i

sabokemi
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.com 232

232
FORM FOURPHYSI
CS
HANDBOOK
MrI
saboke0705525657
Tabl
eofCont
ent
s
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Page2

BRI
EFPERSONALPROFI
LE Page2

GUI
DELI
NESI
NMYLI
FE Page2

Chapt
er1 THI
NLENSES Page3

Chapt
er2 UNI
FORM CI
RCULARMOTI
ON Page11

Chapt
er3 SI
NKI
NGANDFLOATI
NG Page18

Chapt
er4 ELECTROMAGNETI
CINDUCTI
ON Page26

Chapt
er5 MAI
NSELECTRI
CITY Page32

Chapt
er6 ELECTROMAGNETI
CSPECTRUM Page38

Chapt
er7 CATHODERAYSANDCATHODERAY Page42
OSCI
LLOSCOPE

Chapt
er8 X-
RAYS Page47

Chapt
er9 PHOTOELECTRI
CEFFECT Page50

Chapt
er10 RADI
OACTI
VITY Page56

Chapt
er11 ELECTRONI
CS Page64

Li
nest
hati
nfl
uenceact
ivi
ti
esi
nmyl
i
fe

1. Godi
sal
way
sther
etoassi
stpr
ovi
dedy
ouaskf
orHi
m.

2. Ati
tsbest
,Phy
sicsel
i
minat
escompl
exi
tybyr
eveal
i
ngunder
lyi
ngsi
mpl
i
cit
y.

3. Ther
eisnomet
hodofchangi
ngy
ourf
ateexceptt
hroughhar
dwor
k.

4. Cohesi
onwi
thi
mmedi
atenei
ghbour
sanddet
ermi
nat
ional
way
sbet
ter
syouri
mmedi
ateenv
ironment
.

Nov
els,
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,
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es 0705525657 Page1of1
 232

Chapt
erOne THI
NLENSES

Obj
ect
ives Ef
fectofl
ensesonpar
all
elr
aysofl
i
ght
.

Bytheendoft hi
slessonthelearnershouldbeable Al ens rel
ies on the pr i
nci
palofr efr
acti
on ofl i
ght.
to: Therefor
ewhenpar all
elraysaredirect
edt owardst he
l
enst herayswillber efr
actedei
therbybeingconv er
ged
a) Describe conv ergi
ng lenses and di vergi
ng orbybei ngdiverged.
lenses.
 When t he conv ex l
ens i
s used the rays are
b) Describeusingraydiagr
amst heprinci
palfocus, conver
ged.
theopt i
calcentreandthefocallengthofat hi
n
lens.

c) Determineexper
iment
all
ythef
ocall
engt
hofa
convergingl
ens.

d) Locat
ei magesf
ormedbyt
hinl
ensesusi
ngr
ay  I
fa concav
elensi
sused t
hen t
he r
aysar
e
const
ructi
onmethod.

e) Expl
aint
hei
magef
ormat
ioni
nthehumaney
e.

f
) Descr
ibet
hedefect
sofv i
si
oni
nthehumaney
e
andhowtheyar
ecorrect
ed. di
ver
ged.

g) Descri
betheusesoflensesi nvari
ousopt
ical Def
init
ionofter
ms
devi
ses.
a) Centreofcurv
atur
e–thecent
reofthespher
ewhich
h) Sol
ve numeri
calprobl
ems i nv
olvi
ng t
he l
ens thelensi
spart.
for
mulaandthemagnif
icat
ion.
b) Radiusofcurvat
ure(
r)-ther
adi
usofthespher
eof
I
ntr
oducti
on whichthesurf
aceoft
helensi
spart
.

Lens-I sacar ef
ullymoldedpieceofat ranspar ent c) Pri
ncipalaxi s–i tisant heli
nej oi
ningthecent r
esof
mater i
althatref
ractsli
ghtinsuchawayast of orm curvatureofi t
ssur faces.
an i mage.They nor mally oper
ate on r efractive
propertyofli
ght. d) OpticalCent re(O)-i tisapoi ntont heprincipalaxis
midwaybet weent hel enssurfaces.
 They ar e made of gl ass,clear pl asti
c,or
Perspex. e) Pri
ncipalf ocus( F)–Foraconv exlens,isapoi nton
the principalaxi s wher e al
lr ays conv erge after
 They ar e found in camer as human ey e, passingt hrought hel ens.Whi l
eforaconcav elens,
spectacl
es, t el
escopes, mi croscope and i
sapoi ntont heprincipalaxisbehindt helensf rom
proj
ectorse.
t.c w hi
ch rays s eem to diver
g e fr
om aft
e rp assing
thr
ought helens.
Typesofl enses
f) Focall ength( f)– i tist hedi st
ancebet weent he
Therear etwomaj orty
pesoflenses,namely : opti
cal centreandt hepr inci
palfocus.

1. Conv ex(conv erging)-theyarethi he g) Focalpl

ckestatt ane – iti sa planeperpendiculartothe
middleandt hinnestattheends. principalt hatal
lt heraysseem t oconv ergetoor
seem t oappeart odi v
ergefrom.Theincidentray
sin
2. Concav e(di
v erging)–t heyarethi
nnestatt
he thiscasear enotparall
elt
ot hepr
inci
pal axi
s.
middleandt hickestattheends.
h) Par axialr ay
s-thesear eraysthatarepar al
l
eland
Convexlenses closet ot hepri
ncipalaxi
s.

) Mar
i ginalr
ays-t
hesear
eray
sthatar
epar
all
eland
 i
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f
arawayf
rom t
hepr
inci
pal
axi
s.

Concav
elenses

1.
3ImageFor
mat
ion

I
tisi
mpor
tantt
onot
e:

 Real
ray
sandr
eal
imagesar
edr
awni
nful
ll
ines.

 Vi
rt
ualray
s and vi
rt
uali
mages ar
e dr
awn i
n
br
oken/
dot
tedl
i
nes.

 Tolocat
etheimage,t
woort
hreer
aysf
rom t
het
ip
oft
heobjectar
edrawn.

 Shouldt hefootoftheobjectcrossthepri
nci
pal
axis,t
hemet hodon3abovei susedtogett
hefoot
oft heimage.Thetopisjoinedtothefoottoget
theimage.

Exampl
e
1.
2RayDi
agr
ams

Foronetolocatet
hei magewhenusi ngalens,r
ay
di
agramsareofgr eatimpor
tance.Therear
et hr
ee
majorray
st hatar
e used inraydiagrams f
orthe
l
ocati
onofimagesf
ormedbythelens.

Theser
aysar
e;

(
i) Ar
ayofl
i
ghtpar
all
elt
othepr
inci
palaxi
s.

Thisr ay passes t
hrough the pri
ncipalf
ocus (for  Convergi
ng and di v
ergi
ng l enses ar
e
convexlens)orseem t oappeartoemer gefrom t
he repr
esentedbyt
hesy
mbolsshownbelow.
pri
ncipalf
ocus( f
orconcavel ens)aft
erref
racti
onby
thelens

(
ii
)A r ay ofli
ghtpassi
ng (
orappear
ing t
o pass
t
hrough)t
hepri
nci
palf
ocus
Char
act
eri
sti
csofi
magesf
ormedbyl
enses
-
therayemergesparal
l
elt
othepr
inci
palaxi
saf
ter
r
efr
acti
onbyt
helens

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 232
Conv
ergi
ngl
enses.

Obj
ectati
nfi
nit
y.

(
ii
i)Ar
ayofl
i
ghtt
hrought
heopt
icalcent
re

Thi
sraypassesonun-
dev
iat
ed

Thei
magei
s

(
i) Real

(
ii
)Inv
ert
ed

(
ii
i)Di
mini
shed

(
iv)For
medatF

Obj
ectbey
ond2F Obj
ectbet
weenFandl
ens

Thei
magei
s Thei
magei
s

(
i) Real (
i) Vi
rt
ual

(
ii
)Inv
ert
ed (
ii
) Er
ect

(
ii
i)Di
mini
shed (
ii
i)

(
iv)Magni
fi
ed
(
iv)f
ormedbet
weenFand2Font
heot
hersi
deof
t
helens (
v) For
medont
hesamesi
deasobj
ect

Obj
ectat2F Di
ver
gingl
enses

Thei
magei
s
Thei
magei
s
(
i) Vi
rt
ual
(
i)r
eal
(
ii
) Er
ect
(
ii
)Inv
ert
ed
(
ii
i)di
mini
shed
(
ii
i)Samesi
zeast
heobj
ect Li
nearMagni
fi
cat
ion
(
iv)For
medat2F,
ont
heot
hersi
deoft
hel
ens  Magni
fi
cat
ioni
sameasur
eoft
heext
entt
owhi
ch
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
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anopt
ical
syst
em enl
argesorr
educesani
mage.

Obj
ectbet
weenFand2F  Linearmagni f
icat
ionisar ati
oofheightofimageto
thehei ghtoft heobjectORt herat
iooft heimage
distancetotheobjectdist
ance.

hei
ghtofi
mage
magni
fi
cat
ion=
hei
ghtofobj
ect

imagedi
stance
Ormagni
fi
cat
ion=
obj
ectdi
stance

Thei
magei
s V
Ther
ef e,m =
or =
u
(
i) Real

(
ii
)Inv
ert
ed Thel
ensf
ormul
a

(
ii
i)Magni
fi
ed Consi
derani
magef
ormedbyconv
ergi
ngl
ensasshown
bel
ow.
(
iv)f
ormedbey
ond2Font
heot
hersi
deoft
he
l
ens

Obj
ectatF

POistheobjectdi
stance,u,PIi
sthei
magedi
stance,v
,
andPFthefocall
ength,f
.
Thei
magei
sati
nfi
nit
y

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 232
OB=PH (
ii
)Anobj ectpl
aced6m f
rom aconv
erginglensf or
ms
aner ect i
magethatisfi
veti
mesl arger
.Statethe
Tr
iangl
esPOBandPI
M ar
esi
mil
ar.Ther
efor
e; typeoft heimagefor
med.Fi
ndthef ocallenghtof
thelens.
OB PO u
= = ……………………………………….
.(
1)
IM PI v Sol
uti
on

Si
mil
arl
y,t
ri
angl
esPFHandI
MFar
esi
mil
ar.So; Thei
magei
svi
rt
ualsi
ncei
tisupr
ightandmagni
fi
ed.

PH PF v v
= ……………………………………………….
(2) Fr
om =m, =5⇨v=5u,
u=6m,
v=5×6=30m
IM IF u u

But
,PF=f 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + , = + , f=5m
f u v f 6 30
I
F=PI
-PF; I
F=v-
f
Rel
ati
onshi
pbet
weenmagni
fi
cat
ionandf
ocall
engt
h
Subst
it
utet
hesev
aluesi
nequat
ion(
2);
Wehav
e;
OB f
= ……………………………………….
.(
3)
IM v
-f 1 1 1
= +
f u v
Combi
ningequat
ions(
1)and(
3);
Mul
ti
plybot
hsi
desbyv
;
u f
=
v v-
f v v v
= +
f u v
uv-
uf=v
f
v v
uv=v
f+uf But
, =m and =1,
ther
efor
e,
u v
uv=f
(v+u) v
=m +1
f
uv
=v+u
f Re-
arr
angi
ng;
1 v+u v u v
= = + m= -1
f uv uv uv f
1 1 1 Todet
ermineuandv ,r
eal
-i
s–posit
ivesi
gnconv
ent
ion
Hence = +
f u v i
sadopted.Accor
dingt
othi
sconvent
ion:
Thisiscall
edthel
ensfor
mulaandhol
dsf
orbot
h I
. Alldi
stancesar
e measur
ed f
rom t
he opt
ical
conver
ginganddi
ver
gingl
ens. cent
re.
Exampl
es I
I. Dist
ancesofrealobjectsandrealimagesar
e
posi
tiv
ewhereasdi stancesofvir
tualobj
ect
s
(
i) Anobject0.05m hi
ghisplaced0.15m i
nfrontof andimagesar
enegat i
v e.
a convex l
ens off ocallenght0.1m.
find the
posi
ti
on and size oft he image.
whati st he I
II
. Thefocall
engt
hofaconver
gingl
ensisposi
ti
ve
magnifi
cat
ion? whi
lethatofdi
ver
gingl
ensi
snegat
ive.
Sol
uti
on Exer
cise
ho=0.
05m,
u=0.
15m,
f=0.
1m,
v=?
,hi=? 1. Anobj
ecti
splaced12cm fr
om aconv
ergi
ngl
ens
off
ocasll
enght18cm.Findtheposi
ti
onofthe
1 1 1 i
mage.
= + ,
f u v
2. Anobjectisplaces10cm f
rom adi
ver
gingl
ensof
1 1 1 focall
enght15cm.Findt
henatur
eandtheposi
ti
on
= + , v=0.
3m
0.
1 0.15 v oftheimage.

hi v v 3. Thefocall
enghtofaconv er
gingl
ensisfoundtobe
= =m ⇨ hi= ×ho, 10cm.how farshouldthelensbeplacedf r
om an
ho u u
i
ll
uminatat
edobj ecttoobtainanimagewhi chis
 i
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0.
3 0.
3 magni
fi
edf
ivet
imesonascr
een?
hi= ×0.
05=0.
015m,m = =3
0.
1 0.
1

Gr
aphi
cali
nter
prent
ati
onoft
hel
ensf
ormul
a Exer
cise

CASE1: I
nter
pret
eagr
aphof
:

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 232
1 1 1 1
Agr
aphof agai
nst ; (
i) agai
nst
v u u v

1 1 1 (
ii
) u+vagai
nstuv
Fr
om t
hel
ensf
ormul
a, = +
f u v
CASE3:
Re-
wri
tet
heequat
ioni
nthef
orm y=mx+c
1
Gr
aphofuagai
nst
1 1 1 1 1 m
=- + Hence,
sl
ope=-
1and -i
nter
cept=
V u f v f
1 1 1
= +
f u v

u u u
= +
f u v

u 1
=1+
f m

1
u=f +f
m

I
mpl
yi
ngt
hatf=sl
opeandu-
int
ercept=f

I
tisast
rai
ghtl
i
net
hatcut
sthev
ert
ical
axi
satf
.

CASE2

Agr
aphofuvagai
nst u+v

1 1 1 1 v
+u
Fr
om t
hel
ensf
ormul
a = + , =
f u v f uv

uv=( )
u+vf

I
nthef
orm y=mx+c

uv=f
( )+0
u+v

Thusgr
adi
ent=fanduvi
nter
cept=0

I
tisagraphofast
rai
ghtl
i
nepassi
ngt
hrought
he
or
igi
n.
Exer
cise

I
nter
pretagr
aphof
:

(
i) m agai
nstv

(
ii
) Vagai
nstm
 i
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Experi
mentalDet
erminati
onOfTheFocalLengt
hOfA 2. Adjustthe posit
ion ofthe lens hol
derunt
ila
Convergi
ng(Convex)Lens sharpimage oft he obj
ecti sformed on t
he
screenalongsi
detheobjecti
tself
.
Method(1):
3. Recordthedi st
ancebet weent helensandthe
Focusi
ngADi st
antObject screen.

Appar
atus Focal
lengt
h--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
cm

Met
rer
ule,
lens,
alenshol
der
,scr
een NOTE:
Pr
ocedur
e Undert heseconditi
ons,ray sfrom anypoi ntonthe
obj
ectwi l
lemer gefrom t hel ensaspar all
elrays.
1. Mountaconv
exl
ensonal ensholderandf
ixa Theyar et her
eforerefl
ectedbackt hr
oughthelens
metr
erul
eonabenchusi
ngplast
ici
neasshown andbr oughtt oaf ocusi nt hesamepl aneast he
bel
ow. obj
ect.Thedi st
ancebetweent hel ensandt
hescreen
nowgiv ethefocall
engthoft hel ens.

Met
hod(
3):

Usi
ngAPi
nAndPl
aneMi
rr
or/
NoPar
all
axMet
hod

1. Setupt
heappar
atusasshownbel
ow.

2. Pl
aceawhi
tescr
eenatoneendoft
hemet
rer
ule.

3. Movethelenstoandfroal
ongthemetrerul
eto
f
ocusclearl
ytheimageofadi
stantobj
ect
,li
kea
t
reeorwindowframe.

4. Measurethedi st
ancebet weent helensandt he 2. Adjustthepositi
onoft hepi nupanddownt il
lit
s
screen. ti
pi satthesamehor izontall
ev elasthecentr
eof
thelens.Aposi t
ionisfoundf orwhi cht
hereisno
Focall
ength-
--
--
--
--
--
---
--
---
-cm parall
axbet weenitandt her ealimagef or
med.
Forbestr esul
ts,att
enti
onshoul dbegiventothe
Note:Thedist
ancebet weent hel ensandt hescreen
ti
ltoftheplanemi r
rorsothatt het i
poftheimage
gi
vesar oughesti
mat eoft hefocallengthofthelens.
oft heobjectpinappear st otouchatt hesame
Thisis because par allelraysf rom infi
nit
y are
l
ev elasthecentreofthelens.
conver
gedatthefocal pointonthescr een.
3. Thedist
ancebet
weent hepinandthelenswi
l
l
Met
hod(
2):
thenbeequal
tot
hefocall
engt
hofthel
ens.
Usi
ng an I ll
umi
nat
ed Obj
ect And Pl
ane
Focal
lengt
h=-
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
cm
Mi
rr
or/
Ref
lect
ionMet
hod
Thepowerofal
ens
Pr
ocedur
e
I
sameasureofrefract
iveproper
tyofalens.I
tis
1. Sett helensinitsholderwit
h a pl
anemirr
or
gi
venby
behinditsothatli
ghtpassi
ngthr
oughitcanbe
ref
lectedbackasshownbelow. 1
power=
focallengt
hinmetr
es

Theuni
tofpowerofal
ensi
sdi
opt
res(
D)

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 232

USESOFLENSESI
NOPTI
CALDEVI
CES Def
ect
sofv
isi
on

Duetothei
rabil
ityt
oconv
ergeordivergeli
ghtrays, Shor
tsi
ght
edness(
myopi
a)
l
ensesar
ewi del
yusedi
nopti
caldev
ices.Thedev
ices
i
ncl
ude;

 Humaney
e

 Si
mpl
emi
croscope

 Compoundmi
croscope

 Thecamer
a  Canonl
ycl
ear
lyseenearobj
ect
s

Thehumaney
e  Raysofnearobject
sarefocusedonthereti
na
butthosefordist
anceobject
sarefocused i
n
I
tisanat
ural
opt
ical
inst
rument fr
ontofther
eti
na

Causes

 Shor
tfocal
lengt
hoft
heey
elens

 Longey
ebal
l

Cor
rect
edbydi
ver
gingl
ensesasshown

1. Scl
erot
icl
ayer–har
dshel
lthatencl
osest
heey
e
andiswhi
te.

Thef r
ontparti st r
ansparentand spher cal Longsi
i ghtedness(hy per
metropi
a)
knownast hecornea.
 Canseedi stantobjectsbutnotnearones
Mostbendingofl i
ghtenteri
ngt heey eoccurs
atthecor
nea.  Thei magesofnearobj ect
saref or
medbehi
nd
thereti
na
2. AqueousHumour– cl earl i
quid between the
corneaandt helens.Ithelpst heey emai nt
ain Causesare:
shape.
 Tool ongf ocallengthoftheeye
3. Ir
is–i ti
sthecol ouri
ngoft heey e.Ithaspupil
whichregul
atestheamountofl ightenter
ingthe  Tooshor teyeball
eye.

