBer
noul
l
i’
sef
fect
s 4. Appl
icat
ionofBernoul
li
’
sef f
ect
:Bunsenburner
,spr
ay
gun,
carburet
or,
aerofoi
l,spi
nni
ngballet
c.
d) Expl
aint
heBer
noul
l
i’
sef
fect
5. Pr
obl
emsonequat
ionofcont
inui
ty
e) Descr
ibet
heappl
i
cat
ionofBer
noul
l
i’
sef
fect

) Sol
f venumer
icalpr
obl
emsi
nvol
vi
ngt
heequat
ionof
cont
inui
ty

Fl
uid Char
act
eri
sti
csofSt
reaml
i
neFl
ow

 Afluidref
erst oanysubstancet hatiscapableof I . St
reaml
i
nesar
epar
all
elt
oeachot
her
.
f
lowingduet opressuredi
ff
erence.Itincl
udesboth
l
i
quids and gases.Exampl
esoff lui
df l
ow i ude: I
ncl I. St
reaml
i
nef
lowi
ssmoot
handst
eady
.
perfumespr ayfr
om aperfumebot t
le,fl
ow ofwat er
alongariverbed,smokefrom chi
mneyet c.Aflowing  Some shapes and bodi es are desi
gned to be
fl
uidexperi
encesinter
nal
resi
stancecaledv
l i
scosit
y. st
reamli
nedtoenh ancet hei
rmoti
oninflui
ds.Abody
i
ssai dtobest reamlinedifitdoesnotaf f
ectthe
TypesofFlui
dFl ow di
str
ibut
ionofst
reamlinesbehindit
.

 Theretwotypesoff
lui
dfl
ow:st
reaml
i
ne(
steady
)and
tur
bulentf
lows

1.St
reaml
i
ne(
steady)f
low

 I
tisaf l
owi
nwhi chatanygi
venpointeachandever
y
par
ticl
eoft
hef l
uidtr
avel
sinthesamedi r
ecti
onand
wit
hsameveloci
ty.

 A streaml
ine r
efer
st othe pat
hf ol
l
owed by t
he  Examplesofst
reamlinedbodi
esi ude:car
ncl s,j
umbo
par
ticl
einastr
eamlinef
low.I
tisr
epr
esent
edbyali
ne j
ets,bi
rdst
hatf
ly,f
ishetc.
wit
hanar r
owhead.

 Note:St
reaml
inesdonotcrosseachot
herbutar
e
cl
oserwheret
heflui
dismov
ingfast
er

PHYSI
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CALLI
FE.
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68

2.Tur
bul
entFl
ow  I
ft hev el
oci tyoffluidthroughr egi
onB i s vB ,t
he
averagecr oss-sect
ion area oftubei s AB and the
 I
tisaf low inwhichthespeedanddirect
ionofthe di
stancecov er
edbyt hefl
uidindirect
ionofflowi sfor
fl
uidparti
clespassi
ngatanypoi ntv
ar ywit
htime. ti
me, tB,isd B,t
henthev ol
u mefl
ux thr
o ughthatregi
o n
Turbul
entfl
owoccursdueto: i
s:
I
. Abruptchangeofcr
osssect
ionalar
eaoft
he ume V
vol
tubeoffl
ow. vol
umef
luxorf
lowr
ate= =
tme t
i B

Butvol
ume=c
ros
s–s
ect
iona
rea×l
eng
th

V=AB ×dB

dB ×AB dB
I
I. Speedoft hef
lui
df l
ow changesshar yor Vol
pl umef l
ux=
tB
= ×AB
t
B
suddenl
yandbeyondacri
ti
calveloci
ty.
dB
I
II
. An obstacleis pl
aced on t he pat h of But, =Ve loci
ty,vB
tB
str
eamli
nes and blocks or br eaks t he
str
eamli
nes. ∴Volumeflux=vB ×AB

Vol
umef
lux=ve
loc
ity×c
ros
sse
cti
ona
reaoft
ubeoff
low

MassFl
ux

 Iti
st hemassofaflui
dthatfl
owsthr
oughagi
ven
sect
ionoft
ubeoff
lowperuni
tti
me.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofTur
bul
entFl
ow mass
ma
ssf
lux=
ti
me
i
. Thest
reaml
i
nesar
enotcont
inuous
But
,ma
ss=de
nsi
ty×vol
ume
.
i
i
. Par
ti
clesdonott r
aveli
nsamedi
rect
ionandhav
e
di
ff
erentv
eloci
ty. Tha
tis
,m =ρ×V.