4. Cryst
all
i
nelens-i
tisaconv
ergi
nglens.I
tcan
changeitsf
ocall
engt
hbytheacti
onofCili
ary
muscles

5. Vit
reous humour – t r
anspar
ent j
ell
y l
i
ke
substancef
il
li
nganot
herchamberbet
weent
he
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l
.com 232
l
ensandt
her
eti
na  I
tiscor
rect
edbyusi
ngconv
ergi
ngl
enses

6. Ret
ina–itiswherethei mageisfor
med and
Madeofcel
l
sthatar
elightsensi
ti
ve

7. Fovea–centralpartofther
eti
nathatexhi
bit
s
bestdet
ail
sandcolourv
isi
onatt
hispl
ace.

8. Bli
ndspot–t
hiscont
ainscel
l
sthatar
enotl
i
ght
sensi
ti
ve.

9. Cil
iar
y muscl es – t hese are muscl es that
supportthelens.Theycont r
oltheshapeofl ens
by contracting or r el
axing. In relaxing the
musclesi tenablesthel enstoi ncreasehence
focus distance object s. In contracti
on t he
musclesr educetensionsi nthelenst oincrease
i
tsf ocallengt hthusf ocusnearobj ects.This
processisknownasaccommodat ion.

Nearpoint–closestpoi
ntwhichthenor
maleyecan
ocus. Farpoi
f nt-furt
hestpoi
ntt
hatanormaley
ecan
f
ocus.

Camer
a Compoundmi
croscope

 Thecamer ahasl ensest hatf ocusl i

ghtf om Ther
r ear etwocasesunderwhi chaconv er
ginglenscan
theobj ecttof orm ani mageoft heobjecton pr
o duce ma gnif
iedima ges;
thefi
lm.
Whent heobj ectisbetweenFand2F.
 Focusing i s done byadj usti
ng t he di
stance
betweent helensandt hef il
m. thediaphragm Whent heobj ectisbetweent helensandF.
control
st heamountofl ightenteringtheeye.
A compound mi croscope combi nes t he abovet wo
 Theshut t
eral l
owsl ighttor eacht hefil
m only cases .Itcon si
stso fconver gi
ngle nseso fshortfocal
fora pr ecise period when t he camer ai s l
en gt
h .
T he focallength nextt o the objecti
sc al
led
operated. objecti
velensa ndtheo nen ext t
ot hee yeiscall
edt he
eyepieceorocul ar.Theobj ectiv
el ensisofshor tfocal
 Thei nsidei sbl ackenedt oabsor banyst ray l
ength.
l
ight.

Si
mil
ari
ti
esbet
weent
heey
eandt
hecamer
a

Ey
e Camer
a

Hascry
stal
li
ne Hasaconv
exl
ens
conv
exlens

Chor
oidl
ayeri
sbl
ack Boxpai
ntedbl
ack
i
nsi
de
Theey epieceisal soofshor tfocall
engthbutl onger
Ther
eti
nawhere Light
-sensi
ti
vef
il
m
thant hatoftheobjecti
v el
ens.Acompoundmi croscope
i
magesaref
ormed whereimagesare
overcomest heli
mi tat
ionsofasi mplemi croscopeby
formed.
use ofobj ect
ivel enses with many lenses and an
Ir
iswhichcontr
olst
he Diaphragm which eyepiecewithmor ethanonel ens.
amountoflight controlst
heamount
Total magnifi
cati
on pr
oduced by a compound
enter
ingtheeye ofli
ghtenteri
ngthe
microscopei
sgivenby
;
camer a.

Nov
els,
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edI
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,
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mar
yNot
es 0705525657 Page11of11
 232

Di
ff
erencesbet
weent
heey
eandt
hecamer
a
( )
Ve v
fe
-1(o-
fo
1)Wherevo
i
stheimagedi
stancef
rom Iand
Vet hei
magedistancefr
om I
’.
Ey
e Camer
a
REVI
SIONQUESTI
ONS
Var
abl
efocal
lengt
h Fi
xedf
ocal
lengt
h
1. Thediagr
am bel
owshowsanarr
angementofl enses,
LoandLeusedinacompound mi croscopeFO and
Constant i
mage Var
iable i
mage
Fearepri
nci
palf
oci
ofLoandLer
especti
vely.
di
stane di
stance

Const
ant
ly changi
ng Onlyonephotogr
aph
pi
ctur
es can be t
aken atat
ti
me

Si
mpl
emi
croscope

Itissometi
mesr efer
redtoasamagnif
yingglass.
Whent heobjectisplacedbet
weenaconv exlens
anditspri
nci
palfocus,thei
magefor
medi svir
tual
,
Drawt
her aystoshowhowt
hef
inali
magei
sfor
medi
n
erectandmagnifi
ed.
t
hemicroscope

Chapt
erTwo

UNI
FORM CI
RCULARMOTI
ON
Cont
ent
Speci
fi
cObj
ect
ives  The r adi an,angul ar displacement ,angular
velocity
2
Bytheendoft
hist
opi
c,t
hel
ear
nershoul
dbeabl
e mv
to:  Cent ripetal f orce; F = , F = mr ω2
r
(deriv
at ion of f ormul ae not r equi
red)
 Defi
neangul
ardi
spl
acementandangul
ar (experiment alt r
eat mentisnecessar y)
vel
ocit
y  Appl i
cat i
onsofuni form circul
armot i
on
 Cent rifuge,v ert
ical,horizontalci r
clesbanked
 Descr
ibesimpleexper
iment
stoi
l
lust
rat
e tracks ( calculations on banked t racks and
cent
ri
petalf
orce conicalpendul um notr equired)
2
mv
 Pr oblem sol ving( Appl
yF= ,F=mr ω2)
 Expl
aint
heappl
i
cat
ionofuni
for
m ci
rcul
ar r
moti
on

 Sol
ve numer i
cal pr
obl
ems i
nvol
vi
ng
uni
for
m ci
rcul
armot
ion

Def
ini
ti
onofTer
ms Conv
ertt
hef
oll
owi
ngi
ntor
adi
ans:

(
A)Angul
arDi
spl
acement
,θ a) 800C

Iti
stheanglesweptthroughalinejoi
ningtothe b) 1200C
cent
reofci
rcul
arpat
h.Itismeasuredinradi
ans.
b)Angul
( arVel
oci
ty
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l
.com 232
I
tistherat
eofchangeofangulardi
spl
acement
.Iti
s
denot
edbyGreekl
ett
eromega(ω).

=
t

I
smeasur
edi
nradi
anpersecond

Exampl
e
I
tiscal
cul
atedasangul
ardi
spl
cement
ar
clengt
h 1. Aparti
clemovi
nginacircul
arpathcover
sone
=
radi
us r
evolut
ioni
ntenseconds.Cal
culat
eit
sangul
ar
vel
ocit
y.
s
θ=
r Per
iod/
Per
iodi
cTi
me
Radi
an I
sthet
imet
akent
ocompl
eteoner
evol
uti
on.
Is defi
ned as an angle of sector of the rev
olut
ion
ci
rcumferencewhosel
engthisequalt
oi t
sradi
us per
iodi
cti
me=angl
ecov
eredi
none
angul
arvel
ocit
y
oristher ati
oofarclengthtother adi
usofa
ci
rcul
ar. 2π
T=
ω
ar
clengt
h
r
adi
an=
radi
us Fr
equency(
f)
s 1
r
adi
an= Fr
equency
,f=
r T
2πr
r
adi
an=
r
1 2π
= →
f ω
ω=2πf
=2π
r
2π =3600

Cent
ri
pet
alAccel
erat
ion

 Anobjectgoingt
hroughaci
rcul
arpat
hissai
d
toaccel
erat
e.
Relat
ionshi
pbetweenangul
ardi
spl
acement
,θand
angularvel
oci
ty.  Ifthev eloci
tyofsuchobj ectisconst antthe
object st i
ll accelerates because t here is
∆S continuouschangei nv el
ocityast heobj ect
V= -
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
-(i
)
∆t continuously changes di rect
ion. Fr om
Newt on’s second l aw ofmot i
on,t he body
∆S experiences a r esultantf orce as i tmov es
∆θ= -
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--(
ii
)
∆r roundspat h.Thisr esul t
antf orceisdi r
ected
towar dsthecircularpat h.
Forsmal
lchangei
nequat
ion(
ii
)
 Accel
erat
ionofthi
sbodyi sint hedirect
ionof
∆S for
ceappl i
edtoiti
.e.itaccelerat
est owards
∆ϴ= - -
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
-(i
i
i)
r thecentr
eoft heci
rcul
aroftheci rcularpat
h.
This acceler
ati
on i s called cent ri
petal
Di
vi
dingequat
ion(
ii
i)by∆t accel
erat
ion.
∆θ ∆s Thecentr
ipet
alaccel
erat
ioni
sgi
venbyt
hef
oll
owi
ng
=
∆t r∆t equat
ion.

Nov
els,
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edI
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,
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mar
yNot
es 0705525657 Page13of13
 232
2
v
ω= →
r
v=ωr Cent
ri
pet
alaccel
erat
iona=
v
r

Anybodyi ncircularmot ionhasbot hlinearvelociy Butv=ωr

t
i
nm/ sandangul arveloci t
yi nrads/ s.
a=ω2r
Examples
Centri
pet alForce
1. A t urnt abler otates att he rate of60
revolutionspermi nute.Whati sitsangular Isaf orcet hatisr equiredtokeepabodymov ingina
velocityinrads/ s cir
cularpat handi sdi r
ectedt owardsthecentr
eoft he
cir
cularpat h.
2. Amodelcarmov esar oundaci rcularpath
ofr adius0.6m at25Rev /s.Determineits; Ifanobj ectmov i
ngt hr
oughaci r
cularpathi
sr eleased
suddenlyi tfl
iesofft angential
ly.
(a)per iod
FactorsAf fecti
ngCent ri
petalForce.
(b)Angul arv elocity(ω)
1.Massoft heobj ect,m-t heheav i
ertheobjectt he
(c)Speed( v) mor ethecent ripetalf or
ceneededt omaintaini tin
cir
cularpat h.
3. Thecarmov eswi thuni formv el
ocit
yof
3m/ sinaci rcleofr adius0. 2m.Fi ndits 2. Angul arv elocityoft heobj ect,ω-ani ncreasei n
angul arvelocityandf requency . centri
petalf orce needed t o mai nt
ainthe obj ectin
cir
cularpat h.

3.Radiusoft hepat hr-t

heshor terther
adiusoft
he
4. Disti
nguish bet
ween angul
arand l
i
near pat
ht he lar
ger t he centri
petalf or
ce r
equir
ed t
o
veloci
ty. maint
aint
heobj ectinci
rcularpath.

Exampl
e Exampl
esofUni
for
m Ci
rcul
arMot
ion

Thefigur
ebel ow showsthediagram ofsetupto Acarr oundingalevelcir
cularbend
i
nvesti
gat
et hevar
iati
onofcent
ri
petalwi
thther
adi
us
r,
ofthecir
cleinwhichabodyrot
ated Whenacari sgoingr oundinaci r
cularpathona
hori
zontalroad,thecent r
ipet
alforcerequiredf
ora
ci
rcul
armot i
oni sprov i
ded byt hef r
ict
ionalf
orce
betweenthet y
resandt heroad
2
mv
Ther
efor
e- Fr =
r

Ift
heroadissl
ipper
ythenfr
ict
ionalforcemaynotbe
suff
ici
entsot
opr ov
idecent
ri
petalforce
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l
.com 232
To prev
entski
ddi
ng the carshoul
d notexceed
cer
tai
nspeedl
imi
tsref
err
edtoasthecr
it
ical
speed

Thi
scr
it
ical
speeddepends-

Radi
usofthebendi.
e.onemaynegoti
atet
heabend
athi
ghercr
it
ical
speedther
adi
usofthebendi
sbi
g

Condit
ion oft
het yr
eand t
henat ur
eoft heroad
surf
acethiswi
llpr
oducet
hefri
cti
onalfor
ceneedto
negoti
atet
hebend
Descr
ibehowthesetupcanbeusedt
ocar
ryoutt
he
i
nvest
igat
ion Bankedt
racks

 Keepangul arv el
ocit
yωconst ant; Condi
ti
oninwhicharoadisr
aisedgr
adual
l
yfr
om
 Cent r
ipetal
f or
ceprovidedbymg; thei
nnersi
deoft
hebend.
 Fi xt
hemassm andmeasur eofm;
 Repeatf ordiff
erentvaluesofm;
Theabov
efact
orsar
epr oofedusingat urnt
able.

Thet
urnt
abl
ehast
hef
oll
owi
ngf
eat
ures

 I ncreaseinspeedoft heturntableincreases
l
engt hoft hespr
ing( incr
easei ncent ri
petal
force)
 Whenusi ngashor terspringtherei smor e
extension ofthe spr i
ng than using along
spring.
 Whenusi ngaheav iermet albarwillproduce
mor eextensi
onthanusi ngal i
ghterball
.
Thi
sisapr ooftotheabovef actor
s.

Thegraphofforceagai
nstthesquareofangul
ar
vel
oci
tyi
sastr
aightl
i
nethr
oughtheori
gin.

MV2
F∝
r

KMV2
F=
r

MV2
Whenk=1,
F= ,butv=ωr
r

mω2r
2
Hence,
F= ,t
hus, ω2
F=mr
r

Rsinθ -
Ist he horizont
alcomponentwhi
ch i
s BYpr
inci
pleofmoment
s
responsi
bleforprovi
dingcentr
ipet
alf
orce.

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edI
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es 0705525657 Page15of15
 232
Rcosθ- Isthev ert
icalcomponentt hatisresponsible R.
x=Fry
forbalancingthewei ghtofthevehicl
e.
2
x mv
=
I
fav ehicl
eofmassm i st r
avel
li
ngal ongaci rcular y rmg
pathofr adiusratuniform speedv,then
2
xv
mv 2 =
Rsinθ= ……………………. .(
i) yr g
r
2
v
Rcosθ=mg…………………………. .
(ii
) Tanθ=
r
g
Di
vi
de(
i)by(
ii
) Maki
ngvt
hesubj
ectoft
hef
ormul
a
2
Rsinθ mv 1 v= r
gtanϴ
= ×
Rcosθ r mg
F
sinθ Tanθ= r
=t
anθ mg
cosθ
2 Mgt
anθ=Fr
v
Hencet
anθ=
r
g Fr=µR

Themaximum speedr equir

edforabodymov
ingi
na Mgt anθ=µmg
ci
rcul
arpat
hwhoseangl eofbanki
ngi
sθisgi
venby;
Tanθ=µ
2
v =r
gtanθHence,v= rgt
anθ
Whereµi
scoef
fi
cientoff
ri
cti
on

Ski
ddi
ngoccur
swhent
anθi
sgr
eat
ert
hanµ
Acy
cli
stmov
ingr
oundaci
rcul
art
rack

Fri
ct i
onalforce( Fr)ispr ovidedbycent ripetalforce
whi ch is directed t owards t he car howev er if
fri
ctional force i s not suf fici
ent to pr ovided
cent r
ipet
alf orce skidding takes place. To av oid
skidding the cy cli
stl eg inwards so t hatnor mal
reaction off rict
ionalf orce produces t he turning
effecttotheclockwi seandant i
clockwisedirecti
ons.

Taki
ngmoment
saboutG

Coni
calpendul
um Exampl
e:

Ifapendulum bobmov
esinsuchawaythatt
hestr
ing (a)Thefigur
ebelowshowsanobj ectatt
heendofa
sweeps outa cone,then t
he bob wi
l
ldescr
ibe a l
ightspring bal
ance connect
ed t
o a peg usi
ng a
hori
zontal
cir
cle. str
ing.Theobjectismov i
nginaci r
cul
arpathona
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l
.com 232
smoot
h hor
izont
alt
abl
e wi
th a const
antspeed.

(
i)Whatprov
idest heforcet
hatkeepst
heobj
ect
movi
ngi
nthecircul
arpath?
Asi
tcanbecl earl
yseen,t
herearet
wof
orcesact
ing
ont
hependulum bob; (i
i)I
ndicatewithanar
rowonthefi
gurethedi
rection
ofcent
r i
petal
force .
(i) i
tsweight(
mg)
(i
ii
)Thespeedoft heobj
ecti
sconst
ant,
whyist here
(ii
) Thetensi
oninthest
ri
ng. accel
erati
on?
Centripetal f
or ce is provided by t he hor
izontal (i
v)Al t
hought herei sforceacti
ngont heobject
,NO,
componentoft he tensi
on (F Sin)
. Hence f r
om wor kisdoneont heobject.Expl
ain.
Newt on'ssecondl aw;
2
(v)Givent hatthemassoft heobjectis0.5kgandit
mv
F Sin = ……………………. (
.1)(
Wher esy mbol
shav e is mov i
ng at speed of 8m/ s at a r adi
us of
r 2m. Determinether eadingonthespr i
ngbalance.
thei
r usualmeani ng).Since therei s no vert
ical
accelerati
on
(vi
)Statewhathappenst othereadingifthespeedof
FCos =mg………………………. (
.2) rotati
onisr educed.
2
v
Agai
n,f
rom t
het
woequat
ions;Tan =
rg

Notethatthi
sequat
ionissi
mil
art
otheonewegot
ear
li
erforbank
edtr
acks.

Whent heangularv
eloci
tyW thecor
kri
seshenceQ
i
ncreases.Thi
sconceptisappli
edi
nmerrygoround
andspeedgovernor
s.

Mot
ioni
naHor
izont
alCi
rce

Thetensi
on i
nthest
ri
ng pr
ovi
dest
hecent
ri
pet
al
for
ce.

T=FC

MV2
T=
r

Wher
ethel
engt
hoft
hest
ri
ng=r
adi
usofr
otat
ion

Nov
els,
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edI
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es 0705525657 Page17of17
 232

Mot
ioni
nVer
ti
calPat
h Exampl
e

A cartr
avel
sov erahumpbackbr i
dgeofr adi
usof
cur
vatur
e40m.Calcul
atemaxi
mum speedofthecari
f
i
tswtaretostay
ingcont
actwi
thbr
idge.g=10m/s2

Tension on the spri

ng changes its magni t
ude
dependingontheposit
ionoftheball. mv2
=mg-
R
r
Whent heballisatA,t hesum oft ensionTA and
weightMg act i
ng i
nt hesamedi recti
on provi
de R=0
centri
petal
for
ce.
2
2
Mv =mg
MV
=Ta+Mg- -
--
--
--
--
--
--
---
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
---
--
--
--
--(
i)
r V2=r
g

Whent hebal
lisatA i
tat
tai
nsmi
nimum speed V= r
g
becauseTa=0
= 40×10
MV2
=mg
r =20m/s

Vmin= r
g Exampl
esofCent
ri
pet
alFor
ce

AtB,
tensi
onal
for
ceTBpr
ovi
descent
ri
pet
alf
orce. Exampl
e Sour
ce(what pr
ovi
des
cent
ri
petal
for
ce)
MV2
TB = Cycl
istmov i
ngal
ong Fri
cti
onalf
orcebet
weent
he
r
acir
cularpath ty
reandtheroad
AtC,tensi
onandwei ghtactsindiff
erentdi
rect
ion
and hence t
he resul
tantforce bet
ween the t
wo Carmovingal
onga Hor
izont
al component of
for
cesprovi
desthecentri
petalf
orce bankedr
oad r
eacti
onfor
ce

MV2 El
ectron orbi
ti
ng El
ectrostat
ic f or
ce of
=Tc-Mg-
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
-(i
i
) around t
he nucl
eus at
tracti
on bet ween the
r
ofanatom pr
otonandt heel
ect
ron
MV2
Ta= –Mg-
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--(
ii
i) El
ect
ronmovingi
na Magnet
icf
iel
d
r
magnet
icf
iel
d
MV2
Tc= +Mg-
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
-(i
v) Satel
li
te or
bit
ing Gravi
tat
ionalf
orce exer
ted
r
aroundtheeart
h bytheearth
MV2
AtD,
TD = Astri
ngwhirl
edina Tensi
onal
for
ce
r hor
izont
alt
rack
1. A pi
lotnotstr
ipped t
o his seati
nal
oop
manoeuv
rewi
thoutfal
l
ing.

2. Abucketofwat
erwhi
rl
edi
nav
ert
icalwi
thout
waterspi
ll
i
ng.
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l
.com 232
3. Abal
lbeari
ng‘l
oopi
ngt
hel
oop’onar
aill
yi
ng
inv
ert
ical
plane.

Appl
i
cat
ionofCi
rcul
arMot
ion 3. SpeedGov
ernor
s

1. Cent
ri
fuges Pri
nci
pleofconicalpendul
um i
susedi
noper
ati
ngt
he
speedgover
nors.
Itisusedt osepar at
epar t
icl
esinsuspensionin
l
iqui
dsofdi ff
erentdensiti
es.Itconsistsofsmal
l
metalcont
ainerstubesthatcanberotated.

Ast heangul arv elocit

yoft hedr iveshaftincreases
.themassesm r isesandmov est hecoll
arupast he
angleθi ncreases.Theupanddownmov ementoft he
Centr
ipet
alwi l
lbe too greataccor
ding tothe
coll
a ri
st r
an smit
te dthroughas ystem oflever
st othe
equat
ion F=mr ω2
devicethatcont rolsthefuelintake.Si
ncet heangular
Andrwi l
lthusbesmallerforl
ight
erpart
icl
esand veloci
tyo fthed ri
v eshafti
ncrea seswit
hs peedo fthe
l
ongerforheavi
erpar
ti
cles. vehicl
e, t
h efu els uppl
yw il
lc uto ffwhent hes peed
exceedsacer t
ainl i
mit.
2. Satel
li
tes

Twobodi eswithmassm1 andm2 atadi st

ancer
fr
om eachot herexper
ienceaf or
ceofattr
acti
on.
GM1M2
F= Gi sequalt o uni
ver
salgr
avit
ati
onal
R2
const
ant

Att
racti
on between eart
h and sat
ell
i
te gi
ves
2
GM1M
centr
ipet
alFor
ceM1v = 2 2

WhereM1 i
smassofsat
ell
i
teandm2 massoft
he
2
GM2
ear
thv = 2
R

GM2
v=
r

Thevel
oci
tyoft
hesatel
li
tei
ncr
easeswi
thdecr
ease
i
ntheradi
usoft
heorbit
.

I
fper i
odict i
meoft hesat el
l
iteisequaltothatof
theear ththesat ell
i
teappearst ati
onaryasseen
from theearthsurfacesuchsat el
li
tearesai
dtobe
i
npar kingorbi
tandar eusedinweatherfor
ecast
ing
andtelecommuni cations.

Nov
els,
Updat
edI
CT,
KASNEB,
HighSchool
,
Pri
mar
yNot
es 0705525657 Page19of19
 232

Chapt
erThr
ee SI
NKI
NGANDFLOATI
NG

Speci
fi
cobj
ect
ives Cont
ent
 Archimedes‟pr i
ncipl
e,
a)stateAr chimedes‟pr incipl
e  Lawoff l
otati
on(experi
mentaltr
eatment)
 Relati
v edensit
y
b)ver i
fyArchimedespr inciple
 Appl i
cations ofAr chi
medes‟ princi
ple and
c)statethel awoff lot
ation r
elat
ive densi
ty.
d)def i
nerelativ
edensi ty  Pr oblemsonAr chimedes‟pri
ncipl
e
e)descr i
bet heappl i
cationsofArchi
medes‟pri
nci
ple  ProjectWor k-Constr
uctahydrometer.
andr elat
ivedensi t
y.
f)Sol ve numer icalpr oblems i
nvol
vi
ng Archi
medes‟
pri
nciple.
Upthrustforce

Upthr
usti s an upwar df or
ce acti
ng on an obj
ect Preci
sely:
Upt hrust=Real
wei
ght–Appar
entwei
ght
.
fl
oati
ngorimmer sedinaflui
d.Anobjectimmersedor
fl
oati
nginaf luidappearsli
ghtert
hatit
sact ght Causeofupt
ualwei hrust
duetoupthrustforce(f
orceofbuoyancy)
.
Considerthefigurebel
ow.
Archi
medespr inci
ple.

The pri
nci
ple st
ates:When a body ist
otall
y orpart
iall
y
i
mmer sedinaf l
uiditexper
iencesanupt
hrustequalt
ot he
wei
ghtofdispl
acedf l
uid.

Tov
eri
fyAr
chi
medes’
pri
nci
ple

Appar
atus

 Anov
erf
lowcan
Pr
essur
eatt
hebot
tom >pr
essur
eatt
het
op
 Amet
albl
ock
PB=Pa+h2ρg
 Abeaker
PT=Pa+h1ρg
 Aspr
ingbal
ance
For
ce=pr
essur
exar
ea
 Ast
ri
ng
FB=PBA=(
Pa+h2ρg)A
 Wat
er
FT=PTA=(
Pa+h1ρg)A
Pr
ocedur
e
Resul
tantf
orce=FB–FT
(
i) Wei
ght
hebl
ocki
nai
r.
U=(
Pa+h2ρg)A-(
Pa+h1ρg)A
(
ii
) Not
ethewei
ghtoft
hebl
ocki
nai
rasw1.
U=(
h2-
h1)ρgA
(
ii
i)Immerset
heblockinwateri
ntheov
erf
low canas
shownint
hedi
agram bel
ow U=hρgA ButAh=v

Hence,
U=Vρg

Upt
hrustt
her
efor
edependson:

(
i)Vol
umeoff
lui
ddi
spl
aced.
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l
.com 232
 Notet
hewei
ghtoft
hebl
ockwhenf
ull
yi sedas (
mmer ii
)Densi
tyoff
lui
ddi
spl
aced.
w2

 Measur
e the vol
ume of wat
er di
spl
aced and
cal
cul
atesi
tswei
ghtasw3

 Appar
entl
ossofwei =W1-
ght W2

 Theupt
hrustU=W3

 Upt
hrust
=appar
entl
ossofwei
ght
;U=W1-
W2

Exampl
e 3.(
a)Di
sti
ngui
shbet
weenpr
essur
eandupt
hrust
for
ce.
Ast
oneofwei
ght3Ninairand1.
2Nwhent
otal
l
y
i
mmersedwat
er.Cal
cul
ate: (b)Asoli
dmet albl
ockofdensi
ty2500kg/m3 i
s
ful
lyi
mmer sedi nwater
,suppor
tedbyat hr
ead
(
a)Vol
umeoft
hest
one which i
s attached tothe spr
ing bal
ance as
shownbelow.
(
b)Densi
tyoft
hest
one

Upt
hrust=Real
wei
ght
-Appar
entwei
ght

=3N–1.
2N

=1.
8N

ButU=Vρg

1.
8=Vx1000x10

00018m3
V=0.

m
ρ=
v

0.
3 (
i) Calcul
atetheforceduetot
hel
i
qui
don
= m3
kg/ thetopfaceofthebl
ock.
0.
00018
=1,
666. m3
67kg/ (
ii
) I
ftheupwar
df or
ceonthebot
tom f
acei
s
1.
5N,cal
cul
atethevol
umeofthebl
ock.
QUESTI
ONS
(
ii
i) Calcul
atet
he appar
entwei
ghtoft
he
1.ASol i
dofdensit
y2.5g/cm i3
swei
ghti
nairand bl
ockinwat
er.
thenwhencompl et
elyimmer sedi
nwat eri
na
measur i
ngcyl
indertheLevelofwat
erri
sesfr
om
Upthrusti
ngases
3 3
40cm t o80cm .Determi
ne Gasesexertsmallupt
hrustonobj
ect
sbecauseof
thei
rlowdensi
ty.
(a)Volumeofthesolid
A ball
oonfi
ll
edwithhydr
ogenorhel
i
um r
isesup
(
b)I
tsappar
entwei
ght
.
becauseofl
owdensi
ty.
2a)
Stat
etheAr
chi
medes’
pri
nci
ple

b)Ar i
ghtangledsoli
dofdi mensi ons0.02m by
0.02m by 0. 2m and densi t y 2700kgm-3 is
supportedi nsi
dekeroseneofdensi ty800kgm-3
by a t hread which i
s attached t o a spring
balance.Thel ongsideisverticalandtheupper
surfaceis0.1m belowthesurfaceofkerosene.

(
i) Cal
cul
atet
hef
orceduet
othel
i
qui
d

Nov
els,
Updat
edI
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,
Pri
mar
yNot
es 0705525657 Page21of21
 232
on:

(
ii
) Thel
owersur
faceoft
hesol
i
d

(
ii
i) Theuppersur
faceoft
hesol
i
d

(
iv) Calculatet
heupthrustandhenceor
otherwisedet
erminethereadi
ngon
thespr i
ngbal
ance.

I
nt hefi
guresabovethebal loonfil
l
edwi thairwil
lnot wei
ghtofbl
ocki
nai
r.Theyar
eequal
(same)
.
fl
oatbecausethewei ghtoft heball
oonf abr
icandair
i
sgr eat
erthanthewei ghtofai rdi
splaced(upthrust
) Ther
efor
e we concl
ude t hat a fl
oat
ing obj
ect
i
.e.w> u.Thebal l
oonf il
ledwithheli
um orhy drogen di
spl
acesitsown weightoftheflui
din which i
t
fl
oatsbecauset hewei ghtoft heball
oonf abri
cand fl
oat
s.Thi
slawoff
lot
ation.
heli
um orhydrogenisl essthanthewei ghtoftheair
Expl
anat
ion
displ
aced(
upthrust)i
.e.u >w
Whenabody i ssubmergedi
nwat
er,t
her
ear
etwo
LawofFl
otat
ion
f
orcesact
ingonthebody
;

(
i) The weight of t
he body act
ing
downwar
ds

(
ii
) Upthrustonthebodyduet
odi
spl
aced
l
iquidacti
ngupwar
ds.

Case1

I
ft heweightofthebodyisgr eaterthanupthr
ust,
the
densi t
yofthebodyisgreaterthant hedensit
yofthe
I
nt his case we considerthe fl
oat
ing obj
ectand di splacedli
qui
d,thebodysi
nks.
weightofthefluiddispl
aced.
Case2
Acompar isonoft heweightoft
heobjectandthatof
fl
uiddispl
aced. I
ft hewei ghtoft hebodyisequalt oupthrust
,the
densi t
yoft hebodyi sequalt ot hedensityofthe
Experi
ment al
l
yt hiscanbedoneby: l
iquid,thebodyremainsi
nequi li
bri
um.

 ½ f il
lmeasur i
ng cy li
nderwi th waterand Case3
recordt hereadi
ng.
Iftheweightofthebodyi slessthant heupthrust
,
 Placeacl eandr yt esttubeintothebeaker densi t
yoft hebodyislesst hanthedensityoft he
andaddsomesandi ni tsothati tfloats l
iquid,
thebodyfl
oatspart
iall
yintheli
quid.
upright.
Example:
 Recor dsthenewl eveloftheli
quiddet er
mi ne
thev olumeofdi splacedwat er Aboatofmass2000kgf loatsonfreshwat er
.Ifthe
boatentersseawat er
.Det er
minet hev ol
umet hat
 Measur ei
tsweight( dri
ed)andcont ent. mustbeaddedt odi
splacethesamev ol
umeofwat er
as before.
(Fr
esh water-
=1000kg/m3,sea wat er=
 Calculatethewei ghtofdi spl
acedwat er. 1030kg/m3)

Iti
sobservedt
hattheweightofthet estt
ubeandi
ts Wei
ghtoff
reshwat
er=2000kg
consenti
sequalt
oweightofdisplacedwater
.
2000
Di
spl
acedVol
umeoff
reshwat
er=
OR 1000

Appar
atus: =2m3
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l
.com 232
A block ofwood,A spr
ing bal
ance,Thinthr
ead, Mass=Densi
tyxVol
ume
Overfl
owcan,Asmallmeasur
ingcyli
nderandSome
water. =1030x2

Usi
ngtheapparat
usabov e,descri
beanexper
iment =2060kg
tov
eri
fythel
awoff l
oatat
ion.
=2060-2000
 Usingthespringbalance,wei
ghandrecord
t
heweightoftheblocki
nair =60kg

 Fi
l
ltheeur
ekacompl
etel
ywi
thwat
er 2.Aspher
eofr adius3cm isfl
oat
ingbet
weenli
quid
AandBsuchthat½i satAand½atB.Ifofli
qui
dsA
 Place t
he measur
ing cy
li he and B ar
nder under t e 0.8g/cm3 and 1.0g/cm3 r
espect
ivel
y
spout det
ermi
nemass ofthespher
e.

 Lowertheblockofwoodslowlyi
ntowater
unt
ilt
hestr
ingsl
ackens(
thebl
ockf
loat
s)

 Col
lect the displ
aced wat
er usi
ng t
he
measuri
ngcyli
nder

 Repeatt
hepr
ocedur
etoat
tai
nmor
eresul
ts

 Compar
ethewei
ghtofdi
spl
acedwat
erwi
th
the

Upt
hrustandRel
ati
veDensi
ty

Massofspher
e=v
olumexdensi
ty Relat
ivedensi
tyistherat
ioofthemassofanyv ol
umeofa
substancetothemassofanequalv ol
umeofwat erORthe
4 rat
ioofthedensi
tyofasubst
ancetot
hedensi
tyofwater
.
ume= π33
Vol
3
Tofindr
elat
ivedensi
tyofasol
i
doral
i
qui
dsev
eral
met
hodsor
14cm3
=113. for
mulasareused.

Vol
umeofl
i
qui
dAdi
spl
aced=½x113.
14 densit
yofasubstance
Rel
ati
vedensi
ty=
densi
tyofwat
er
57cm2
56.
Rel
ati
vedensi
tyofasol
id.
Massdi
spl
acedofA=56.
57x0.
8
I
fequal
vol
umesoft
hesubst
anceandwat
erar
econsi
der
ed,
45.
256g
Massofsol
i
d
Massofl
i
qui
dBdi
spl
aced=56.
57g Rel
ati
vedensi
ty=
Massofequal
vol
umeofwat
er
Tot
almassofspher
edi
spl
aced=45.
256+ Because mass is di
rect
ly pr
opor
ti
onalt
othe wei
ghtt
he
56.
57 rel
ati
vedensi
tyofasoli
dmaybegi v
enas:
101.
826g weightofsol
i
d
Rel
ati
vedensi
ty=
3.A stoneei
ghts2N i
nairand1.2N when wei
ghtofequalvol
umeofwat
er
tot
all
yimmersedi
nwaterCal
cul
ate
wei
ghtofsoli
d
Rel
ati
vedensi
ty=
(
a)Vol
umeoft
hest
one wei
ghtofdi
splacedwat
er

(
b)Densi
ti
esoft
hest
one weightofsol
i
d
Rel
ati
vedensi
ty=
upthrusti
nwater
(
a)Upt
hrust=wei
ghtofwat
erdi
spl
aced
Rel
ati
vedensi
tyofsol
i
dwhi
chsi
nksi
nwat
er
=2-
1.2
I
fthewei
ghtoft
hesubst
ancei
nai
risW1andi
nwat
eri
s,
W2,
=0.
8N

Nov
els,
Updat
edI
CT,
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,
Pri
mar
yNot
es 0705525657 Page23of23
 232
Massofwat
erdi
spl
aced=0.
8/10 W1
t
hen R.
D=
W1-
W2
=0.
08kg
Rel
ati
vedensi
tyofsol
i
dwhi
chf
loat
sinwat
er
mass
v
olume=
densi
ty Thesi
nkeri
susedasf
oll
ows:
0.
08 Wei
ghtoft
hesi
nkeri
nwat
er=W1
= kgm-3
1000
Weightoft
hesi
nkeri
nwat
er+wei
ghtoff
loat
ingobj
ecti
n
m3
1000kg/ ai
r=W2
00008m3
=0.
Wei
ghtoft
hesi
nker+wei
ghtoff
loat
ingobj
ecti
nwat
er=W3
3
Vol
umeofst
one=0.
00008m
Wei
ghtoff
loat
ingobj
ecti
nai
r=W2-
W1
mass 0.
2
(
b)Densi
ty= = Wei
ghtoff
loat
ingobj
ecti
nwat
er=W3-
W1
vol
ume 0.00008

m3
=2500kg/ Upt
hrustoft
hef
loat
ingobj
ecti
nwat
er=(
W2-
W1)
-(W3-
W1)

Upt
hrustoft
hef
loat
ingobj
ecti
nwat
er=W2-
W1-
W3+W1

Upt
hrustoft
hef
loat
ingobj
ecti
nwat
er=W2-
W
3

weightofsol
i
d
Rel
ati
vedensi
ty=
upthrusti
nwater

W-W
Rel
ati
vedensi
tyoff
loat
i ect= 2 1
ngobj
W2-
W
3

Rel
ati
vedensi
tyofal
i
qui
d

Tof
indr
elat
ivedensi
tyoft
hel
i
qui
dwedet
ermi
ne:

a) Wei
ght(
w1)ofsol
i
dinai
r.

b) Wei
ght(w2)oft
hesamesol
i
dwhent
otal
l
y
i
mmersedinwat
er.

c) Wei
ght(w3)ofthesamesol
i
dwhent otal
ly
i
mmersedinal i
qui
dwhoserel
ati
vedensi
ty
i
stobedeter
mined.

massofl
i
qui
d Vol
umeofydi
spl
aced=4x5x3
R.
Dofl
i
qui
ds=
massofequal
vol
umeofwat
er
=60cm3
Or
00006m3
=0.
R.
Dofl
i
qui
ds
= Upt
hrusti
n= v
ρg
weightofdispl
acedl
i
quid
=800x0.
00006x10
wei
ghtofequalv
olumeofwaterdi
spl
aced
=0.
48N
Or
Vol
umeofxdi
spl
aced=0.
04x0.
05x0.
06
upt
hrusti
nthel
i
qui
d
R.
Dofl
i
qui
ds=
upt
hrusti
nwater 00012m3
=0.
w-w Upt
hrusti
nx=v
ρg
R.
Dofl
i ds= 1 2
qui
w1-
w3
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l
.com 232
Or 00012m3
=0.

Exampl
e =1.
2N

1. Asolidofmass800gissuspendedbyastr
ingis Tot
alupt
hrust=1.
2x0.
48
tot
all
yimmersedinwater.Ifthetensi
oni
nt he
str
ingis4.
8N.Cal
cul
ate =1.
68N

(
a)Vol
umeofsol
i
d Wei
ghtofbl
ock=t
otalupt
hrust

(
b)Rel
ati
vedensi
tyoft
hesol
i
d. =1.
68N

Wei
ghtofsol
i
d=8N =0.
168kg

W1=8N mass
(
b)densi
ty=
vol
ume
W2=4.
8N
=0.
168
Upt
hrust=3.
2N
=0.
04x0.
05x0.
12
Vol
umeofwat
erdi
spl
aced=0.
32
m3
=700kg/
1000

00032m3
=0.

Vol
umeoft
hesol
i 00032m3
d=0.

1. Thewoodenblockbel
owf loat
sint
woliqui
ds
xandyifthedensi
ti
esofxandyar e1g/cm3
and0.
8g/cm3respect
ivel
ydetermi
ne:

(
i)Massoft
hebl
ock

(
ii
)Densi
tyoft
hebl
ock

Appli
cati
onsofArchi
medes’
sPr
inci
pleandRel
ati
ve (b)Balloons
Densit
y
Used bymet r
ologi
stswher e a gaswhi ch isless
(a)Thehydr
ometer denset hanai rlikehydrogeni sused.Thebal l
oon
mov esupwar dsbecauseupt hrustforceisgr eater
thanwei ghtoft heball
oon.I trisestosomehei ght
wheredensi tyisequaltot hatoft heball
oon.Att his
pointthebal l
oonst opsrisingbecauseupt hrusti s
equalt o wei ght of the bal loon and t herefore
resul
tantforceisequaltozer o.