Not
es: ρ×V
∴ma
ssf
lux=
t
1. When bodies which are not st r
eaml i
ned (non-
V
str
eamli
ned) move i nflui
ds,t hey cause eddies But
, =vol
umef
lux
.
(t
urbul
ence)intheflui
d.A bodyi ssaidt obenon- t
str
eamli
nedifi
tproduceseddiesbehi
ndi t
.
ma
ssf
lux=de
nsi
tyoff
lui
d,ρ×vol
umef
lux
2. Cr
it
icalvel
oci
tyist
hespeedofflow off
lui
dbeyond
whi
cht hef
lui
dexhi
bit
stur
bul
entf
low. ∴ma
ssf
lux
=densi
tyoffl
uid×ve l
oci
tyoff
lui
d×c
ros
s
Vol
umeFl
ux(
FlowRat
e) -s
ect
ionareaoftube

 Thisist
hevol
umeofaflui
dpassi
ngthr
oughagi
ven TheEquat
ionoft
heCont
inui
ty
secti
onofat
ubeoff
lowperuni
tti
me.
Assumpti
ons made i
n der
ivi
ng t
he equat
ion of t
he
vol
umeoffl
uidpass
ingg
ive
nse
cti
on conti
nui
ty
Vol
umef
lux= .
ti
met hef
lui
dtake
stopasst
hesec
tion 1. Thefl
uidi
sfl
owi
ng st
eadi
l
y(i
.e.hasa st
reaml
i
ne
fl
ow)
 SIunitofvol
umef
l s cubi
uxi cmet
erpersecond
(m3/
s) 2. Thef
lui
disi
ncompr
essi
ble

PHYSI
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CALLI
FE.
 Page|
69

 Consideraf
lui
dfl
owi
ngt
hroughasect
ionBoff
low 3. Thef
lui
disnon-v
iscous.
tubeshownbel
ow.

Der
ivi
ngEquat
ionofCont
inui
ty a) Whati
sthev
eloci
tyoft
hel
i
qui
dbet
weenAandB?

 Considerthetubeoffl
owbel owwi t
hchangingcross- Sol
uti
on
sect
ionar eas.
Fl
owrate
 Sect
ion1hasacr osssect
ionareaofA1whi l
esecti
on
2hascr osssectionareaofA2. Veloci
tyoffl
uidin vol
ume
= =c
ros
s-s
ect
iona
rea
,A×ve
loc
ity,
v
sect
ion1i sv1whil
einsecti
on2i sv2.v1>v2 ti
me
-
6 3
 Volumeoff lui
df l
owi
ngt hr
oughsection1peruni t 8×10 m =1×10-4m2×v
ti
me i s equaltov ol
ume off l
uidflowing t
hrough 1s
secti
on2peruni tt
imeie.f
. l
owrate/volumefl
uxi sa
constant. 8×10-6m3
v= -
4 2
=8×10-2ms-1
1s×1×10 m
Vol
umef
luxi
nse
cti
on1=vol
umef
luxi
nse
cti
on2
b) Whati
sthev
eloci
tyoft
hel
i
qui
dbet
weenBC?
A1v1=A2v2
Sol
uti
on
i
.
e.c
ros
sse
cti
ona
rea×ve
loc
ity=c
ons
tant
A1v1=A2v2
Av=c
ons
tant
.
1×10-4m2×8×10-2ms-1=1×10-6m2×v2
 Thi
si he equat
st ion ofcont
inui
ty whi
ch i
s al
so

PHYSI
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CALLI
FE.
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edf
cal
l lowr
ateequat
ion. 1×10-4m2×8×10-2ms-1 -
1
v2= -6 2
=8ms
1×10 m

Exampl
es

1. Waterfl
owst hroughahorizontalpi
peatar at
eof
00m3/
1. min.Det er
minetheveloci
tyofthewaterat
apointwher
et hediamet
erofthepipeis1.
00cm Exer
cise

Sol
uti
on 1. Agar densprinkl
erhassmallholes,each2.00mm2i n
area.Ifwaterissuppl
iedatther at
eof3. 0x10 m s1
-3 3-
f
lowr
ate=Av
and the average vel
ocit
y ofthe spr ay is 10ms-1,
00m3
1. calcul
atethenumberoftheholes.
2
=π(
1.00×10-2 2)m2×v
60s 2. Oilf
lowsthrougha6cm internaldi
ameterpipeatan
1.
00 -
1
aver
agevelociyof5ms-1.Fi
t ndtheflow r
ateinm3/s
v= -
5
=212.
18ms andcm/s
60×π×2.
5×10

2. I
nfigurebel
ow,t
hetubeABCi
sfi
ll
edwi t
hal
i d. 3. Thev
qui eloci
tyofgl
ycer
ini
na5cm inter
naldi
ameter
Thepist
onmovesfr
om AtoBi
n1second. pi
pei
s1 .00m/
s.Fi
ndthevel
oci
tyi
na3 cm i
nter
nal
diamet
erpi
pet
hatconnect
swi
thi
t,bot
hpi
pesf
lowi
ng
full
.