(
c)Shi
ps

Theyar emadeofst eelwhi

chisdenserthanwater
but floats because they ar
e hollow thereby
di
splacingalargevolumeofwatert
hanthev ol
ume
ofst
eelwhi chprovi
desenoughupthr
usttosupport
i
tsweight.

Theav eragedensi
tyofseawat eri
sgreatert
hanthe
average density of fresh water. Due to thi
s
di
fference,shi
psarefi
ttedwithpri
msolli
nesonthei
r
si
dest oshow t helevelthatashipshouldsinkto
whenonv ari
ouswater
s.

(
d)Sub-
mar
ine

Nov
els,
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edI
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,
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mar
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es 0705525657 Page25of25
 232
Itcansi
nkorf l
oat.I
tisf i
tt
edwithbal
lasttanksthat
can be f
il
led wit
h airorwat erhence varying i
ts
weight.
Tosink,ball
asttanksarefi
l
ledwithwat erso
thati
tswei
ghtisgreaterthanupthr
ust.

To f
loatcompressedairispumpedint
ot het
ank
di
spl
acingwatersot hatupthr
usti
sgr eat
ert
han
wei
ghtofthesubmari
ne.

Exampl
es

1.Ahy drometerofmass20gfloat
si noi
lofdensit
y
0.7g/cm3.wit
h5cm ofitsstem abovetheoil
.Ifthe
I
ti saninstrumentusedt ofindrel
ati
vedensitesof cr
i oss sect i
onal ar
ea of the stem is 0.5cm2.
densit
yofliquids.I
tappli
esthelawoff l
otat
ioninits Calculate:
-
operat
ion.
(a)Tot alvol
umeofthehydrometer
I
thasawi debul bt odi
spl
acelargevol
umeofl i
quid
thatprovi
desuf fi
cientupthr
usttokeephy drometer (b) Lengt hofthestem outofwat eri
fitfl
oatsin
fl
oati
ng. w at
er.

Leadshot
satthebot
tom-tomakehy
drometerfoat Sol
l ut
ionst
oquesti
ons
upri
ght
.
massofoildi
spl
aced
(a)Volumeofoi
ldi
spl
aced=
Narr
owstem-t
omakehy dr
omet
ermoresensi
ti
ve. densi
tyofoi
l

20
=
0.8

=25cm3

Vol
umeofhy
dromet
erabov
eoi
l=5x0.
5

5cm3
=2.

Tot
alv
olume=25+2.
5

5cm3
=27.

Hydrometer
s are desi
gned f
orspeci
fi
c pur
poses
l
actometerrange1.015–1.0045soastomeasure
densit
yofmilk.

Thebul
bissqueezedandrel
easedsot
hatt
heaci
dis
drawni
ntot
heglasstube.

(
b)Massofhy
dromet
er=2x10-
2kg Vol
umeof1.
00g/cm3 l
i
qui
ddi
spl
aced=
3
m/
ρ=165/
1=165cm ;
Wei
ghtofhy
dromet
er=2x10-
1N
Volumeof1. cm3 di
10g/ spl
aced=165/
1.1=150
3
Wei
ghtofwat
erdi
spl
aced=2x10-
1N cm ;

Massofwat
erdi aced=2x10-1
spl Changei
nvol
umedi aced=165–150=15cm3 ;
spl

=20g Vol
ume=Ar
eaxHei
ght;

20g 0.
75xh ; t
her
efor
eh=20cm.
Vol
umeofwat
erdi
spl
aced= gcm3
1
(ii
)Stat
etwowaysofi
mpr
ovi
ngt
hesensi
ti
vi
tyoft
he
=20cm3 abovehydr
omet
er.
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l
.com 232
Vol
umeofhy
dromet
erabov
ewat
er=27.
5-20 Usi
- ng a hy
dromet
erwi
th a nar
row
st
em.
5cm3
=7.
-Usi
ngahy
dromet
erwi
thal
argebul
b
vol
ume
Lengt
h= 2.When a body of mass 450g i s compl
etel
y
Area
i
mmersedi
nal iqui
d,theupthrustont hebodyis
7.
5 1.
6N.Fi
ndt
heweightofthebodyinthel
iqui
d.
= =15cm
0.
5
3.Thef
igur ebelowshowsal everar
rangementwi
th
the r od bal
anced bya knif
e edged atas
cent reofgravi
ty.The5Nweightononeside
The densit
ies ofl
iquids maybe measured using bal ancesthesoli
dS( v ume100cm3)whi
ol ch
hydr
omet er
s.Thehy drometeri
nthef
igureconsists
liesi mmersedinabeakerofwat eronthe
ofaweightedbulbwithathinst
em.
ot herside.

The beakerofwat eristhen remov ed and whil

e
The hydrometerisfl
oated i
nt he l
i
qui
d and t
he keeping t
he 42cm distance constant
,the
densi
tyisreadfr
om ascal
eonitsst
em. positi
on ofsoli
dSi s adj ust
ed to obtai
n
balancecondi
ti
onsagain.
Thehy dr
omet erinthef i
gureisdesignedtomeasur e
densit
iesbetween1. 00gcm –3and1. 10gcm –3.On
a) Det
ermi
net
henewposi
ti
onofS.
thediagram,mar kwiththelett
erM t hepositi
onon
– 3
the scal
e oft he 1.10 g cm graduat
ion.The
hydrometerhasamassof165gandt hestem hasa b) Whatwoul
dbethenewposi
tionofSifi
twas
unif
orm cross-secti
onalareaof0.750cm2.Calcul
ate; i
mmersedinal
i
quidofr
elat
ivedensi
ty0.
8?

(
i) Thechangeinthesubmergedvol
umeof
thehydr
ometerwheni ti
sfi
rstpl
acedin
ali
quidofdensi
ty1.00gcm –3andthen
i
nal i
qui
dofdensit
y1.10gcm –3.

Chapt
erFour ELECTROMAGNETI
CINDUCTI
ON

Speci
fi
cobj
ect
ives Cont
ent

Byt
heendoft
hist
opi
c,t
hel
ear
nershoul
dbeabl
eto:  Si
mple exper
iment
s t
o i
l
lust
rat
e
el
ect
romagnet
ici
nduct
ion
a) Perf
or m anddescr ibesi mpleexper i
ment sto
i
ll
ustrateel ectromagnet i
cinduction  I
nducedemf
:
b) Stat
et he f actorsaf fecti
ng the magni tude
andthedi rect i
onofi nducedemf  Faraday’slaw
c) Stat
et hel awsofel ectromagnet i
cinducti
on  Lens’slaw
d) Describe si mpl e exper i
ment st oi l
lust
rate  Mut ualinduct
ion
mutuali nduct i
onexpl ainmut ualinducti
on  Alt
er nat
ingcur r
entgener
ator
,di
rectcur
rent
e) Expl
aint hewor ki
ngofanal ternati
ngcurrent gener at
or

Nov
els,
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edI
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,
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es 0705525657 Page27of27
 232
(a.c) gener ator and a di r
ect current (d.
c)  Fl eming’
sr ighthandr ul
e
gener ator  Tr ansformer s
f) Explaint hewor kingofat r
ansf ormer  Appl icat
ionsofel ectr
omagneticinducti
on
g) Explaint he appl i
cation of el ectr
omagnet i
c  I nducti
oncoi l
induction  Mov i
ngcoi ltransfor
mer s
h) Sol v
e numer ical pr oblems i
nvolvi
ng
transformer s
Intr
oduct i
on Magnet icFl
ux
Electr
iccur r
entpassi ngt hroughaconduct orhasan
associatedmagnet icfield.Ther everseisalsotruein Iti st he productofmagnet icfiel
d strength and
thatachangei nmagnet icfiel
di nducesanel ectrc per
i pendicul
arareacov er
edbyt hefi
eldli
nes.
currenti n a conduct ora phenomenon known as
electr
omagnet i
cinduct ion. The directi
on ofi nduced emfbya conduct ori s
predi
ctedbyt wol awsofel ectr
omagneticinduction;
Thisisat tr
ibutedt oMi chaelFar adayandhasl edto
productionofel ectri
cal energyinpowerst at
ion. Faraday’slaw-Themagni t
udeofi nduced e.m. f.is
dir
ectly proporti
onalt ot he rate of change of
Experimentt o Show I nduced Elect romoti
ve Force magnet icfl
uxli
nkage.
(Emf )
Lenz’slaw –direct i
onofi nducede.m.f.i
ssucht hat
the induced currentwhi ch itcauses tof l
ow
producesamagnet i
cef f
ectthatopposesthechange
producingit.

Thegalv
anometerr
efl
ect
swhenconduct
orABcut
s
themagnet
icf
iel
d.

 Thereis no f
low of cur
rent when t
he
conduct
ori
sst
ati
onar
y.

 Themagnitudeofinducedcurrentincr
eases
wit
ht he angle ofwhi ch conductorcuts
magneti
cfiel
d.

 The di
recti
on ofdef
lect
ion r
ever
seswhen
thedi
rect
ionofmoti
onisrever
sed.
FACTORSAFFECTI
NGMAGNI
TUDEOFI
NDUCEDE.
m.f
.

(
i) Themagni
tudeorst
rengt
hofmagnet
icf
iel
d.

(
ii
) Ther at
eofchangeoffl
uxl
inkage/
rateof
rel
ati
vemot i
onbet
weent
heconductorand
magneticf
iel
d.

(
ii
i) Thenumberoft
urnsofcoi
l
/lengt
h oft
he
conduct
or

(
iv) Thenat
ureoft
hecor
e
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l
.com 232
Themechani
cal
ener
gyofamov
ingmagneti
nsi
deacoi
ls Mut
i ualI
nduct
ion
conver
tedtoel
ect
ri
cenergyinf
orm ofi
nducedcur
rent
.The
personpushi
ngthemagnett owardsthecoi t I
lmustexer toccurswhenchangeofcur r
entinonecoi li
nducesa
for
cetodowor kagai
nstrepul
sionofi
nducedpoleofcoi
l cur
renti
nanothercoi
lpl
acedcloseintoit
.Thechangi
ng
magnet. magneti
cf l
ux in the fi
rst coi
l( Pri
mary)links t
o
secondar
ycoi
li
nduci
nganEMFi
nit
.
Fl
emi
ngRi
ghtHandRul
e(Dy
namoRul
e)

Ift
het humbandf ir
sttwofingersoft herighthand
are hel
d manuall
y atr i
ghtangl e with 1st fi
nger
point
ing di
rect
ion of magneticf i
eld,the t humb
point
inginthedir
ectionofmot i
onthent hesecond
fi
ngerpoint
sindir
ecti
onofinducedcur r
ent.

Exampl
e

(i
) A squar
eloopedconduct
orispul
ledatspeed
acrossauni
for
m magnet
icf
iel
dasshownbel
ow.

Det
ermi
nedi
rect
ionofi
nducedcur
renti
n

(
a)AB–f
rom Bt
oA

(
b)AD-noi
nducedcur
rent When a swi t
ch isclosed,cur renti nthepri
marycoil
i
ncreasesfrom zerotoamaxi mum cur r
entwit
hinavery
(
c)CD-
CtoD
shorttime.Themagnet i
cfluxi nt hepri
marycoill
i
nking
(
d)BC-noi
nducedcur
rent witht he secondary coi
li ncreases from zerot oa
maximum v al
ueinthesamei ntervalofti
meinduci
ngan
Quest
ion e.m.f.inthesecondar ycoil.Cur rentf
lowshencet he
ref
lecti
onont hegal
vanomet er.
(
a) St ate Faraday’
s laws of el ectr
omagneti
c
i
nduction. Likewi
sewhent heswitchisopenedthecurrentinthe
primar
ytakesav eryshortti
metof al
lfr
om maxi mum
(
b)Thef i
gur
ebelow showsaconduct orXYmov ng v
i aluetozer
o.Themagnet icfl
uxinpri
mar ycoill
i
nking
i
nar egionofuni
form magnet
icf
iel
d. secondar
y also f
all
sf rom maximum v al
ue to zero
i
nducingane.m.f
.onthesecondar
ycoil
.

Theinducede.m. f
.inthesecondarycoili
shi gherwhen
curr
entintheprimarycoili
sswi t
chedoffthanwheni tis
swit
chedonbecauset hecur r
entintheci r
cuittakesa
muchshor terti
met odieof fthanbuildup.Theabov e
expl
anati
on is call
ed mut ualinduct
ion.The i nduced
e.m.f
.inthesecondarycoil
canbei ncr
easedby :

(
i) Hav
ingmor
etur
nsi
nthesecondar
ycoi
l
.

(
ii
)Wi ndi
ngthepri
mar
yandsecondar
ycoi
l
sona
softi
ronr
od.

(
ii
i)Windingbothpri
mar yandsecondarycoi
lsona
(
i) Statet
hedirect
ionofthei
nducedcur
rentin
softir
onringi
nor derf
orthemagneti
cfl
uxinthe
theconductorandtherul
eusedinarri
ving
primarytoform concent
ricl
oopswithi
nitthus
attheanswer.
reachi
ng t he secondary point
. Soft iron
concentr
atesmagnet i
cfl
uxinbothcoil
sthatis

Nov
els,
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edI
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,
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 232
(
ii
) Suggest one way of i ncreasi
ng t
he whyi
tisused.
magnitude oft
he i
nduced curr
entint
he
conductor
.

Appl
i
cat
ionofEl
ect
romagnet
icI
nduct
ion Usef
ult
ransf
ormerequat
ions

I
tisappl
i
edi
nmanyar
eassomeoft
hesear
e: From experi
ment;
Secondaryvolt
age no.ofsecondarytur
ns
(
i) Tr
ansf
ormer =
Pri
mar yvol
tage no.ofsecondar
ytur
ns
At ransfor
mert ransf
ersel
ectr
icalener
gyform one Thi
siscal
l
edt
urnsrul
e.
cir
cuittoanotherbymutuali
nducti
on.
Mathemat
ical
l
y;
Itconsistsofapr imar
ycoilwher eanalter
nati
ng
currentistheinputandsecondarycoilfor
mingthe VS NS
output. =
VP NP
Thecoi
l
sar
ewoundonacommonsof
tir
on.
Assumi
ngnegl
i
gibl
eresi
stance
Ty
pesofTr
ansf
ormer
s
Power=Vol
tagexcur
rent
St
epdownt
ransf
ormer
s
P =VI

Poweri
nput=Pr
imar
yvol
tagexpr
imar
ycur
rent

PInput=VpI
p

Power out
put
= secondar
yvol
tage x secondar
y
cur
rent

POutput=VSI
S

Poweroutput
Ef
fi
ciency(
%)= x100
Ithasmor et
urnsi npr
imar
ycoi
l(Np)t
hani
nthe Powerinput
secondar
ycoi
l(Ns)
VI
η= SS×100%
VS VPI
=n(
Tur
nsr
ati
o) P
VP
Foridealt
ransf
ormerther
eisnoener
gyl
ostand
Tur
nsr
ati
oisl
esst
hanone ther
efor
eeff
ici
encyi
s100%

St
epupt
ransf
ormer VI
100= SS×100
VPI
P
Ithaslesstur
nsi
npr
imar
ycoi
landmor
eint
he
secondar
ycoi
l. VPI =VSI
P S

Thet
urn’
srat
ioi
sgr
eat
ert
hanone. IVI
P= SS
VP

I V N
P
= S= S
I
S
VP NP

Exampl
es

1. Atransf
ormeristobeusedt oprov
idepowerof
24Vceil
ingbulbfr
om a.
c.suppl
yof240.Fi
ndthe
numberofturnsinsecondar
ycoili
fthepri
mary
NOTE–Inast ep-downtransformercurr
entinthei
n
coi
lhas1000turns.
t
hesecondar
ycoi li
sgreaterthaninthepri
marycoi
l
whi
lei
nthestep-uptransfor
mercur r
entinthe
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l
.com 232
pr
imar
ycoi
li
sgr
eat
ert
hani
nthesecondar
ycoi
l
. VS NS
=
VP NP

24 N
= s
240 1000

1000

=100t
urns

2. Apowerst ati
onhasanout putof10KW atap.d Resi
stanceofCoi
l
s(CopperLosses)
of500v .Thevolt
ageissteppedupt o15KVby
transformerT1,fortr
ansmissi
onalongagr i
dof Thiscanbepreventedbyuseoft
hickcopperwi
ret
o
resistance3kandt hi
nsteppeddownt op.
d240v reduceheat
ingeff
ect.
byt ransfor
merT2 attheendofgridforuseina
school .Giv
enthateff
ici
encyofT1is95%andT2 EddyCur
rent
sint
heCor
e
90%, find:
Eddycurrent
shav eassociatedfluxesthattendt o
(
i) Thepowerout
putofT1 oppose the fl
uxchange i n pr
imar y
.Thi sreduces
powert r
ansfert othesecondar y.To reduceeddy
(
ii
) Thecur
renti
nthegr
id. curr
entsthecor eislaminated(usingthi
nsheet sof
i
nsulat
edsof tironplates)causesmi ni
malheat i
ng
(
ii
i) Thepowerl
ossi
ngr
id. eff
ect.

(
iv) Thei
nputv
olt
ageofT2 Hy
ster
esi
sLoss

(
a) Themaxi mum powerandcur
rentav
ailabl
e Iti
sener
gylossesi nfor
m ofheatinmagnet
izingand
forusei
nschool demagneti
zi
ng t he softir
on core ev
erytime the
curr
entr
everses.Itcanbemi ni
mizedbyusi
ngacor e
(
b)Whyi sitnecessar
ytost
epupthevol
tageat ofsoftmagnet ic materi
alwhich magnet
ized and
powerstat
ion? demagneti
zeeasi l
y.

3. Powerstati
onhasanout putof33K atap. dof Pr
act
icalTr
ansf
ormer
5kVat r
ansfor
merwi t
hapr imarycoilof2000
tur
nsisusedt ostopupt hevolt
ageof132KV At ransf ormerused i n powerst at
ions and along
fortr
ansmissi
onalongagr i
d.Assumingtheres transmi ssi
onl i
nesgener atesalotofheat .Theyare
nopowerlossinthetr
ansfor
mercalcul
ate ther efore cool ed by oi lwhi ch does not easi l
y
ev apor ate.Smal ltransformersarecooledbyuseof
(
a)Cur
renti
nthepr
imar
ycoi
l air. A wel l
-designed t ransf
ormer can hav e an
efficiencyofupt o99%. Howev er
;thepresenceofair
(
b)Numberoft
urnsofsecondar
ycoi
l reducesi tseffi
ciency .
(
c)Cur
renti
nthesecondar
ycoi
l
. (
i) Al
ter
nat
ingcur
rentgener
ator
Ener
gyLossesi
naTr
ansf
ormer I
tconv
ertsmechanicalener
gyint
oelect
ri
calener
gy.
I
thasarectangul
arcurv
edpermanentmagnetpol
es,
Ther
earefourmai
ncausesofener
gyl
ossesi
na t
wosli
pringsandcarbon(gr
aphit
e)br
ushes.
tr
ansf
ormer
.

Fl
uxLeakage

Allmagnet i
cfluxproducedbyt heprimarymaynot
l
inkupwi t
hthesecondar ycoi
lhencereducinge.m.f
i
nducedi nsecondary.Fluxleakageisr educedby
effi
cientdesi
gnoftransformerstoensuremaxi mum
fl
uxleakage.