Ber
noul
l
i’
sEf
fect

 I
tst
ates t :pr
hat ovi
ded a f
lui
disnon-vi
scous,i
n
compr essi
bleanditsfl
ow streamlineani ncreasei
n
i
tsvel ocit
yproducesacor respondingdecreasesin
a) Whati
sthev
olumeoft
hel
i
qui
dinpoi
ntAB thepressureitexer
tswhil
eadecr easeinitsveloci
ty
producesacor r
espondi
ngincreaseinpressure.
Sol
uti
on
Ber
noul
l
i’
sEf
fecti
nPr
act
ice
vol
ume=c
ros
s-s
ect
iona
rea×l
eng
th
1. Consi
dertheset
-upbel
owi
nwhi
chpi
peAandChav
e
ume=1×10-4m2×8×10-2m =8×10-6m3
vol somediametert
ubes

PHYSI
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CALLI
FE.
 Page|
71

4. Al i
ghtpaperhel dinf r
ontofthemout handai rblown
horizontal
lyoveritisobservedtor i
se.Thisisbecause
thev elocit
yofai rabov epaperi ncreasesleadingto
reduction in pr essure. The hi gher at mospheri
c
pressur eacti
ngfrom belowpr oducesaf orcethatli
ft
s
thepaperupwar ds.

 Whenai ri
sblowni ntothet ubebyabl ower
,iti
s
obser
vedthatwaterr
isestosamel ev
eli
ntubeDand
F.I
nEt hel
evelofwateri
shighert
hanDandF.

 Veloci
tyofairinpi peAandCar ethesameduet o Ber
noull
i
’sPr i
ncipl
e
samecr oss-sectionalar
eas.Mov ingaircausesa
reduct
ionofpressureandsinceresult
ingai
rpr
essure  Itstates that:” pr
ovi
ded the fl
uidis non-viscous
i
st hesame,at mospher i
cpr essur
epushesupt he i
ncompr essibl
eandhasast reamlinefl
ow,thesum of
watertothesamel evel
. pr
essure,kineti
cenergyperunitvolumeandpotential
ener
gyperuni
tvol
umei
saconst
ant
”.
 Thespeedofmov i
ngairinnar rowersectionB is
hi
gherandtheresul
ti
ngpressureismuchl owerthan Mat
hemati
calExpr
essi
onforBer
noull
i
’sPr
inci
ple
AandC,hencewaterri
sestohigherleveli
nE.
 Consi
dera f l
uid ofdensi
ty,ρ,mass,m,f l
owi
ng
thr
oughapi pewit
hav el
ocit
y,vandpressur
eatany
giv
enpoint,
P.
2. Whenairisblownabov etheopeni ngoftheflask
shown t
he pi
th bal
lis observed t
or i
se f
rom the
bott
om.

PHYSI
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ki
neti
cene
rgy
Theki
net
ice
ner
gype
runi
tvol
ume=
vol
ume;

1 2
mv
2 mv2 m
= ; butρ=
V 2V V

1
∴ki
net
ice
ner
gype
runi ume= ρV2
tvol
2

pot
enti
alene
rgy
Pot
ent
ial
ene
rgype
runi
tvol
ume=
volume
 Thebl ownaircausesreduct
ionofpressureatthetop mgh
theref
ore,therei s a netf or
ce upwar ds as the V =ρgh
pressuredi
ffer
encepushesthepithballupwards.
∴Be
rnoul
li
’spr
inc
ipl
eca
nbee
xpr
ess
eda
s:

1
P+ ρV2+ρg
h=c
ons
tant
3. When ai ris blown hori
zontal
l
y bet ween two 2
suspendedball
oonsinthehori
zontaldir
ecti
on,the
ball
oonsareobser
vedt
omovetowar dseachot . Appl
her i
cat
ionsofBer
noul
l
i’
sPr
inci
ple

1. TheAer
ofoi
l

 I
tisastruct
uredesi
gnedi
nsuchwayt hatt
hefl
uid
movi
ngaboveitmoveswit
hahigherspeedt
hanthe
onemov
ingbelow

 Mov i
ngairleadstor educedpressureont hei
nner
si
des of the ball
oons. The hi gher at
mospheri
c
pressur
eacting on t
heout ersurfacescausesthe
ball
oonstomov ecl
osertoeachother.

PHYSI
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 Thepr essureabov etheaerofoi

list her
eforelower  Airveloci
tyatconstri
cti
onishigher.Thi
smakest he
thanthepr essurebelow it
.Thepressurediff
erence pressureattheconst ri
cti
ondrop.Theat mospheri
c
betweent hetopandbot t
om gi
vesrisetot heli
ftof pressure bei
ng higher pushes the pet
roltot he
theaerofoil
.Thisiscaleddy
l namicl
if
t. constri
cti
on.

Revi
sionExer
cise

2. Bunsenbur
ner 1. Thefi
gur
ebelow showsapithballpl
acedinafl
ask.
Whenajetofai
risblownovert
hemout hofthef
lask
asshown,thepi
thballi
sobservedtor i
sefr
om the
bot
tom.

 Whengasi smadet ofl

owi nt
otheBunsenburner,i
t s
vel
ocit
yi ncreasesasitpassest hr
ought henozzle; Explai
nthi
sobser
vat
ion
thi
s decr eases the pr
essure abovet he nozzle.
Becauseofhi gheratmospheri
cpressur
eoutsidethe 2. St
ateBer
noul
l
i’
spr
incipl
e
barr
el,
airisthendrawnin.
3. Api peofr
adi
us6mm i
sconnect
edtoanot
herpi
peof
 Theairandthegasthenmixast
heyr
iseupandwhen radius9mm.Ifwat
erfl
owsinthewiderpi
peatthe
i
gnit
edaf l
ameisproduced. -
1
speedof2ms ,whatisthespeedinthenarr
ower
pipe?