Thesecondar
ycoi
liswoundov
ert
hepr
imar
ycoi
lor

Nov
els,
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edI
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,
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es 0705525657 Page31of31
 232
coi
l
sarewoundnextt
oeachot
heronacommon Thepol esoft hemagnetarecur vedsothatmagnet i
c
cor
e. fi
eldisr adi
al.InducedCurrententer
sandl eavesthe
coilt
hrought hebrusheswhi chpressesagainstthe
sl
ip-r
ings. The br ushes are made of gr aphi
te
because:

(
i) I
tisagoodconduct
orofel
ect
ri
ci
ty-

(
ii
) I
tissli
pperyandt
her
efor
ecanactasa
l
ubri
cant.

When coilrot
ates i
n cl
ockwise di
recti
on si
de AB
mov esupandCD downwar ds.Thet wosidesare
cutt
ing the magneti
c fiel
d perpendicul
arl
y and
producemaximum i
nducede.m.f(E)whenthecoili
s
hori
zontal
.

Appl
yingFl
eming’
srighthadr
ule,
thef
lowofi
nduced (
ii
) Di
rectCur
rentGener
ator
cur
renti
sinthedi
recti
onABCD
Di
rectcurr
ent(d.c)gener
atordi
ffer
sf rom an a.
c
Thecurrentfl
ow t hrought heexter
nalcir
cuitviathe generatori
nt hatithasa spli
t-
ri
ng (commutator
)
sl
ip– ri
ng2andbr ushx.Br ushYandsl i
p-ri
ng1 whi l
einacgenerat
orhassl
ip-
ri
ng.
complet
et hecir
cui t
.Br ushxisthusposit
iveterminal
which Y i s negat i
v e. When coilr otat
es f r
om
hori
zont
alt overt
icalposi ti
ontheangleatwhi chthe
si
desoft hecoi lcut smagnet icfi
eldreducesf r
om
90oto0o

Likewisetheinducedemfr educesf r
om maxi mum t o
zero.Whent hecoi lrotatespastthev er
t i
calposi t
ion
si
de AB mov es downwar ds as side CD mov es
upwards.Theangl eϴatwhi cht hesidesoft hecoil
cutst hemagnet icfieldincreasesfrom 0o t o 90o
whencoi lishor i
zont al
.Thei nducedemfi ncr eases
fr
om zer otomaxi mum v al
ueanddi r
ectionofcur r
ent
i
nt hecoilrev ersesf rom D C B A br ush Y now I ft
hecoi lrotat
esintothev ert
icalposit
ioninduced
becomesposi tiveandXnegat ive. curr
entande. m.fthoughresist
orRdecr easesf r
om
maximum v aluetozero.Thepol ar
it
yofbr ushYi s
Themagni tudeofi nducede. m.fobeysthesi nusoidal posi
tiv
eandX i snegativ
e.Thebr ushestoucht he
equati
on gapswithinthecommut at
ors
E=Eosi
nϴ Thev ert
icalposit
ionensur est hatri
ngsexchange
brushessi ncetheinducedcur rentchangedirecti
on
WhereEo ismaximum e. m.fandϴi st
hei ncli
nat
ion butdirecti
onofcur rentthr
ought heexternalr
esist
or
ofthecoil
tothever t
ical. remainsthesame.Thepol arit
ydoesnotchangeand
outputofd. cgener
at ori
sshownbel ow.
Thegraphbelowshowst hevari
ati
onofinducedemf
withti
mef oroner evoluti
onoft hecoi
lstart
ingwith
thecoi
linvert
ical
posi ti
on.

E
ByOhm’
slawI=
R
Theinducede.m.
forcurrentofbot
ha.
candd.
c
E= E0Si
nϴ gener
atorcanbei
ncr
easedby;
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l
.com 232
I
R =I
0
Rsi
nϴ (
i) I
ncr
easi
ngspeedofr
otat
ionofcoi
l
.

I= ISi
nϴ (
ii
) I
ncr
easi
ngnooft
urnsofcoi
l
.
0

The gr
aph ofinduced cur
rentagai
nstt
he angl
e of (
ii
i) I
ncreasi
ng t
he st
rengt
h ft
he magnet
ic
i
ncl
inat
ioni
ssimil
artooneabove. f
iel
d.

(
iv) Windingt
hecoi
lonal
ami
nat
edsof
tir
on
core.

I
n a bicy
cle dynamo t
he magnetrotates whil
e coi
l
remai
ns stat
ionary.I
t has advant
ages ov er ot
her
gener
ator
sbecauset her
earenobr usheswhichget
wornout.

Nov
els,
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edI
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,
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 232

(
iv) Mov
ingCoi
lMi
crophone

Sound waves fr
om the sour
ce setdiaphr
agm i
n
vi
brat
ionwhichint ur
ncausesthecoiltomoveto
andfr
om cutt
ingthemagneti
cfi
eld.

Inducede.m.fofvaryi
ngmagnitudesetsupvar
ying
currenti
ncoilsot hatcoi
lisperpendi
cul
art
oitfor
maxi mum f
luxl
inkage.

Anampl i
fi
eri
susedt
oincreaset
heampl it
udeofthi
s
curr
entbefor
eitisfedintotheloudspeakert
obe
conver
tedbackt
osound.

(
iv) TheI
nduct
ionCoi
l

I
tisusedt
oigni
tepet
rol
-ai
rmi
xtur
einacarengi
ne.

When the switch i

s cl
osed t
he sof
tir
on r
od is Assi
gnmentt
othest
udent
.
magnetizedduetocur r
entonthepri
mar
ycoiland
at
tract
st hesof
tir
onarmatur
e.
Dotheexer
ciseatt
heendoft
het
opi
cin
Thearmatureopensthecontactandcut soffprimary KLB.
cur
rent
sreducingmagnet i
cfieldtozero.Thisisturn
i
nducesal ar
geemfi nthesecondar ycoilbymut ual
i
nducti
on.The spring pul
lst he armature backt o
makethecontactagainandpr ocessrepeat
si t
self
.

Theinducedemfi nthesecondar
ycoi li
shigherwhen
pri
mar y curr
entis swit
ched offt han when iti s
swit
chedon.Thi sisbecausecurrenttakesal onger
ti
me t oincrease f
rom zeroto maxi mum t han to
decreasefrom maximum tozer
o.

Spar ki
ngoccursatt hecont
actduet omagnet i
cfiel
d
oft hepr i
mary.A capacit
orist her
eforeconnect ed
acrosst hecontactstominimizesparki
ngef fectsby
decay i
ngmagnet icfl
uxtozero.Sparksformsacr oss
gapbet weent heendsofsecondar ycoilandcanbe
usedt oigni
tepetrol
-ai
rmixtur
einacarengi ne.

Chapt
erFi
ve MAI
NSELECTRI
CITY
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l
.com 232
Speci
fi
cObj
ect
ives Cont
ent

Byt
heendoft
hist
opi
cthel
ear
nershoul
dbeabl
eto:  Sour
cesofmai
nsel
ect
ri
ci
ty

a) Statethesourcesofmai nselectri
ci
ty  Powertr
ansmission(i
ncl
udedanger
sofhi
gh
b) Describe the t r
ansmission of electr
icit
y vol
taget
ransmission)
powerf r
om thegener at
ingstati
on
c) Explainthedomest i
cwiringsystem  Domest
icwi
ri
ngsy
stem
d) Defi
net hekil
owat thour
e) Determinetheelectri
calenergyconsumption  Kw-hr,consumpt
ion and costofel
ect
ri
cal
andcost energy
f) Solve numer ical pr obl
ems i nvol
ving
el
ect r
ici
ty  Pr
obl
emsonmai
nsel
ect
ri
ci
ty

Sour
cesofMai
nsEl
ect
ri
cit
y Adv
ant
agesofA.
CVol
tageov
erD.
CVol
tage

1. Wat
eri
nhi
ghdams (
i) Canbetransmi
tt
edoverl
ongdi
stances
wit
hmini
mum powerl
oss.
2. Geot
her
mal
ener
gy
(
ii
) Canbest
eppedupt
over
yhi
ghv
olt
age.
3. Coal
ordi
esel

4. Wi
nds
El
ect
ri
calPower
5. Ti
dal
wav
esi
ntheseas
El
ect
ri
cal
pot
ent
ial
ener
gy=v
olt
age×char
ge
6. Nucl
earener
gy
workdone=VQ
Thetypeofpowergener at
ionchosenf
oragi v
en
l
ocati
ondependsont hemostabundantsour
ceof wor
kdone
ener
gyavai
l
ablei
nthatarea. El
ectr
ical
power=
t
ime
PowerTr
ansmi
ssi
on VQ
P=
t
TheNat
ionalGr
idSy
stem
butQ=It
 Iti
sasy stem ofpowercabl
esconnect
ingal
l
thestat
ionsinacountryt
oeachotherandto V×I
×t
consumers. Thus,
P=
t
 Adv
ant
ageofnat
ional
gri
dsy
stem ⇒P=VI
Ensures that power is av ai
labl
e t o Powerl
ossdur
ingt
ransmissi
on
consumers ev
en when one ofthe power
stat
ionsf
ail
s. Powerdi
ssi
pat
edinacir
cuiti
sgiv
enbyP=VI
.

 Mostpowerst ationsgenerateel ectri

cit
yi n ButV=I R(Ohm’ slaw)
form ofal t
ernatingcurrent( a.c)atv oltage
2
bet ween11kVand25kV. Thev olt
agei st hen ThusP=IR
stepped up bet ween 132kV t o 400kV f or
transmi ssi
onsoast ominimizepowerl oss. Theabov eequationshowst
hatwhencur
rentishi
gh
powerlossisalsohigh
 The el ectri
calener gy i
st hen t ransmitted
ov erlongdi stancet osubstationswher et he Powerlossisthereforel
owwhent
ransmi
ttedathi
gh
voltagei ssteppeddownt o11kV. vol
tageandlowcur r
ent.

 The power can be stepped down t o

appropr
iat
eval
ue f
ordomest i
c and ot
her
user
s.InKenyadomest
icappli
cantoper
ate
at240V.

 Ana.
csour
cev
olt
agei
srepr
esent
edbyt
he

Nov
els,
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edI
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,
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es 0705525657 Page35of35
 232
sy
mbol
shownbel
ow:

Exampl
e I
nmostcasesal
umi
nium i
spr
efer
redbecause:

1. Ageneratorproduces100kW powerwhichis (
a)Goodconduct
orofel
ect
ri
ci
ty
tr
ansmitt
ed thr
ough a cabl
e of resi
stance
5Ω.i
fthevol
tageproducedi
s5,000V,
cal
culat
e; (
b)I
tisl
i
ght

(
i) Thecur
rentt
ransmi
tt
ed (
c)I
tischeapandav
ail
abl
e

(
ii
) Powerl
osst
hrought
hecabl
es

(
ii
i) Powerr
ecei
vedbyt
heconsumer Danger
sofhi
ghv
olt
aget
ransmi
ssi
on.

Dur
ingt
ransmi
ssi
onpowerl
osscanbemi
nimi
zedby
: (
i) Har
mful ef
fect
s of st
rong el
ect
ri
c
f
iel
ds.
(
i) St
eppingupout
putv
olt
agef
rom power
st
ati
on. (
ii
) Theriskoff i
reonnear byst
ructur
es
and v
egetat
ion when cabl
es gettoo
(
ii
) Use of t hi
ck and good conduct
or l
ow.
transmissi
on cable t o mi ni
mize
resist
ance. (
ii
i) Theri
skofelect
ri
cshockincaset
he
pol
escol
l
apseorhangt
oolow.

Domest
icWi
ri
ng
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l
.com 232

El
ect
ri
calpowerisusual
lysuppl
i
edat240Vf
rom a
st
ep-
downtransf
ormer.

Thi
spoweri
sconnect
ed t
othehouseusi
ng t
wo
wir
es;

Neut
ral
cabl
ewhi
chear
thedatzer
opot
ent
ial
.

Li
vecabl
ewhi
chi
satf
ull
pot
ent
ial

Thel i
fecabl
eisconnectedtoahi gherf
usev al
ue.
Thecablesaret henconnectedtoamet erwher e Example
energyconsumedi sr
egister
ed.From metercable
passesontoconsumersfusebox. House has a l
ight
ing ci
rcuitoper
ated f
rom 220V
mains.Ni
nebulbsratedat120W 240Var eswit
ched
Consumerfuseboxconsi
stof: onatthesamet ime.Whati sthemostsuit
abl
efuse
fort
hisci
rcui
t?
Mainswitch
P=VI
It di
sconnect
s bot
h l
i
ve and neut
ral wi
res
si
mult
aneously
. P
I=
Li
vebusbar v

Nov
els,
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edI
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,
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mar
yNot
es 0705525657 Page37of37
 232
I
tisconnect
edt
oli
vewi
reandt
hef
use. 9P
Tot
alcur
rentI=
V
Neut
ralbusbar
9X120
I
tisconnect
edt
oal
lneut
ral
wir
es =
220
Ear
thTer
minal =4.
91A
I
tisear
thedthroughathi
ckcopperbarbur
ieddeep Thesui
tabl
efusei
sa5Af
use
i
ntheeart
horthroughwat
erpi
ping.

Fuse

 Fuseisathi
nwi
re(
madeall
oyofcopperand
ti
ns)whichmel
tswhencur
rentexceedsi
ts
rat
ing.

 It
sf unct
ion i
st o saf
eguar
d component
s
agai
nstexcesscur
renti
nthecir
cui
t.

 I
thasl
owmel
ti
ngpoi
nt.

 I
tisusual
l
yconnectedonali
vewi
rebecause
l
i
vewi r
esareatf
ull
potent
ial

Thef
usecanbl
owduet
othef
oll
owi
ng:

(
i) Ov
erl
oadi
ngt
heci
rcui
t

(
ii
) Shor
tci
rcui
ti
ng

(
ii
i) Useofwr
ongf
user
ati
ng

The f
use i
s nor
mal
l
yrepr
esent
ed by any ofthe
fol
l
owing symbols:

Ci
rcui
tBr
eaker
s

Isanelectr
onicdevi
cewhi chdi
sconnectstheci
rcui
t
when cur rent exceeds a cer tai
n v al
ue by
elect
romagneti
sm.Itismor eef
fi
cientthanafusein
thatitcanber esetwhenpowergoesof funli
kea
fusewhichmustber epl
acedwit
hanewone.

Li
ght
ingandCooki
ngCi
rcui
ts
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l
.com 232

Forli
ghtingcir
cuitt
hel
ampsareconnectedin TheRingsMainsCi
rcui
t
paral
lelsothat:
Is a ci
rcui
twhere poweri nv
ari
ous r
ooms t
apped at
(
i) Theyareoper
atedi
ndependentl
y. conveni
entpoi
ntf
rom aloop.

(
ii
) To r educe t
he effect
ive Thear rangementofthecableenabl
edoublepathforcur
rent
resi
stance. arrangementalso incr
easest hethi
cknessofwi resused
reducest heri
skofov er
loadi
ngwhensev eralsocket
sar e
(
ii
i) They can be oper
ated atthe used.
samepotenti
al

Thecabl
esarerel
ati
vel
ythi
nbecausel
amps
consumesmal
lamountofcurr
ent
.

Forcooki
ngcircui
t,poweri
stapedf
rom t
he
ri
ngsmainsci
rcuit
.

Thesecircuit
sareearthedandtheirwir
esare
rel
ati
velythickerthanthosefort heli
ght
ing
cir
cui
t,sincetheycarr
ylar
gecurrents.

TwoWaySwi
tchCi
rcui
t Theinsul
ati
ononthethr
eecabl
esar ecolour
edso
thattheyl
inkcor
rect
lywhenconnected t
o power

Nov
els,
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edI
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,
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mar
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 232
Isusedtoputof
fonli
ght
sbyoneswi
tchandputof
f ci
rcui
t .
bytheother
.
Li
velead–r ed/brown
Example
Neutral–Bl
ack/bl ue
The diagram bel
ow shows stai
rcase doubl
e
swit
ches. Eart
h–Gr een/greenwit
hyel
l
owst
ri
pes

Fuseisusedt osaf
eguar
dappl
i
ancef
rom damage
duetoexcessi
ve

The val
ue ofthe chosen fuse shoul
d be sl
i
ghtl
y
abov
et he val
ue oft he operat
ing cur
rentofthe
appl
i
ance.

The eart
h pinisl
ongerso ast o open v
alv
esor
shut
tersofthel
i
veandneut
ralpi
ns.

Thisprot
ect stheuserfr
om shock.Thr
eepin-
plugs
Onthetablegiv
enbel
ow writ
edownwhetherthe havet he eart
h pin whi
ch prov
ides t
he pat
hf or
l
ampwi l
lbeONorOFFf orv
ari
ouscombi
nat
ionsof excesscurrent
.
swi
tchposi
ti
ons.
Questi
on

Thef
igur
eshowsat
hree-
pinpl
ug

I
dent
if
ythemi
stakesi
nthewi
ri
ng

Whatwouldhappeni
fthi
spl
ugwasconnect
edt
o
mai
nssocket
.

Whyi
stheear
thpi
nnor
mal
l
ylongert
hant
heot
her
t
wopi
ns
AThr
ee–Pi
nPl
ug
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l
.com 232
a)
Studyt
hef
igur
ebel
ow:
- El
ect
ri
cal
Ener
gyConsumpt
ionandCost
ing
Commerci
alcompani
eschar
gef
orel
ect
ri
calener
gy
suppl
i
edtoconsumer
s.

Amountofener
gyusedbyconsumer
sdependson:

Powerr
ati
ngofappl
i
ances

Ti
mef
orwhi
cht
heyhav
ebeeni
nuse.

Ener
gy=Powerxt
ime

Theuni
tisusedf
orcost
ing1uni
t=1kWh

Kil
owatt–hour(
KWh)isamountofel
ect
ri
calener
gy
spenti
nonehouratr
ateof1000J/
S(wat
ts)
.

A consumerhast hefoll
owi
ngcomponent
sinhi
s
(
i) Whatname is gi
ven tothe f
it
ti
ng i
nthe housefort
hetimesindi
cat
edinoneday.
di
agr
am?
Appli
ance Time
(
ii
)Ident
if
ythepar
tslabel
l
ed.
Two40wbul bs 30min

A - One3kwel
ect
ri
cheat
er 4hr
s

B - One500wf
ri
dge 15hr
s

C -

D - Cal
cul
ate;

i
i
i) St
atet
hecol
our
sA,
BandC. Tot
alpowert
hecomponent
suse

Totalcostofpowerconsumedi
n30day
sifoneuni
t
A - costsKsh6.50

B - (
2x40)+(
3000)+(
500)

C - =3580W

Nov
els,
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edI
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,
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 232

Chapt
erSi
x ELECTROMAGNETI
CSPECTRUM

Speci
fi
cObj
ect
ives Cont
ent

Bytheendoft
hist
opi
c.Thel
ear
nershoul
dbeabl
e  El
ect
romagnet
icspect
rum
to:
 Pr
oper
ti
esofel
ect
romagnet
icwav
es
a) Descr
ibe t
he compl
ete el
ect
romagnet
ic
spect
rum  Detect
ion of el
ect
romagnet
ic (
emf
)
radi
ati
ons
b) St
ate the pr
oper
ti
es of el
ect
romagnet
ic
waves  Appli
cat
ionofe.
mradi
ati
ons(
incl
udegr
een
houseeffect
)
c) Descr
ibe the methods of det
ect
ing
el
ectr
omagnet
icr
adi
ati
ons  Pr
obl
emsi
nvol
vi
ngc=λf

d) Sol
venumer
icalpr
obl
emsi
nvol
vi
ng
El
ect r
omagnet i
cSpectrum -thi
sist hearrangement Exampl esofE.M Wav es
oft he electr
omagnetic waves accordi
ng tot heir
fr
equenci esorwavelength. Theyincludelight
,x-ray
s,ul
tr
av i
olet
,infraredand
gammar ay swhent hi
swaveisar
rangedi ntermsof
El
ect r
omagnet i
cWav es wavel
engt h or f r
equency .
They f or
m el ectr
ic
magnetic spectr
um.The wav el
engthr ange from
Ar etransver
sewav eswhi chr
esultsfr
om oscill
atng about1x106m t
i o1x10-14m.
el
ectricandmagnet i
cf i
eldsatrightangletoeach
other.
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l
.com 232

Pr
oper
ti
esofEl
ect
romagnet
icWav
es Exampl
e

(
i) Theyar
etr
ansv
ersei
nnat
ure. 1. Greenli
ghthasawavel hof5x10-3m.
engt Calcul
ate
t
heenergyitemi
ts.
(
ii
) They do not r
equi
re a medi
um f
or
tr
ansmissi
on. 2. Aradioi
stunedi
ntoaradiost
ati
on144km away.