4. Thefigur
ebelowshowsat ubeofvar
yingcross-
3. Spr
ayGun secti
onarea.v1, ndv4r
v2,v3a epr
esentt
hespeedof
waterasitfl
owsst eadil
ythr
oughthesecti
onsofthe

t
ube

Arrangethespeedsv1, ndv4 i
v2,v3a ndecr
easi
ng
or
derst
art
ingwiththehi
ghest
.

5. Thefigur
ebel
owshowsasheetofpaperr
oll
edi
ntoa
tube.
 Whent hepistoni spushedforwardairismadet o
fl
ow t hrough the barr
eland ther
efor
e causeslow
pressureinthebar rel
.Highat
mosphericpressur
eon
thesur f
aceoft heli
quidcompelstheli
qui
dt omove
upt hetube.
Whenaf
astst
ream ofai
risbl
owni
ntot
het
ubeasshown
 Theveloci
tyoftheli
qui
di sincr
easedasi tpushes
i
nt hediagr
am t
hepapert
ubecol
l
apses. Expl
aint
he
thr
oughthenozzl
eduetoreducedcrosssecti
onar
ea.
obser
vat
ion.
Theli
quidt
heref
oreemergesasafinespray.
6. Thef igurebelow showsahor i
zontaltubewithtwo
vert
icalt ubes X and Y.wat erf l
ows t hr
ough the
4. Thecar
bur
etor
. hori
zont altubefr
om righttoleft
.Thewat erl
evelin
tubeXi shighert
hanwat erl
eveli
nt ubeY.

PHYSI
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Expl
aint
hisobser
vat
ion

Chapt
erTen REFLECTI
ONATCURVEDSURFACES
Speci
fi
cobj
ect
ives Cont
ent

Byt
heendoft
hist
opi
cthel
ear
nershoul
dbeabl
eto: 1. Concav
e,conv
exandpar
abol
i
cref
lect
ors

a) Descr
ibeconcav
e,conv
exandpar
abol
i
cref
lect
ors 2. Pri
ncipalaxi
s,pr
inci
palf
ocus,cent
reofcur
vat
ure
andrelat
edterms
b) Descr
ibe usi
ng ray di
agr
ams the pri
ncipalaxi
s,
pr
inci
palf
ocuscentr
eofcur
vat
ureandrel
atedter
ms. 3. Locati
onofimagesf or
medbycur v
edmirr
orsby
constr
ucti
on met hod (exper
iment on cur
ved
c) Locat
e images f
ormed by cur
ved mi
rr
ors by mirr
orsrequi
red)
const
ruct
ion
4. Magni
fi
cat
ionf
ormul
a
d) Det
ermi
ne exper
iment
all
y t
he char
act
eri
sti
cs of
i
magesfor
medbyconcavemi
rror 5. Appl
i
cat
ionsofcur
vedr
efl
ect
ors

e) Def
inemagni
fi
cat
ion

f
) Expl
aint
heappl
i
cat
ionsofcur
vedr
efl
ect
ors

PHYSI
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I
ntr
oduct
ion 3. Par
abol
i
cRef
lect
or/Mi
rr
or

 Cur
vedr
efl
ect
orsar
eobt
ainedf
rom hol
l
ow spher
es,  I
tisacur
vedr
efl
ect
orwhoser
efl
ect
ingsur
facecur
ves
cones orcyli
nder
s.The surf
aces ofthese hol
low mor einwar
dst
hanthatoftheconcav
er ef
lect
or.I
tis
sol
idsarethenhi ghl
ypoli
shed f
rom theinsideor obtainedbyhi
ghl
ypolishi
ngtheoutsideofagl ass
outsi
dedepending onthetypeofcur ved r
efl
ector cone.
bei
ngmade.Concav eandconvexmi r
rorsarealso
cal
ledspher
icalmi
rror
s.

TypesofCur
vedRef
lect
ors

1. ConcaveRef
lect
or/Mi
rr
or

 Thi
sisar ef
lectorwhoser ef
lect
ingsurf
acecurves
i
nwards.Iti
sobt ai
nedbyhighl
ypol i
shi
ngtheout
side
ofaglasssphereport
ion. Ter
msAssoci
atedwi
thCur
vedRef
lect
ors

 Consi
dert
hedi
agr
amsbel
ow;

2. ConvexRef
lect
or/Mi
rr
or

 Thi
sisar efl
ectorwhoserefl
ecti
ngsurf
acecurv
es
out
wards.I
tisobtai
nedbyhighl
ypoli
shi
ngthei
nsi
de
ofagl
asssphereport
ion.

PHYSI
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a. Aper
tur
e

 Thi
sist
hewi
dthoft
hemi
rr
or

b. Pol
e,P
j
. Focall
engt
h,f
 Thi
sist
hegeomet
ri
cal
cent
reoft
hemi
rr
or.
 Thi
sisthedist
ancef
rom t
hepol
eoft
hemi
rr
ort
oit
s
c. Cent
reofcur
vat
ure,
C pri
nci
palf
ocus.