(
ii
i) Theytrav
elt
hroughspace(
vacuum)wi
th (
a) How l
ongdoesi
ttakeasi
gnalt
oreacht
he
thespeedofl
i 3x108m/
ght( s) r
ecei
ver
?

(
iv) Theycarr
ynochar gehencenotaffect
ed ( b)Ifthesignalhasafrequencyhasasignalof980
byel
ectri
cormagnet icf
iel
ds. kHz,howmanywav el
engthsisthest
ati
onawayf r
om
yourrecei
ver?
(
v) They undergo inter
fer
ence,ref
lecti
on,
and di f
fract
ion, r efr
act
ion and
pol
ari
zati
onef f
ects.

(
vi) They possess ener gy i
n di ff
erent
amounts.Accordi
ngtoE=hfwher ehi s
pl
anetsconstant( 63x10-34 Js)andf
6.
i
sfrequency
.

(
vii
) Theyobeyt
hewav
eequat
ionc=f
λ

Pr
oduct
ionandDet
ect
ionofEl
ect
romagnet
icWav
es.

EM wav
e Pr
oduct
ion Det
ect
ion

Radi
owav
es osci
ll
ati
ng elect
ri
cal cir
cuit
s Di
odesandear
phones.
andtransmi
tt
edthroughaer
ial
s
orant
ennae

Mi
crowav
es Speci
alv acuum t
ubes cal
led Dr
ycr y
staldet
ect
ors orsol
i
d
magnetr
ons i n mi cr
owave st
atedi
odes.
ovensorwithamass.

I
nfr
aredRadi
ati
on t
hesunoranyhotbody Heat i
ngeffectproducedont he
skin,ther
mopile,bol
omet erand
thermomet er with blackened
bulb.

Vi
si
blel
i
ght Suni sthemajorsour
ceother t
heeye,phot
ogr
aphi
cfi
l
m and
sour
cesar ehotobj
ect
s,l
amps phot
ocell
andlaserbeams.

Ul
tr
avi
olet(
u.v
)ray
s Bythesun,sparksandmercury by phot
ographi
c fi
lms,
vapour due to lar
ge energy photocell
s, f
luorescent
chancesintheelect
ronsofan material
s ( qui
nine sulphate)
atom. andpaperl i
ghtl
ysmear edwi th
Vaseli
ne

X-
ray
s actionofbeam off
ast
-mov
ing Usi ng fl
uor
escent scr
een or
electr
ons hit
chi
ng a met al photogr
aphi
cfi
lm.
target

GammaRay
s By radi
oact
ive subst
ances i
n Det
ected by phot ographi
c
thenucl
eusofanatom pl
atesand r
adi
ati
on detector
s
e.
g.TheG.Mtube.

Nov
els,
Updat
edI
CT,
KASNEB,
HighSchool
,
Pri
mar
yNot
es 0705525657 Page43of43
 232

Appl
i
cat
ionofEl
ect
romagnet
icWav
es

Pr
oper
ti
es Ty
peofr
adi
ati
on Uses

Hi
ghestf
requency Gammar
ays In medici
ne used t
o ki
l
l
cancer
ousti
ssues
Hi
ghestener
gycont
ent
Ster
il
ize medi
cal equi
pment
andpests

Hi
ghener
gyCont
ent x-
ray
s Cr
yst
all
ogr
aphy
,

st
udyf
ract
uresand

det
ectforger
iesi
nar
tandf
law
i
nmet al
s

Lowener
gycont
ent U.
Vradi
ati
ons I
n medici
ne t
hey suppl
y
v
itami
nD

t
reat
mentofski
ncancer

mi
ner
alanal
ysi
sand

det
ect
ingf
orger
ies

Easi
l
yref
lect
ed v
isi
blel
i
ght Seei
ng,

hav
eav
eragewav
elengt
hs phot
ogr
aphy
,

Fibre opt i
cs, l
aser
s (l
i
ght
amplif
icat
ion by t
he
sti
mulated emissi
on of
radi
ati
ons)

Longwav
elengt
h I
nfr
aredandmi
crowav
e Usedi
ncooki
ng

hi
ghheat
ingef
fect heat
inganddr
ying

Longmedi
um wav
elengt
h TV wav
es I
ncommuni cat
ionwi
tht
heai
d
ofsat
ell
i
te,
penet
rat
es t
he at
mospher
e
easi
ly

Longestwavel
engt
h,short
est Radi
owav
es Widel
y used i n r
adi
o
fr
equency
,Easi
lydi
ff
ract
ed communi
cat
ion.
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l
.com 232

Di
ff
ract
ionofTVRadi
oWav
es

Largewav el
engthsandl ow fr
equencyr adi
owav esareeasil
ydiff
ract
ed.Theyarealsoeasi
lydetectedby
recei
versindeepvall
eysandbehi ndhil
ls.Radi
owav esofl
ongerwav el
engt
h,ampli
tudemodulat
ion(AM)are
refl
ectedeasi
lybyionosphere.Short
erwav el
engthwaves(f
requencymodulati
ons(FM)ar
etransmitt
edover
shortdist
ancesandreceiveddir
ectl
yfrom thetr
ansmissi
on.

Mi
crowav
es Hazar
dsofSomeEl
ect
ro-
Magnet
icWav
es.

In cooki ng mi crowav esproducesmagnet ron ata UV raysandgammar ayscarr

yhi ghenergywhich
frequencyofabout2500 MHZ.These wav esar e damages cel l
s,skin burn of effecteyes when
directed t o ar otati
ng metalshinerwhichr ef
lects absorbed.Therearedel
ayedeff
ectofr adi
ati
onsuch
them t odi f
f erentpar t
softheov en.Int
heov enf ood as cancer,l eukemi
a and her editar
y eff
ect
si n
i
spl acedi nat urnt
ablewhereitabsorbsthewav es chi
ldren.
ev enly.Thewav e’
sheatcooksi t
.Thewi r
emeshon
the doorr eflectt he micr
owav e back i
nside.The Mi
nimi
singt
heHazar
ds
dev i
ce i s swi t
ched of fbefore openi
ng the door.
Mi crowav esofshor t
erwavelengthareusedi nradar (
i) Reducedosagebymi
nimi
si
ngexposur
e
communi cation. ti
me.

(
ii
) Keepasaf
edi
stancef
rom t
her
adi
ati
ons

(
ii
i) Use shi
eldi
ng mat
eri
als such as l
ead
j
ackets.

Micr
owav eswhi chhaveshorterwav elengthsar e
used for r
adar (Radi
o detect i
on and Rangi ng)
communicat
ion.This communi cati
on is usef
uli n
l
ocati
ngtheexactposi
ti
onofaer oplanesandships.

Radi
oWav
es

Theyhav ev ar
y i
ngrangeofwav elengthwhi chmakes
thei
rapplicati
onwi de.Medi um andshor twavelength
i
s used i nr adiot ransmi ssion si gnals.Ampl i
tude
modulation (AM)r adi ot r
ansmi ssion hasal onger
rangebecauseofr eflecti
onbyt hei onospher e.TV
and frequency modul ati
on ( FM)r adi
o wav es are
recei
vedal lashor terwav el engtht hannor malradio
broadcasts.Ver yhi
ghf r
equency( VHF)t ransmission
(UsedinTVandFM r adiosar etr
ansmi t
tedov ershort
dist
anceandr ecei
veddi rectf rom thet r
ansmi ssion.

Nov
els,
Updat
edI
CT,
KASNEB,
HighSchool
,
Pri
mar
yNot
es 0705525657 Page45of45
 232
Gr
eenHouseEf
fect(
HeatTr
ap)

Tr ansparent gl ass al l
ows v i
si
blelight of short
wav elengthr adiationsemi t
tedbyt hesunt opass
through.Ont heot herhandglasscannottransmitthe
l
ongwav elengthgi venoutbycoolerobj ects.Heat
from t hesuni st herefor
etrappedinsidethegr een
house.Thi smakesi nsi
deofthegreenhousewar mer
thanout side.

Chapt
erSev
en CATHODERAYSANDCATHODERAYOSCI
LLOSCOPE

Byt
heendoft
hist
opi
c,t
hel
ear
nershoul
dbeabl
eto: Cont
ent

a) Describetheproductionofcathoder ays  Product

ion ofcat
hode r
ays,cat
hode r
ay
b) Statethepropert
iesofcat hoderays tube.
c) Explainthe functioning ofa cat hode Ray
oscil
loscope(C.R.O)andofaTel evi
siontube  Pr
oper
ti
esofcat
hoder
ays.
(T.Vtube)
d) Explain the uses of a cat hode Ray  C.
R.OandT.
Vtubes.
Oscill
oscope
e) SolveproblemsinvolvingCathode  UsesofC.
R.O.
RayOsci ll
oscope
 Pr
obl
emsonC.
R.O.

Cat
hodeRay
s Pr
oper
ti
esofCat
hodeRay
s

Theyar est r
eamsofhi ghv eloci
tyelectr
onsemi tt
ed (i
)They tr
avelin a str
aightline i
n absence of
from thesurfaceofamet alwhenacat hode(negati
ve magneti
c or el
ectr
icf i
elds.Hence form shar p
electr
ode) is heat ed inside a v acuum t ube by shadowsofobj
ectsputont hei
rway.
thermioni
cemi ssion.El
ectronsar eabl etoleavethe
met alsurface because t hey gai n enough kineti
c
energytobr eakl oosefr
om t heforceofat t
racti
onof
thenuclei
.

Ther
mionic emission i
st he pr
ocess of emi
tt
ing
el
ect
ronsfrom a met alsur
faceduetoheatener
gy.
Seethef
igurebelow:

i
i)Cathoderayscausefl
uor
escenceinsome
subst
ancese.
g.zi
ncsul
phi
de(phosphor
).

Beforet he heatercur
rentisswitched on,no cur
rentis i
ii
)Theypossess ki neti
c ener
gy.The ki
neti
c
regist
eredbyt hemil
li
ameter.Whentheswitchi
sputon,the energyoft heemi t
ted el
ect
ronsisconver
ted
cathodei sheatedandemi t
select
ronswhichcompletethe i
nto l i
ght energy by a pr ocess call
ed
gapbet weent heelect
rodesandacur r
enti sr
egist
eredat fl
uorescence.Thi
sisthemai nreasonwhythe
themi l
li
ameter. screenisnotheat
ed.
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l
.com 232
Pr
oduct
ionofcat
hoder
ays i
v)Theyar
echargedbecauset
heyar
edeflected
by bot
h elect
ri
c and magneti
cf i
elds (not
waves)
.

v)Thepat hofcathoderaysi
namagnet i
cfi
eld
i
sci rcul
arsothattheforceact
ingonthem is
perpendicul
art
oboththemagneti
cfi
eldandt
he
di
rectionofcur
rent.

Int he abov e di
scharge t
ube el ectr
ons pr oduced att he
cathodebyt hermionicemissionar eaccel eratedt owar ds
fl
uor escentscr eenbyananodeofanext rahi ght ension
(EHT)sour ce.Thet ubei sevacuat edsot hatt heemi tted
electronsdonotcol li
dewi t
hai rmol ecul
eswhi chwoul d
i
oni set hem maki ngthem l
oseki neticenergy .Ionisati
oni s
apr ocesswher eelectr
onsar ecompl etel
yr emov edf rom
atomsofanel ement.Thecat hodei scoat edwi t
hbar ium
andst r
ont i
um oxidestogivear eadyandcont inuoussuppl y
ofel ectrons.

vi
)cathoder
ayshav
emoment um and ener
gy
1 2
gi
venbyMeVand MeV respect
ivel
y Cat
hodeRayOsci
l
loscope(
C.R.
O.)
2

ki
net
icener
gyoftheelect
ron Itisanel ectr
icalinst
rumentused to di
spl
ayand
=wor kdonebyt
heel
ect
ri
cfi
eldon analysewav ef
ormsaswel lastomeasureel
ect
ri
cal
theelectr
on potenti
alsi
.e.v
oltagesthatvar
ywit
htime.

1 2 I
tconsi
stsoft
hef
oll
owi
ngpar
ts;
m v =eV
2 e
(
a)El
ect
rongun.
vi
i
)cathoderay
spr
oducexr
ayswhent
heyst
ri
ke (
b)Def
lect
ingsy
stem.
ametaltar
get
(
c)Di
spl
aysy
stem
v
ii
i)Cat
hoder
ayssl
i
ght
lyi
oni
segases.

i
x)Af
fectphot
ogr
aphi
cpaper
s.

Nov
els,
Updat
edI
CT,
KASNEB,
HighSchool
,
Pri
mar
yNot
es 0705525657 Page47of47
 232
El
ect
ronGun  I ft hegridismademor enegat i
v ewi threspectto
thecathode, t
henumberofel ectronspersecond
(a)I tproducesanel ect
ronbeam whi
chi
shighl
y passingthrought hegr i
ddecr easesandt hespot
a concent r
ated stream of hi
gh speed becomesdar ker.Theef fectisr eversedi fthe
electr
ons. gridis made mor e positiv
ei n pot ent i
alwi t
h
respecttothecathode.
(b)I thasthef ol
lowingcomponent
s;
Anodes
-Cat
hode
Thet woanodeshav eposi ti
vepot ent ial
sr elat
iveto
-Cyl
i
ndricalgrid cathode.Anode1i satahi gherpot entialthananode
2.The di ff
erence in pot entialbet ween t he two
-Twoanodes
anodescr eatesanel ect
ricfield.Theel ectr
icfiel
d
Functi
onofCat hode conv ergesthe di
vergi
n gbe am from a no de 2.

To emi telect
rons bythermionic emission (when Funct
ions
heated).I
ti s coat
ed with oxi
des oft horium and
(a)Attr
actel
ectronsfr
om cat
hode.
str
ontium (t
het woarepreferr
edbecauset heyhave
l
owwor kfunct
ionshencecanemi telect
ronseasil
y) ( b)They accelerat
et he el
ectr
ons by provi
ding
enoughenergytocauseemissi
onofl
ightasthey
Functi
onofCy l
indri
calGr
id.
hi
tthescreen.
 Contr
olst
herateoffl
ow ofel
ectr
onhencet
he (
c)They focus el
ectr
on beam by conver
ging
br
ight
nessoft
hespotont
hescreen. el
ect
ronstoasharppoi
ntont
hescr
een.
 Thenegati
vev ol
tageongr
idcanbev ari
edto
contr
olthe numberofel
ectr
ons r
eaching t
he
anode.

Def
lect
ingSy
stem Di
spl
aySy
stem (
scr
een)
.

Funct
ionoft
hedef
lect
ionsy
stem Insideoft hescr
eeniscoatedwithphosphor(zi
nc
sulphide) which fluor
esces or glows when
Todeter
mineposi
ti
onofel
ect
ronbeam ont
he electr
onsst r
ikei
thenceproduci
ngabrightspoton
scr
een thescr een.
Ty
pesofdef
lect
ions Thei
nsi
deoft
het
ubeiscoatedwi
thgr
aphi
tewhi
ch
hast
hefol
l
owi
ngfunct
ions;
(
i) Ver
ti
cal
def
lect
ion(byY-
plat
e)
 Ear
thi
ng–conduct
ionofel
ect
ronst
otheear
th.
(
ii
)Hor
izont
aldef
lect
ion(byX-
plat
e)
 Itisused to shi
eldt
hebeam f
rom ext
ernal
Ver
ti
caldef
lect
ion(Y-
plat
es) elect
ri
cfi
eld.
 It deflects electr
on beam v ert
icall
y across t
he  I taccel
erat
es el
ectr
ons t
owards t
he scr
een
screeni nthef oll
owingwayswhent hetimebase(X- sincei
tisi
nthesamepotent
ial
astheanode.
plates)isswitchedof f
;
UsesofCRO
 Whend. cpot enti
alacrossthetwopl atesiszeroa
spoti sproducedont hescreeni.
e.nodef l
ecti
on.  I ti
susedasav ol
tmet
er.
 Whend. c.vol
tagei sappli
edacrossthey-
plat
ewi t
h  Time base ofswi
tched off
,the x-
plates
top plate positi
vet he elect
rons are def
lect
ed eart
hedandt hevolt
aget obemeasur ed
upwardsandaspott herefor
eappearsontheupper connect
edacrosst
hey -
plat
es.Thevoltage
partofthescreen. i
scalcul
atedusi
ngthefor
mul a:
 Whenlowerplat
eisposi
ti
veaspotappear
sont
he Vol
tage
l
owerpartoft
hescr
een. =displ
acement
×sensi
ti
vi
ty(
vol
tsperdi
vi
si
on)
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l
.com 232
 I
fa. cv ol
tage i
s appl
i
ed cr oss yplatet he spot Adv
ant
agesofCROovervol
tmeter
oscil
l
ateupanddowndependi ngonfrequencysuch
thatwhatisseenonthescreeni saverti
calstr
aight  Canmeasurelar
gevolt
ageswi
thoutbei
ng
l
ineifthef
requencyi
sveryhigh. dest
roy
ed.

Hor
izont
aldef
lect
ion(
x-pl
ates)  I
trespondsi
nstant
aneouslyunli
keor
dinary
meterwhosepoint
eri
saffectedbyi
nerti
a.
X-pl
atesareinter
nal
lyconnectedtot
hetime-baseci
rcui
t,
whichappliesasaw- t
oothv olt
agetothex-plat
es.The  Canmeasur
ebot
ha.
candd.
cvol
tages.
volt
ageincreasesuni
formlytoapeak(sweep)anddrops
suddenly(f
lyback).Thespeedwi thwhichtheelectr
on  Ithasextremelyhighresist
anceanddoes
beam is“sweep”canbeadj ustedwit
ht hehelpofthe nottheref
orealt
ercurrentorvol
tagei
nthe
ti
mebaseknob. cir
cuitt
owhi chi
tisconnected.

 Measur
ing t
he f
requency ofa wav
e(a.
c
si
gnal
)

Thesi gnalisf edint

othey -
plat
esofaC. R.O.with
thet imebaseon.Thet imebasecont r
olist hen
adjustedt ogiv eoneormor ecy cl
esoft heinput
signalont hescr een.ThetimeToft hesignalis
thendet erminedbyr el
ati
ngthetraceofthesignal
on t he screen withthe ti
me base sett
ing.The
1
frequencycanbecal culat
edasf=
T
Whenad. cvoltagei sappliedtot heinput (
Y-pl
ates)of
thecathoder ayosci l
loscopeandt het i
mebaseon,t hen Examples
thehorizontallineisseent omov etowar dthepositi
ve
plat
e. 1. Thef i
gur
ebelow showsadi spl
ayofana. c
si
gnalon the CRO screen.Deter
mine the
Whenana. cv oltageisappl i
ed tot hei nputofaCRO fr
equency
,giv
enthattheti
mebaseset t
ingis
andt i
mebaseon,t henduet ointer
actionoft hesaw- 200ms/di
v.
toot
hv oltageatt hex- plat
es and a. cv olt
ageatt hey-
plat
es,a‘sine-curve’i
sseenont hescreen.