 Thisisthecentr
eofthesphereofwhichthemir
ror Note:Inopti
csful
lli
nesr epr
esentrealraysandobject
s
for
msapar t.Thecentr
eofcur v
atur
eofaconcav e whil
edottedl
inesr
epresentvi
rt
ualraysandimages.
mirr
orisinf r
ontwhil
et hatofaconv exmir
roris
behindt
hemirror
. Exerci
se

d. Radi
usofcur
vat
ure,
r Thef i
gur
ebelow showstwoparal
lelraysi
nci
dentona
concavemir
ror
.Fisthef
ocalpoi
ntofthemir
ror
.
 I
tist
heradi
usofaspher
eofwhi
cht
hecur
vedmi
rr
or
f
ormsapart
.

e. Pr
inci
pal
/mai
naxi
s

 Thisistheli
nepassi
ng t
hroughthepol
eand t
he
centr
eofcur
vatur
eoft
hecurvedmi
rror
.
Sketchonthesamedi
agr
am t
hepat
hoft
her
aysaf
ter
f
. Par
axi
alr
aysandmar
ginalr
ays str
iki
ngthemirr
or.
 Thesear er ayswhi charecloseandpar al
l
eltot he Relationship bet
ween Radius ofCur vat
ure and Focal
pri
nci
palaxi swhilemar gi
nalraysarethosethatare Lengt h
paral
l
el butnotclosetotheprinci
palaxi
s.
 I tcanbeshownt hroughgeometrythattheradi
usof
g. Pri
ncipalfocus,F,ofaconcavemi r
ror curvaturei
stwicethefocal
lengt
hi.e.
 Itist hepointatwhichalltheraysparall
elandclose r=2f
to the pr i
nci
pal axis converge after r
efl
ecti
on.
Pri
ncipalfocusofaconcav emi r
rori
sr ealbecause LawsofReflect
ioni
nCurvedMir
ror
s
ref
lectedr
ay sact
uall
ypasst hr
oughit.
 Reflect
ion atcurv
ed surf
aces al
so obey
slaws of
h. Pri
ncipalf
ocus,F,ofaconvexmi rr
or r
efl
ecti
on:
 Thesei
st hepointatwhi
challr
aysparal
lelandcl
ose 1. The angle ofinci
dence i
sequaltot
he angl
e of
tothepr
incipalaxi
sappeart
oemer ge/diver
gefr
om ref
lect
ionatthepointofi
nci
dence

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
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aft
err efl
ecti
on.The pri
nci
palfocus ofa convex 2. Thei
nci
dentr
ay,t
henormalandtheref
lect
edrayal
l
mirr
orisv i
rt
ualbecauser
efl
ect
edraysonl
yappearto l
ieont
hesameplaneatt
hepointofi
nci
dence.
passthroughit.

i
. Focalpl
ane

 Thisisapl aneperpendiculartot heprinci

palaxisand
passest hrought hepr i
ncipalfocus.Foraconcave
mirror,parall
elrays whi ch are notpar all
eltot he
pri
ncipalaxisconv ergeatapoi ntont hefocalplane
aft
err efl
ection.Fora conv exmi rr
or,parall
elrays
whichar enotpar all
eltot heprinci sappeart
palaxi o
emer gefrom apointonf ocalplaneaf t
errefl
ecti
on.

PHYSI
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3. Araythroughthecent
reofcurvat
ure(f
orconcave)or
appeari
ngt opassthroughcentr
eofcur vat
ure(for
convexmirror
)isr
efl
ectedal
ongthesamepath.

RayDi
agr
ams

 Raydiagramsar eused to show and expl

ain how
i
mages ar ef or
med by cur ved mir
rors and the
char
acter
ist
icsofthesei
mages.

FourMaj
orCasesi
ntheConst
ruct
ionofRayDi
agr
ams

1. A rayclose and paral

lelto pr
incipalaxi
s passes 4. Arayatanangletot
heprinci
palaxi
sandi nci
dentat
thr
ough princi
palfocus ( f
or concave mirror
) or t
hepoleisref
lect
edinsuchawayt hattheangl
eof
appearsto emerge from the princi
palfocus (f
or i
nci
dencei
sequaltot
heangleofrefl
ecti
on.
convexmirr
or)aft
errefl
ecti
on.

2. A raythr
ought
heprinci
palf
ocusofaconcaveor
appear
ingtobedi
rectedtothepri
nci
palf
ocusof
convexmirr
ori
srefl
ectedparal
l
elt
ot hepri
nci
pal Char
act
eri
sti
csofI
magesFor
medbyCur
vedRef
lect
ors
axi
s.
A. Concav
emi
rr
ors

i
. Obj
ectati
nfi
nit
y

PHYSI
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 I
mageisreal
,for
medatF,i
nver
tedandsmal
l
ert
han
t
heobj
ect
.

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
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80

i
i
. Obj
ectatc  Thei
magef or
medisbehi
ndt
hemi
rr
or,vi
rt
ual
,upr
ight
andl
argert
hantheobj
ect
.