Thepurposeofti
me- baseistomov eelect
ronsacr
oss
t
hescreenatapar t
icularspeedenabl
ingthestudyof
v
ari
ati
onbetweenvol
tageswi t
htime.

2. Ont hegri
dpr ovi
dedbelow,showthedi
splayon
theCRO scr eenofana. csignal
,peakvolt
age
300vandf requency50Hzwhent i
mebasei son
(Take-
gain at100 V/div,t
imebasesetti
ng at
10ms/ di
v).

300
max
imunv
ert
icaldi
vi
si
ons=
100

=3

1
T= 4. Thecontr
olknobsofCROhav ebeenadjustedt
o
f
getabri
ghtel
ectr
on‘spot
’ont hescr
een.Expl
ain
1 howyougetthefol
lowi
ngtraces:
T=
50

Nov
els,
Updat
edI
CT,
KASNEB,
HighSchool
,
Pri
mar
yNot
es 0705525657 Page49of49
 232
T=0.
02seconds (
i) Ahor
izont
all
i
neatt
hecent
re.

Numberofhor
izontaldi
vi
sionspercompl
etecy
cle (
ii
)Av
ert
ical
li
neatt
hecent
re.
0.02
= =2 (
ii
i)Asi
necur
ve
0.01
5. ThetimebaseonaCROi ssetat1ms/ cm andY-
gainat100v/cm.Whenanal t
ernati
ngv ol
tageis
appli
edtotheinputter
minal
s,thebeakv alueof
thesinecur
veonthescreenis2.9cm.cal
cuate:

(
i) Theampl
i
tudeoft
heacv
olt
age.

(
ii
) Thefrequencyoftheaci
nputsi
gnal
s,i
f
twofullwavesarefor
medinalengt
hof
5cm onthescreen.

6. Thefi
gurebel
owshowst hedef
lect
ionofaspot
byal
ter
nati
ngvol
tagesi
gnal
3. A.d.cvol
tageof50vwhenappl
iedtot
heY-pl
ates
ofaCROcausesadef l
ect
ionofthespotonthe
screenasshown.

I
fthesensit
ivi
tyi
s30v
/di
vi
sion.
Findt
hev
olt
ageof
t
hesignal
(
i) Det
ermi
net
hesensi
ti
vi
tyoft
heY-
gai
n.

(
ii
) Show whatwi llbe observ
ed on the
screenifana.cofpeakv ol
tage40vis
fedontotheY-
plat
es

TVTubeorComput
erMoni
tor Quest
ion

1. Thef i
gurebelowshowst hemai
npartsofa
tel
evisi
on receiv
ertube wit
hthe el
ectron
guns deflecti
on coi
l
s and t
he f
luor
escent
screenlabell
ed.

 I
nTVt
ubemagnet
iccoi
l
s(f
iel
ds)ar
eused
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l
.com 232
i
nst
eadofelect
ri
cfi
eldbecausetheyprov
ide
wi
derdef
lect
iontol
i
ghtthewholescreen.

 Thetubehastwoti
nyplat
eswhichcombi
ne
toli
ghttheenti
rescr
eeninst
eadofjusta
l
ine.

 Inacol our–TV 3elect

rongunsar eused
eachpr oduci
ngoneprimarycol
our(
red,blue
andgr een)screeniscoatedwithdiff
erent
chemical st
oproducet
hecolour
s.
(
i) Namet
hepar
tsoft
heel
ect
rongun
Coilsaremountedout
sidetheneckofthetubeso
thattheycanbet r
eat
edandadj ust
edwhil
esetis
beingassembl
edandtested. (
ii
) Why are magneti
cf ields i
nt he coi
l
s
pr
eferr
edint het
elev
isionsetinst
eadof
Di
ff
erencesbet
weenTVscr
eenandCRO el
ectr
icfi
elds?

TV CRO (
ii
i) Nameasui
tabl
esubst
anceusedt
ocoat
t
hescr
een.
Def
lect
ion i
s by Defl
ect
ioni
sbyel
ect
ri
c
magneti
cfiel
d fi
eld

I
thast
wot
imebase I
thasonet
imebase

El
ect
rons light
s t
he El
ect
ronspr
oduceal
i
ne
whol
escreen oradot

Thereare625l
i
nesper Thereare25l
i
nesper
second second

Chapt
erEi
ght X-
RAYS

Speci
fi
cObj
ect
ives Cont
ent

Byt
heendoft
hist
opi
c,t
hel
ear
nershoul
dbeabl
eto:  Pr
oduct
ionofX-
ray
sX-
rayt
ube

a) Expl
aint
hepr oducti
onofX-ray
s  Ener
gychangesi
nanX-
rayt
ube
b) Stat
etheproperti
esofX-ray
s
c) Stat
ethedangersofX- r
ays  Pr
oper
ti
esofX-
ray
s,sof
tX-
ray
sandhar
dx-
d) Expl
aint
heusesofX- r
ays

Nov
els,
Updat
edI
CT,
KASNEB,
HighSchool
,
Pri
mar
yNot
es 0705525657 Page51of51
 232
e) Sol
venumer
icalpr
obl
emsi
nvol
vi
ngx-
ray
s r
ays

 Danger
sofX-
ray
sandpr
ecaut
ions

 Usesofx-
ray
s

 Pr
obl
emsonx-
ray
s

 X-
ray
swerediscoveredbyW.Roent genin1895whenhewasconducti
ngar
esearchofcat
hoderay
s.
Hecall
edthem x-raysbecauset heirnatur
ewasunknownatt hetimeofdiscover
y.X-r
aysare
pr
oducedwhenfastmov i
ngelect
ronsar esuddenl
yst
oppedbymatt
er.

Pr
oduct
ionOfX-
Ray
s.

 Modernx-rayshav ear
otati
ngtargetdur
ing
operat
ion to changethepointofi mpact
 When a Cat hode is heated,i t produces ther
ebyreducingthewearandtearonit.
el
ectrons by ther
mionic emi ssi
on.Emi t
ted
el
ectrons are accelerat
ed t o t he anode  Thet ar
geti
ssetatanangl e(450)todi
rect
(t
arget)byhighpotenti
aldif
ferencei.e.100kv x-r
aysoutoft hetubethr
oughawi ndowon
betweencathodeandanode. theleadshi
eld.Seethefi
gur
ebelow:

 Whenfi
rstmov i
ngelect
ronsarestoppedby
t
heanode(tar
get)par
tofthei
rkinet
icener
gy
i
sconv
ertedtox-
rays.

 Anx-rayt
ubei
sreal
l
yahi
ghv
olt
agedi
ode
val
ve.

 Cathodeisconcav
esoast of
ocusel
ect
ron
beam tot
hetungst
ent
arget
.

 The cathode i
s coat
ed with oxi
des oflow
workf uncti
on so t
hatelectr
ons ar
e easil
y
emit
tedf r
om it
ssurf
acewheni ti
sheated.

 Theanodetar
gethasahighmel t
ingpoi
ntto
withst
and a l
ot of heat generat
ed e.
g.
tungst
enormol
ybdenum

 Most of kinet
ic ener
gy of el
ectr
ons is
convert
edtoheatenergybutabout0.5% i
s
tr
ansferr
edt
ox-ray
sradi
ati
on.

 Anodeismadeofgoodconduct orofheati
.e.
copperforeff
ici
ent(fast
)dissi
pati
onofheat
energy
.Howev er
,oi lcircul
ati
on and fi
ns
enhancescool
ingprocess.
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l
.com 232
 Lead shiel
ding has hi
gh densi
ty so as t
o
prev
ent x- rays f r
om penet rat
ing i nt
o
undesi
rabletar
gets.

Pr
oper
ti
esofX-
Ray
s Appl
i
cat
ionsofx-
ray
s(uses)

1. Traveli
nstrai
ghtlineataspeedofl i na (
ghti i)Inmedi ci
ne( RadiographyandRadi ot herapy).
vacuum.
 Duet ot hepenet rati
ng propertyofx- r
ay s,
2. X-rays are dangerous, t hey can cause fracturedbonesanddi sl
ocatedjointscanbe
cancer. seen f rom x- ray phot ograph cal led
radiograph.For eignobj ect
sl ikeswal l
owed
3. X-rays penetrat
e subst ances but ar e coinsorpi nscanal sobelocated.
absorbedbydensesol idse.g.bonesorlead.
 Har dX- rayscant reatcancer,tumour sand
4. X-raysaf
fectphotographicfil
ms. other ski n di seases by dest r
oy i
ng t he
i
nf ectedcel l
s.
5. X-raysionise gases,so t hat the gases
becomeconduct ors. (
ii
)Sci
ence/Cr y
st al
lography
6. X-
ray
scancausephot
oel
ect
ri
cemi
ssi
on.  Studyofcrystalst
ruct
urewhichexplai
nsthe
arrangementofatomsi ndi
ff
erentmateri
als.
7. X-r
ays cause f
luor
escence i
n cer
tai
n Incasetherearefr
actur
esinthestruct
ureof
subst
ances. themat eri
al,t
heycaneasil
yber evealedby
theX-rays
8. X-
ray
sarenotdef
lect
edbyamagnet
icor
el
ect
ri
cfi
elds.

9. X-
rayscanbedi f
fract
edandplanepolari
sed (
ii
i)I
nindustr
y
sotheyarewaves.
 Inspectcracks/
flawsi
nmetalcast
ing.
10.X-
raysareelect
romagneticwavesofveryshort
wavel
engt
hs and hence obey the wave equat
ion  St er
il
ize sur gical equi
pment bef or
e
c=λfandenergyequati
onE=hf . packagi
ng.

Ty
pesofX-
Ray
s

Har
dx-
ray
s (
iv)Secur
it
ye.
g.i
nAi
rpor
ts.
 Hav ehighfrequency(shortwavelengt
h)hence  Toi nspectl
uggagef
oranyweaponhi
ddeni
n
high penet
rati
ng power.Thi sis achiev
ed by them.
i
ncreasingt
heanodev ol
tage,
inordertogivet
he
cathoderay
smor eki
neti
cenergy
. DangersofX–ray

 These x- r
ays penet
rat
es t
he f
l e  Becauseoft
esh but ar heirionizi
ng pr
opert
y,X-
rayscan
absorbedbyt
hebones. causeseri
ousdamaget ot
hebodycell
s.Excess
exposur
eofl i
vingtissuetoX-raycanleadt o
Sof
tx-ray
s damageorkil
li
ngofthecell
s.

 The soft x-
rays are pr
oduced by elect
rons  Thepenetr
ati
ngpropertycanalsocausegeneti
c
mov i
ngatal owerv el
oci
tycompar edtothose changesandevenproduceseri
ousdiseasesli
ke
produci
ng hard x-
rays.Thisi s achi
eved by canceri
foneisexposestothem f
oralongti
me.
l
ower i
ngtheaccel
erati
ngvol
tage.

 Thesex- r
aysareusedtoshowmal i
gnantgrowt
h
i
nt issuesbecausetheyonlypenet
ratethesoft Pr
ecauti
onswhenusi ngx-raymachi
ne
ti
ssues.
(
i) X-r
aymachi neshav eleadshi
eldtoprot
ect
 Quality and t y
pe of x- ray
s produced is theoper
atorfrom str
ayX-r
ays.
determinedbytheaccel
erat
ingpot
enti
al.
(
ii
)Ther oomsofoper ati
onhaveconcr
etewal
ls

Nov
els,
Updat
edI
CT,
KASNEB,
HighSchool
,
Pri
mar
yNot
es 0705525657 Page53of53
 232
I
ntensi
ty(
Quant
it
y)ofx-
ray
s t
oabsor
banyl
eaki
ngr
adi
ati
ons(
X-r
ays)
.

 TheInt
ensi
tyofx-
ray
siscont
rol
l
edbyamountof (
ii
i)Reduceexposur
eti
me.
heat
ingcur
rent
.
ENERGYOFX-
RAYS
 Thegr eatertheheatingcurr
ent,thegreaterthe
numberofel ectr
onspr oduced hencemor ex- Energyofanel ectroncanbecal
cul
atedby
ray
s.Togi v
eamor eint
ensebeam ofx- r
ays,the the formula E = hfwher ehi s Pl
ank’
s
cathodei smadehot ter,t
ogivemor eelectrons constantandffrequency
.
l
eadingt omor ex-
rays.

NOTE:ThestrengthoftheX-r
aysdependsont
he Butf
rom c=f
λ;f= t
hus E=
accel
erat
ing potenti
aldif
fer
ence bet
ween t
he
anodeandthecat hode.
ButE=eVwher eei
st heelect
ronchar
ge
and V i s t
he acceler
ati
ng potent
ial
di
ff
erence.

ThuseV=

The ener
gy ofthe el
ect
ron i
s maxi
mum
whenthewavel
engt
hisshort
est
.

Cal
cul
ati
ons 4.The f
igur
e bel
ow shows t
he essent
ial
1. Calcul
atet
hewavelengt
h ofx- r
ayswhose component
sofanX–r
ayt
ube
fr
equencyi
sgi
venby2.0×1020Hz.

2. Fi
ndtheener gyofx-r
ayswhosewav elengt
h
s10-10m i
i nav acuum (
c=3.0×108m/s,and
h=6.63×10-34Js).

3. An x-
ray tube is oper
ated wi
th anode
pot
ent
ial of 50kV and cur r
ent of
15mA,
calcul
ate;

(
i) The r ate at whi
ch energy is
convert
edatthetar
getoft
hex-ray
tube. a) (
i)Br
iefl
yexpl
ainel
ect
ronsar
epr
oducedby
t
hecathode
(
ii
) Ki
net
ic energy of the emit
ted
el
ect
ronsbef
orehi
tt
ingt
het
arget
. b) (i
i) How are the elect
rons pr
oduced
accel
erat
edt
owar
dstheanode?
(
ii
i) The maximum v
eloci
ty of t
he
el
ect
rons. (
ii
i) Whyi
sthet
argetmadeoft
ungst
en?
(
iv) The f requency of t he x-ray
s (
iv) Howiscool
i
ngachi
evedi
nthi
ski
ndofX
produced i
f0. 5% oftheener
gyis
–ray
smachine.
convert
edintox-r
ays.

(
v) Thenumberofelectronshi
tt
ingt
he (
v) Whywoul di
tbenecessar
yfort
hetar
get
anodeaf
teronesecond. t
o r otat
e dur
ing operati
on of t
his
machine?
4. An x-ray t
ube oper
ates ata potent
ialof
80kV. Only 0.
5% of el ect
ron ener
gy is (
vi) Whyi
sthet
ubeev
acuat
ed?
convertedt
oX-raysattheanodeatarateof
100J/s. (
vii
) Whyi sthemachi
nesur
rounded bya
l
eadshi
eld?
Det
ermi
ne;

(
i) Thet
ubecur
rent
. (
a)I
fthe accel
erat
ing v
olt
age i
s 100 kV
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l
.com 232
(
ii
) Theaveragev
eloci
tyofel
ect
ronshi
tt
ing cal
cul
ate;
thet
arget.
(
i) Kineti
cener
gyoft
heel ect
ronsar
ri
vi
ngatt
he
(
ii
i) Themi
nimum wav
elengt
hofx-
ray
s target(
e=1.6x10-19C).
5. Anx- raytubeoper atingat50kVhasat ube
(
ii
)I f0.5%oft heelect
ronenergyisconvert
ed
currentof20mA.
i
ntoX – r ays determine the mini
mum
(Takeme=9. 1×10-31kg, 6×10-19C,
e=1. c=3. 0×
8 wavelengthoftheemi t
tedX-rays (h=6.63
10m/ s).How many el ect
rons ar e hi
tti
ng
targetpersecond. x10-34 JS,andC=3. 0x108ms-1) .

(
i) If0.
5%ofener gyofelect
roni
sconver
ted
tox-ray
s,estimatethequanti
tyofheat
energyproducedpersecond.

(
ii
) Fi
ndx-
raypowerout
put
.

Mor
e

1. St
ateoneagr
icul
tur
aluseofx-
ray
s.

2. Namethepr
opert
yofx-raysthatdet
ermi
nes
t
hety
peofx-r
aysproduced.

3. Anexray-tubeisoperatedat125kVpot ent
ial
and10mA. Ifonly1%oft heel ectr
icalpower
i
sconv ert
edt ox- ray
s,atwhatr atei dthe
tar
getbeingheat ed?Ifthet argethas0. 3kg
andismadeofamat erialwhosespeci fi
c
heatcapacityis150Jkg-1K-1,
atwhatav er
age
rat
ewouldt hetemper at
urer iseiftherewere
nothermal l
oses?

Chapt
erNi
ne PHOTOELECTRI
CEFFECT

Speci
fi
cObj
ect
ives Cont
ent

Byt
heendoft
hist
opi
c,t
hel
ear
nershoul
dbeabl
eto:  Photoel
ectr
ic ef
fect
s,photons,t
hreshold
fr
equentl
y,workfuncti
on,pl
anksconstant
,
a) Per f
or m anddescr i
besi mpleexper i
ment sto andelect
rons-
volt
.
i
llustratet hephot oelect
riceffect
b) Explaint he f actors affecti
ng phot oel
ectri
c  Fact
orsaf
fect
ingphot
oel
ect
ri
cemi
ssi
on.
emi ssion
c) Appl yt he equat i
on E=hƒt o calcul
atet he  Ener
gyofphot
ons.
ener gyofphot ons
d) Def i
net hreshol df r
equency ,workfuncti
onand
theel ectronv olt  Ei
nst
einequat
ion
e) Explainphot oelectri
cemi ssi
onusingEi nstei
n
equat ion  Appl
i
cat
ionsofphot
oel
ect
ri
cef
fect
s:
2
f) (hƒ+hƒ 0+½mv)
g) Explain t he appl i
cati
ons of phot oel
ectri
c  phot
oemissi
ve,
effects  Phot
oconduct
ive
h) Solve numer ical pr obl
ems i nvolvi
ng  Phot
ovol
tagecel
ls
phot oelect r
icemi ssion

Nov
els,
Updat
edI
CT,
KASNEB,
HighSchool
,
Pri
mar
yNot
es 0705525657 Page55of55
 232
 Pr
obl
emsonphot
oel
ect
ri
cemi
ssi
ons

When an el ectr
omagnet i
cr adiation of suf f
ici
ent (b)Usi
ngchar
gedel
ect
roscope
fr
equencyi sradi
atedonamet alsur f
aceel ectr
onsar e
emitted.These electr
ons ar e called phot oel
ectrons
andt hephenomenoni scalledphot oel
ectri
cef fect.
Photoelectr
ic ef
fectist herefore a phenomenon i n
whichel ectr
onsar eemi tt
edf r
om t hesur faceofa
sol
idwheni ll
uminat
edwi thelectromagnet icradiati
on
of suf f
ici
ent fr
equency.A mat erialthat exhi bit
s
photoelectr
iceff
ectissai
dt obephot o-emissive.