B. Convexmi
rr
or

 Irr
espect
iveoft hedi
stanceoftheobjecti
nf rontof
the mirr
or,images formed byconvex mirr
ors are
magef
 I ormedi
satC,r
eal
,i
nver
tedandsamesi
zeas alwaysupri
ght,small
erthant
heobjectandbetweenP
t
heobj
ect
. andF.

i
i
i. Obj
ectbeyondC

Exampl
e

Aladyhol
dsal argeconcavemi
rr
oroff
ocall
engt
h1m,
 I
magef
or sbet
medi weenCandF,r
eal
,inver
tedand 80cm f
rom herface.
smal
l
ert
hant
heobj
ect
.
a. Usi
ng sui
tabl
e const
ruct
ion i
l
lust
rat
e how her
i
mageisformed
i
v. Obj
ectbet
weenCandF

b. St
atetwo char
act
eri
sti
cs ofheri
mage i
nthe
mir
ror
.

o I
mageupr
ight
 Thei
magef
or sbey
medi ondC,r
eal
,inver
ted,l
arger
t
hant
heobj
ect(
magni
fi
ed) o I
magemagni
fi
ed
v. Obj
ectatF Exer
cise

1. Thef i
gur
ebelow showsar
ayofl
i
ghti
nci
dentona
convexmirr
or

 The i
magei sformed ati
nfini
tybecauset
her
ays
emergepar
all
elaf
terr
efl
ect
ion.
Usi
ngsuit
abl
econstr
uct
ion,det
ermi
net
her
adi
usof
vi
. Obj
ectbet
weenFandP cur
vat
ureoft
hemirr
or.

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
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2. Thefigur
ebelow showsparabol
icsur
facewi
tha
sour
ceofli
ghtpl
acedati
tsf
ocalpoi
ntF

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
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82

Dr
aw r
aystoshow r
efl
ect
ionfr
om thesur
facewhen i
i
. Si
zeoft
hei
mage
raysfr
om thesour
cest
ri
kethesurf
aceatpoi
ntsA,B,C
andD i
i
i. Nat
ureoft
hei
mage

3. Thefi
gurebel
owshowsaver
ti
calobj
ect
,O,
placedi
n i
v. magni
fi
cat
ion
fr
ontofaconvexmi
rr
or
sol
uti
on

Onthesamediagr
am dr
awt
heappr
opr
iat
eraysand
l
ocat
etheimagef
ormed.

4. Thef i
gurebelow showsabr i
ghtbehi
ndascr een
which has a hole covered wit
h wir
e gauze.A
concavemi r
roroffocallengt
h25cm i splacedin
fr
ontoft hescreen.Theposi t
ionofthemi rr
oris i
. I
mageposit
ionis13.
6X2=27.
2cm f
rom Pi
n
adj
usteduntilasharpi
mageoft hegauzei
sf ormed f
rontoft
hemir
ror.
onthescreen.
i
i
. Si
zeoft
hei
magei
s6.
6X2=13.
2cm

i
i
i. Nat
ureoft
hei
mage: t
hei
magei
sinv
ert
ed,r
eal
andmagni
fi
ed

ima
geheight 13.
2cm
i
v. ma
gni
fi
cat
ion= = =4.
4
obj
ecthe
ight 3c m

Deter
mi ne t
he dist
ance bet
ween the scr
een and t
he
mi
rror
. 2. Aconvexmirr
oroffocall
ength15cm producesan
i
mage10cm awayf r
om themirr
or.I
fthei
magei s3
Gr
aphicalConst
ructi
onofRayDiagr
ams cm hi
gh,
det
erminebyscal
edrawi
ng
 I
magesaredrawntoscal
einar
aydi
agr
am andt
his
i
. Theobj
ectdi
stance
i
sbestdoneongr
aphpaper.
i
i
. Obj
ecthei
ght
/si
ze
Li
near(
Transver
se)Magni
fi
cat
ion
i
i
i. Magni
fi
cat
ion
 I
tistherati
ooftheimageheightt
otheobj
ectheight
.
I
tcan also be def
ined asthe r
ati
o ofthe i
mage Sol
uti
on
di
stancetotheobj
ectdi
stance.

Li
nea
r(t
rans
ver
se)ma
gni
fi
cat
ion

imagehe
ight imagedi
sta
nce
= =
obj
ecthei
ght obj
ectdi
stanc
e

Exampl
es

PHYSI
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1. Anobj ect3cm highisplaced6cm i nfrontofa

concavemirr
orofr
adiusofcurvat
ure10cm.Byscal
e
drawingdet
ermi
nethe:

i
. Posi
ti
onoft
hei
mage

i
. Theobj
ectdi
stancei
s6X5=30cm

i
i
. Obj
ecthei
ght
/si
zei
s1.
4X5=7cm

ima
geheight
i
i
i. Ma
gni
fi
cat
ion=
obj
ecthe
ight

3c
m
= =0.
4285
7c
m

PHYSI
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Exer
cise 2. Anobj ectisplaced10cm i
nf r
ontofaconvexmi rr
or
off ocallength20cm.Det erminetheposit
ionand
1. Aconcavemi rr
oroffocall
engt
h10cm f ormsa natureoftheimage.
sharpi mageat40cm from t
hemi r
ror
.Det er
mine
graphical
ly the posi
ti
on of the obj ect and Sol
ution
magni fi
cat
ionofthei
mage.
fis negat ive (-
20 cm) accordi
ng tor eal
-i
s-posi
ti
ve
2. Aconcavemi rr
oroffocall
engt
h20cm f ormsa convent i
on
realimaget wotimest
hesizeoftheobject.I
fthe
object height i
s 10 cm,determine by scale 1 1 1
= +
drawing: f u v

i
. Theobj
ectdi
stance 1 1 1
- = +
20 10 v
i
i
. Thei
magedi
stance
1 1 1 3
=- - =-
TheMi
rr
orFor
mul
a v 20 10 20

Theobjectdi
stanceu,t
hefocall hf
engt andt
hei
mage 20
v=- =-6.
667c
m
di
stancevrel
atedbyt
hemir
rorfor
mul :
a 3

1 1 1 Theimageisvi
rtual(becausevisnegat
ive)
,upr
ightand
= + di
minished(
becausevi ssmall
erthanu)
f u v

Real
-I
s-Posi
ti
veConvent
ion 3. A concave mi rr
orwithradi
us ofcurvature 10 cm
producesani nvert
edimagetwoti
mest hesizeofan
 Thisisasignconv enti
onusedwi t
hthemi rr
or objectplacedi nf r
ontofitandperpendicul
artot he
for
mul ai
nor dertodeterminetheposit
ionandnatur
e pri
ncipalaxis.Determi
netheposi
ti
onof :
oftheimagef ormedbyacur vedmi r
ror.Accor
dingt
o
thereal
-i
s-posit
ivesignconventi
on: a. Theobj ect

a) Al
ldi
stancesar
emeasur
edf
rom t
hemi
rr
orast
he b. Thei
mage
or
igi
n.
Sol
uti
on
b) Dist
ances of real obj
ects and i
mages are
r 10 v
consi
deredposi
tivee.
g.focall
engt
hofconcave f= = =5c
m;m = =2;
v=2u
2 2 u
mirr
ors.
1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 3
c) Dist
ances ofvir
tualobj
ects and images ar
e = + ;= + ↔ = + =
consi
derednegat
ivee.
g.focallengt
hofconvex f u v f u 2u 5 u 2u 2u
mirr
or. 3 1
= ↔u=7.
5cma
nd∴v=2×7.
5cm =15c
m
Exampl
es 2u 5

Exer
cise
1. Anobjectispl
aced10cm i
nfr
ontofaconcavemi
rr
or
offocallengt
h20cm.Det er
minethepositi
onand 1. The dist
ance bet
ween an erectimage and t
he
nat
ureoftheimage. obj
ectis40cm.Thei magei stwiceastal
lasthe
obj
ect.Deter
mine:
Sol
uti
on
1 1 1 i
. Theobj
ectdi
stance.
= +
f u v i
i
. Ther
adi
usofcur
vat
ure.
1 1 1
= + 2. Avert
icalobj
ect10cm hi
ghispl
aced20cm away
20 10 v f
rom aconvexmi r
rorofr
adi
usofcur
vat
ure30cm.

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
 Page|
85

1 1 1 1 det
ermi
ne:
= - =-
v 20 10 20
i
. Thei
magedi
stance.
v=-20c
m
i
i
. Thehei
ghtoft
hei
mage.
Thei
magei
svirt
ual(becausevisnegat
ive)
,upr
ightand
magni
fi
ed(
becausevisgreatert
hanu) i
i
i. Themagni
fi
cat
ionoft
hei
mage.

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
 Page|
86

3. Thedistancebetweenanobjectandit
smagnifi
ed  Therefore,agraphofuva ga
instu+visastr
aightl
i
ne
reali
magepr oducedbyaconcavemirr
oris40cm through theor i
gin whosegradienti
sposi
ti
ve.The
whent heobjecti
splaced20cm from thepol
eof gradientofthegraphgivesf
themirror
.Deter
minethe:

i
. Tr
ansver
semagni
fi
cat
ionoft
hei
mage.
3. Gr
aphofmagai
nstv
i
i
. Thef
ocall
engt
hoft
hemi
rr
or.
1
 Fromt
hemir
rorformula
Gr
aphi
calAnal
ysi
soft
heMi
rr
orFor
mul
a f
1 1
1 1 = + ,mul
tipl
yingal
lthr
oug
hbyvg
ive
s
1. Gr
aphof agai
nst u v
u v
v v v v v
= + ↔ = +1
 I
tisastr
aightli
negraphwi
thanegati
vegradi
ent
, f u v f u
i
mplyi
ngt
hatt heimageisi
nver
tedr
elat
ivetothe
v v
obj
ect
. =m + 1,s
inc
e =m
f u
v
∴m = -1
f

 1 1 1
The -i
nte
rce
ptort
he -i
nte
rce
ptg
ive
s
u v f

2. Gr
aphofuva
gai
nstu+v

1 1 1
 Fr
om t
hemi
rr
orf
or a= +,
mul  Therefore,agraphofmag a
instvi
sastr
aightl
i
newit
h
f u v
1
ag radientof and m- inter
cept i
s- 1.Also t
he
1 v+u uv f
= ; f=
f uv v+u v-interc
e ptgi
vesthef
oca
l l
ength,
f

Exer
cise

Aconcavemi
rr
orandani
ll
uminat
edobjectar
eusedt o
pr
oduceashar
pimageoftheobjectonascreen.The

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
 Page|
87

obj
ectdi
stancesandi
magedi
stancesar
egi
venbel
ow.

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
 Page|
88

Obj
ectdist
ance, 0 26.
80. 7 22.
4 20.
6 19.
6
u( c
m)
I
ma g
edistance
, 20.
0 40.
0 56.
0 72.
0 88
v(cm)
u+v( cm)
uv( m2)
c
Magni
fi
cati
on,
m
1. Compl
etet
het
abl
e

2. Usi
ngsui
tabl
eval
ues: 5. Usedassol
arconcent
rat
orst
obr
ingl
i
ghtener
gyi
nto
focus.
1 1
i
. Pl
otagr
aphofagai
nst
u v

i
i
. Deter
mi net
her
adi
usofc
urva
tur
e,ff
rom B. ConvexMi
rr
ors
thegraph

3. Pl
otagr
aphofuvagai
nstu+vandusei
ttof
indt
he
r
adi
usofc
urva
tur
e,f 1. Used ascarand mot or
cycl
esidemi r
ror
sbecause
theyfor
m upr i
ghti
magesandhaveawi def i
eldof
4. Plotagraphofmagnif
ica
tion,
mag
ai tvandusei
ns tto view
fi
ndtheradi
usofcurvat
ure,f
2. Used in supermar
ketsto monitor movement of
Appl
icati
onsofCurvedMirr
ors customer
sbecauset heyform upri
ghtimagesand
haveawidefiel
dofvi
ew
A. ConcaveMirr
ors

1. Used as shavi
ng mi rr
ors because t
hey pr
oduce
magni
fied and upr
ightimageswhen t heobj
ectis
bet
weenprinci
palfocus,Fandthepol
e,P.

2. Usedbydenti
stwhenexami ni
ngteet
ht heypr
oduce
magni
fi
ed and upr
ightimageswhen t heobj
ectis
bet
weenpri
nci
palfocus,
Fandt hepol
e,P.
 Note:The def ect of spher
icalmi r
rorsin which
margi
nalr ays are notbroughti nt
of ocus att
he
pri
nci
palf ocusr esul
ti
ngi nbl
ur r
edimagesi scal
l
ed
spher
icalaberrati
on.

Di
sadvant
ageofConvexMi
rr
or

1. Convexmi rr
orforms di
mini
shed i
mages gi
vi
ng an
i
mpr essi
onthatthevehi
cl
esbehi
ndarefar
theraway
3. Usedasr efl
ectorbehindproj
ectorlamptor efl
ect thantheyact
ual
lyare.
l
ighttravel
l
ingawayf rom t
heproject
or.Thelampi s
placed atthe cent
re ofcurvat
ure ofthe concave
mi r
ror
.
C. Par
abol
i
cMi
rr
ors

 Usedforpropagat
ionofpar al
l
elli
ghtbeamsofhi
gh
i
ntensi
tyi
nhandt orches,searchl
i
ght
sandcarhead
l
ight
s.

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
 Page|
89

Advant
ageofPar
abol
i
cMi
rr
orsoverConcaveMi
rr
ors

 Unli
keconcavemi rrorsi
nwhi chmarginalraysar
enot
converged at pr inci
pal focus, paraboli
c mi r
ror
converges allrays paral
lelt o pr
incipalaxi
s and
i
ncidentonitssurfaceatit
spr i
nci
palfocus.

4. Usedintel
escopestobri
ngdist
anceobj
ects(obj
ect
s
ati
nfi
nit
y)l
ikestar
sint
ofocusatthef
ocalpoi
nt.

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.
 Page|
90

Revi
sionquesti
ons
1. Withtheaidofawel
ll
abel
eddiagram,expl
aint
he
widefiel
dofvi
ewofaconvexmirr
or.

2. St
ateonappl
i
cat
ionofeachoft
hef
oll
owi
ng

i
. Convexmi
rr
or.

i
i
. Par
abol
i
cmi
rr
or

3. Thefigur
ebelowwhichisdr
awnt oascal
eof1:
5
repr
esentanobjectOandi
tsimageIf
ormedbya
convexmirr
or.

Bydrawingsui
tabl
erays,l
ocateandmar kont
he
fi
guretheposi
ti
onoftheprinci
palf
ocus,Foft
he
mirr
or.Det
ermi
nethefocall
ength,f
.

4. Thefigur
ebelow showsapoi
ntobj
ectOpl
aced
i
nfrontofaconvexmirr
or.

Drawappr
opr
iat
erayst
olocat
ethei
mageoft
he
object
.

5. St
atet
headvant
agepar
abol
i
cmi
rr
orover
concavemi
rr
or.

PHYSI
CSFORTHEPHYSI
CALLI
FE.