Phot
oel
ect
ri
cef
fectcanbedemonst
rat
edby
:

(
a)Usi
ngneut
ral
plat
es

Whenf reshlycl eanedzi ncplateisi r

radiatedwi t
h
UV r adi ations,el ectrons are emi tt
ed f rom i ts
surface.Phot oelectronsemi t
tedfrom theposi ti
vely
chargedzi ncpl atedonotescapeduet oatt r
acti
on
by posi ti
v e char ges on t he zinc pl at
e hence
divergence r emai ns t he same. Phot oelectr
ons
emi t
tedf rom thenegat i
velychargedzincpl ateare
repelledandt heel ectroscopebecomesdi scharged
asar esultofwhi cht heleafdiv
ergencedecr eases.
Ifagl ass( whichabsor bsUVr adiati
ons)i splaced
betweenzi ncplate( negati
vel
ychar ged)andt heUV
source no ef fecti s seen on t he l eafoft he
electroscope.
WhenUVf al
l
sonpl ateA,t hegal vanometerdeflects
showi ng flow ofcur r
ent,when UV i s blocked no I
ft he zi
ncisnotfreshl
ycleaned,the el
ect
rons
def l
ect i
ononthegal vanomet eri.
e.nocurrentflowing. mightnotbel
i
berat
edfrom t
hezinc.
WhenUVf al
lsont hemet al,someel ect
ronsacqui re
suf f
icient ki
netic energy f rom t he UV and ar e Ift he el
ectroscope i s uncharged,itsl eafr i
ses
dislodged f r
om t he surface. The el ectrons ar e steadil
yshowi ng thatitisbei ng char ged.When
attractedtopl ateB.Theel ect r
onscompl etethegap testeditisfoundt obeposi tiv
elychar ged.Thisis
bet ween thepl atesallowing currenttof l
ow i nt he because;electronsar eremov edfrom thezi ncpl
ate
ci
r cuithencedeflecti
onont hegal v
anomet er. whichinturnat t
ractselect
ronsf r
om thel eafofthe
electr
oscopel eavingitwithpositi
vechar ges.

Def
ini
ti
onoft
erms 6×10-19J
1eV=1.

1.Thr
eshol
dfr
equency
,fo

Minimum f requencyofar adiati

onf orwhi chcan Exampl es
cause el ectron(s) t o di slodge f r
om a met al
surf
ace. 1. Calcul
at et he energy of a photon of frequency
5.0×1014Hzin:
Whenv isibl
el ightisincidentont hefreshlycleaned
zi
nc pl ate,t he l eaf of a negat i
v el
y char ged (i
) Joules
el
ectroscope does notdecr ease in di ver
gence.
Thisshowst hatv i
siblelightdoesnothav eenough (i
i) Electr
onvolt
s
energyt odislodgeel ectronsf r
om thesur f
aceof
2. Thewav elengthoforangeli
ghtis625nm. cal
culatethe
zi
nc pl ate.Forany gi ven sur f
ace t herei sa
energyofaphot onemi tt
edbyor angeli
ghtinel ect
ron
minimum f requencyofr adi ati
onbel ow whi chno
vol
ts.
photoelectr
icemi ssionoccur s.Thi sf r
equencyi s
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l
.com 232
cal
l
edt
hreshol
dfr
equency
,f0
Ei
nstein’sEquat i
onofPhot oelectr
icEf fect
.
 When a phot o stri
kes an el ectron al
lits energyis
2.Wor kfunction,Wo - the mi ni
mum amountof absor bedbyt heelect r
onandsomeener gyisusedt o
energyneededt ocompl etelyremove( di
slodge)an dislodget heel ect
ronwhi lether estbecomet hekineti
c
electr
on f r
om t he surface of a met al. Work ener gyoft heelectr
on.i.e.
functi
onv ari
esf rom onemet altoanother.Unitf
or
Energyofphot on=( Energyneededt odisl
odgeanelectr
on
wor kfuncti
onisel ectr
on-v ol
t(eV)orjoule(J)Note: fr
om t he metalsurface)+ (maximum K. E gai
ned bythe
-
19
1eV=1. 6x10 J el
ect ron)

3.Threshold wavel
engt
h,λo – i
st hemaximum  Ifthefrequency(f
)onanyr adi
ati
onisl essthanfo,t
he
wavel
ength bey ond which no phot oel
ect
ri
c energywi l
lbelesst hatWoandthereforenoemi ssi
on
emi
ssionwi l
loccur. willoccur.I
fthefrequency(
f)i
sgreatert hanfot
henhf
> Woandexcessener gyi
suti
li
zedasK. Eofemitt
ed
Li
ghtener gyandt hequantum theory
. electr
ons.
I
n1901, MaxPl anck,a sci
ent
istcameupwi t
ht he  Thus,hf=wO +Mev2
wher
eMei smassofel
ect
ronand
i
dea t hatlightener gy i
s propagat
ed in small
packetsofener gy.Eachpacketiscal
ledquantum V- Velocit
y of emi t
ted el
ect
ron. Thi
s i
s Einst
ein’
s
(quanta-
plur
al).Inli
ghtthi
senergypacketi
scalled phot
oel
ectr
icequat
ion.
photons.
2
hf=hf +½Mev
Ener
gypossessedbyaphotoni
spr
opor
ti
onalt
o O

thef
requencyoft
her
adi
ati
on. hc 2
E=hf hf= +½Mev
⋋o

Wheref i sthef r
equencyofradi
ati
onandhi
s Exampl e:
Pl
ank’
sconstant=6.63x10-34Js
1. The mi ni
mum f r
equency of light t
hat wil
lcause
c photoelect
ric emission from potassium sur
face i
s 5.37
I
ngeneralwaveequati
onc=f λorf=
λ x1014 Hz.Whent hesurfaceisi r
radiat
edusingacer t
ain
sourcephot oelectronsareemittedwi thaspeedof7. 9x
c 105ms-1calcul
at e
Ther
efor
eE=h
λ
(
a)Wor
kfunct
ionofpot
assi
um.
Si
ncehandcar econstants,awav
ewi
thl
arger
wavel
engt
hhasl
essener
gy . (
b)Maxi
mum K.
Eoft
hephot
oel
ect
rons.

(
c)Thef
requencyoft
hesour
ceofi
rr
adi
ati
on
1. Electr
on-
vol
ts-i
st heworkdoneofener gy
gained by an elect
ron when itmov es sol
uti
on
throughapotenti
aldi
ffer
enceof1vol
ts.
(
a)Wo =hf
o
wor
kdone=QV
63x10-34Jsx5.
= 6. 37x1014S-1
Wor
kdone=eVForanel
ect
ron
56x10-19J
=3.
6×10-19C×1V
=1.
(
b) Emaximum =½MeV2
K.
6×10-19J
=1.
11x10-31 x( 9x105)
2
=½9. 7.

85x10-19J
=2.

(
c)hf=Wo +K.
Emaximum Ener
gyr
adi
ati
on/
frequencyofr
adi
ati
onused.

56x10-19 + 2.
hf =3. 84x10-19 Frequency of the radi
ati
on and the energy of t
he
photoelect
ronscanbeexaminedusi
ngthefol
lowi
ngcir
cuit

Nov
els,
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edI
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,
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mar
yNot
es 0705525657 Page57of57
 232
-
19
4x10
hf =6. andt hefrequency(wavel
ength)isvari
edusingdifferent
col
ourfil
tersplacedi
nthepathofthesourceofwhit
el i
ght.
4x10-19
6. Foreachcolour,Jismovedunti
lnocur
rentisr
egi
ster
ed.
f=
63x10-34
6.

65x1014Hz
f=9.

2. Sodi
um has wor
k f
unct
ion of
2.3eV.
Cal
culat
e:

(
i) I
tst
hreshol
dfr
equency
.

(
ii
) The maxi mum v el oci t
y of t he
photoel ectron pr oduced when i ts
surface i si ll
umi nated by l ght of Not
i et hat,thebat t
er yisconnect edi nsuchawayt hatit
wav elengt h5. 0×10-7m.det ermine t he opposest heej ecti
onoft hephot oelectronsbyat tracting
stoppingpot entialoft hisener gy. them back t ot he cat hode.The v olt
met errecords t he
stoppingpot enti
al f
oragi venf r
equency .
3. Whenl ightofwav elength1. 0μm i sirr
adiated
onto a met al,itej ectsan el ectron with a Fr om Einstei
n’sphot oel ectricequation,
velocit
yof3. 0×105m/ s.calcual atet he: 2
hf=WO +½Mev
(
i) Wor kf unct i
onoft hemet al.
⇒hf=WO +ev s
(
ii
) Threshol df requencyoft hemet al
Iffrequencyi si ncreasebutwor kf unctionheldconst ant
,
4. Themi nimum f requencyofl ightwhi chwi l
lt henthest oppingpot entialincr
eases.
causephot oelect ricemi ssionf r
om amet al
surface is 5. 0×1014Hz.i ft he sur face is Thet ablebelowshowssomecol our sandt heirf
requenci es
i
ll
umi nated by li
ght of fr
equencandst
y oppingpot entials.
6.5×1014Hz,calcul ate: 14
Col
our Fr
equencyf(x10 Hz) (
Stoppi
ngpot
ent
ial
Vs)
(
i) The work f
unct
ion of t
he met
al
sur
face. Vi
olet 7.
5 1.
2

Bl
ue 6.
7 0.
88
(
ii
) The maxi
mum K. E.(
in e.
v)oft
he
el
ect
ronemit
ted. Gr
een 6.
0 0.
60
(
ii
i) Themaxi
mum speedoft
heel
ect
rons Yel
l
ow 5.
2 0.
28

Fact
orsAf
fect
ingPhot
oel
ect
ri
cEf
fect Or
ange 4.
8 0.
12
Note:Thr
eef
act
orsdeter
minet
heemissionsof
el
ectr
onsonmet
alsur
facesbyi
nci
dentradiat
ion Forf
urtherl
ear
ning,seet
heat
tachedl
eaf
lett
aken
ar
e: fr
om KLBPG158- 59.
(
i) I
ntensi
tyoft
her
adi
ati
on. Ty
peofmet
al/
wor
kfunct
ionoft
hemet
al
(
ii
) Ener
gyoft
her
adi
ati
on Eachmet alhasi tsownthreshol
df r
equencybelow which
NOphot oemi ssi
ontakespl
ace,nomat terhow i
ntensethe
(
ii
i) Ty
peofmet
al. radiat
ionis.Atconstanti
nci
dentenergy,
iftheworkfunct
ion
oft hemet alishigh,t
henthekinet
icenergyoftheemi t
ted
I
ntensi
tyofr
adi
ati
onused.
electr
onsi slow.
Thisistherat
eofenergyf
low perunitar
eawhen
theradi
ati
onisper
pendi
cul
art
ot hearea.i
.e.

I
ntensi
ty= → I=

but =Pt
hus I
ntensi
ty,
I=
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l
.com 232
Whent hei ntensi
tyoft her adiati
onisincreased
and t he distance between t he source and the
surface i s decr eased, t he number of
photoelectronsemi ttedi ncreases.Ther
efore,the
numberofphot oelectr
ons pr oduced i
s directl
y
propor t
ionaltotheintensityoftheradi
ati
on.

Exampl
es

1. Inanexper
imentt
ofi
ndtherel
ati
onshipbetweenfr
equencyofradiat
ionandt
heki
net
icener
gyof
phot
oel
ect
ronsi
naphotoel
ect
ri
cdevi
ce,thefol
l
owingresul
tswereobtai
ned.

Fr
equency 7.
4 6.
8 6.
1 5.
3 4.
7

St
oppi
ngpot
ent
ial
(Vs) 1.
7 1.
6 1.
26 0.
8 0.
74

Onagr
aphpaperpl
otagr
aphofst
oppi
ngpot
ent
ial
(Vs)agai
nstf
requency(
Hz)

Fr
om t
hegr
aphf
ind;

(
i) Thet
hreshol
dfr
equency
.

(
ii
) Thepl
anksconst
ant(
h)

(
ii
i) Thewor
kfunct
ionoft
hemet
ali
nJoul
es

2. (
a)Def
inet
hreshol
dwav
elengt
h

(
b)Thet abl
ebelow showsthesoppingvolt
age,Vs,f
oramet
alsur
facewheni
l
lumi
nat
edwi
thl
i
ghtof
di
ffer
entwavel
engt
h,ofconst
anti
ntensi
ty.

(
x10-7m) 3.
00 3.
33 3.
75 4.
29 5.
00

Vs(
V) 2.
04 1.
60 1.
20 0.
78 0.
36

(
i)Pl
otasui
tabl
egr
aphofK.
Eagai
nstf
requency
.

(
ii
)Fr
om t
hegr
aphdet
ermi
ne

(
a)Pl
anck’
sconst
ant

(
b)Thr
eshol
dfr
equency

(
c)Wor
kfunct
ionf
ort
hemet
alsur
face

3. I
nter
prett
hef
oll
owi
nggr
aphs;

Agr
aphofi
nci
dentf
requencyagai
nstt
heki
net
icener
gyoft
hephot
oel
ect
rons

1
Agr
aphof ki
net
icener
gyofemi
tt
edel
ect
rons.
wav
elengt
h

Nov
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edI
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es 0705525657 Page59of59
 232

(
b)Phot
ovol
tai
ccel
l
Appl
icat
ionofPhot
oel
ect
ri
cEf
fect
.
(
a)Phot
o-emi
ssi
vecel
l
. I
tproducescur
rentasaresul
tophot
oelect
ri
cef
fect
.
I
tconsist
sofacopperoxi
deandcopperbar
I
thast
hecat
hodeandt
heanode.

Whenlightf
all
sont hecat
hode,phot
oel
ect
ronsare
emit
tedandattr
act
edbytheanodecausi
ngacurr
ent
tof
lowinagivenci
rcui
t

Thecel
l
sar
eusedi
n:

(i
)Countingv
ehi
clesori
temsonaconv
eyorbel
tin
f
actor
ies

When l i
ght st
ri
kes the copper oxi
de surf
aces,
el
ectronsareknockedoff
.Copperoxi debecomes
negati
velychar
gedandcopperposi ti
vel
ycharged.
Thisall
owscurr
enttof
low.

c)
( Phot
oconduct
ivecel
lorl
i
ght
-dependentr
esi
stor
(
LDR).

Itis made of a semi

conduct
ormat
eri
alcal
l
ed
cadmium sul
phi
de.

(
ii
)Bur
glaral
arms

(
ii
i)Openi
ngdoor
s.

Photoemissi
vecel
lcanal
sobeusedt
orepr
oduce
soundfr
om fi
l
m.

Inexciterl
ampf ocusesli
ghtthroughsoundt rack
al
ongt hesi
deofmov i
ngfil
m ontoaphotocell
. Li
ghtenergyr educestheresi
stanceofthecellfr
om
10MΩt o1kΩi nbri
ghtli
ght.Photonl
etstheelect
rons
Li
ghtpassingtot hecell
.Thecel lcreat
esv ar
ying fr
ee incr
easing conducti
on.Theyar e used i
nf i
re
curr
ent inline wit
h current obt
ained fr
om t he al
armsandexposur emetersofcameras.
microphonewhent hefil
m wasmade.Var yingp. d
Otherphotoelectr
icdevi
cesarethesolarcel
landthe
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l
.com 232
acrossther
esi
stori
sampl
i
fied and conv
ert
ed t
o phot
odi
ode.
sound.

Chapt
erTen RADI
OACTI
VITY

Byt
heendoft
hist
opi
cthel
ear
nershoul
dbeabl
eto: Cont
ent

a) Defineradioact i
vedecayandhal fl
ife  Radi
oact
ivedecay
b) Describethet hreet y
pesofr adiat
ionsemi tt
ed
i
nnat uralradioact i
vit
y  Hal
f-
li
fe.
c) Explai
nt hedet ectionofradioact i
veemi ssi
on
d) Definenuclearf issionandf usion  Types of radi
ati
ons pr
oper
ti
es of
e) Wr i
tebalancednucl earequation radi
ati
ons.
f) Explai
nt hedanger sofradioact i
veemi ssi
on
g) Statetheappl icationofradioactivi
ty  Det
ect
orsofr
adi
ati
on.
h) Solvenumer icalpr oblemsinv olvi
nghal fl
if
e
 Nucl
earf
issi
on,
nucl
earf
usi
on.

 Nucl
earequat
ions.

 Hazar
dsofr
adi
oact
ivi
ty,
precaut
ions.

 Appl
i
cat
ions.

 Probl
emsonhal
f–l
i
fe(
int
egr
ati
onnot
requi
red)

Radioact i
v i
tyi st he di sintegrati
on of an unst able Radioact ivedecay
nucleuswi themi ssionofr adiationi nordertoat tain
stabil
ity.  Pr ocessbywhi char adioact i
v enuclideundergoes
disintegration to emi ta r adiation.The emi tt
ed
Structureoft heat om radiationscanbeal phapar ti
cles,betapar t
icl
es
andt hisisaccompani edbyr eleaseofener gyin
 Consi sts of a t i
ny nucl eus and ener gy form ofgammar adiations.
l
ev el
s( shell
s).Thenucl eusi sv erysmallinsize,as
compar ed tot heov erallsizeoft heatom.The Ty pesofRadi oactiveDecay
nucleus cont ains pr otons and neut r
ons. The
numberofel ect ronsi nt heshel lsisequaltot he AlphaDecay–i srepresentedby4 2
Heanddenot edby⍺
numberofpr otonsi nthenucl eusmaki ngtheat om
el
ect r
icallyneut ral.  I ft he nucl ide decay s by r elease ofan al pha
par t
icle,t
hemassnumberdecr easesby4andt he
Theat omi cnumber atomi cnumberdecr easesby2.Thi sisexpressed
as;
 Thenumberofpr otonsint henucl eusofanatom.
A
Z
X → A -
4
Z-
2
Y + 4 2
He
Mass( nucleon)number
(
Par ent (daughter (alpha
 Thesum ofpr ot onsandneut ronsi nthenucl
eusof
anat om. Nuclide) nuclide) particl
e)
I
sot
opes Ur
ani
um,f
orexampl
e,decay
sbyemi
tt
inganal
phat
o

Nov
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 232
 Atomsoft hesameel ementthathav et
hesame becomet hor
ium.Thedecayisexpressedas;
atomicnumberbutdi
ffer
entmassnumbers.
238
92
U→2934
0
Th + 4 2
He
Nucli
de
Simi l
arly,pol
onium under
goesalphadecaytobecome
A group ofatoms thathavet he same at
omi
c lead.
numbersandthesamemassnumber s.
210
84
Po→2806
2
Pb + 4 2
He
NuclearSt
abi
li
ty
Bet
aDecay -
repr
esentedby-0eanddenotedbyβ
 Stablenucl
ideshav eapr otont oneutronr ati
oof 1

about1:1.Howev er,asatomsgetheav i
er,thereis
 I fthenucli
dedecay sbyr el
easeofa( β-
parti
cle,
amar keddeviationf r
om thisratio,
withthenumber
the mass numberr emai
ns the same butt he
ofneut r
onsf arsuper seding thatofpr otons.I n
atomicnumberi ncr
easesby1.Thisisexpressed
such cir
cumst ances,t henucl eusi slikelyt o be
as;
unstabl
e.Whent hi
shappens,t henucl eusisl i
kely
todisi
ntegr
atei nanat temptt oachievestabili
ty. A
X→Z+AY + -0 e
Z 1 1

(
Par
ent (
daught
er (
bet
a

nucl
i
de) nucl
i
de) par
ti
cl
e)

 Radioact
ivesodi
um,f
orexampl
eunder
goesbeta
decaytobecomemagnesi
um.Thi
siswr
it
tenas;
24 0
11
Na→24
12
Mg + e
-
1

GammaRadi
ati
on-
isdenot
edbyγ Exampl
e3
238
 Somenucl i
desmi ghtbeinanexcitedstateand Uranium –238( 92
U) undergoesdecaytobecome
toachiev
estabil
ity
,theymayemitenergyinfor
m lead- 206
P
206 (82 )b .Find t
he numberof∝ and β-
ofgamma r adiati
on,wit
houtpr oduci
ng new par ti
clesemittedinthepr
ocess.
i
sotopes.Forexample:
Soluti
on
(i
)Cobal t-
60;
60 Letthenumberof∝andβ- par
ti
clesemit
tedbexand
27
Co→6 0
27
Co + γ yrespecti
vely.
238
92
U→28
06
2
4
Pb + X(
2
He)+y(
-
0
1
e)
(
ii
)Thor
ium-
230; 238=206+4x
230 230
90
Th→ Th
90
+ γ 4x=32

Exampl
e1 x=8

Thorium-230 [ 230
90
Th]under
goesdecayto become Al
so;
222
Radon- 222 86Rn Findthenumberofal
phaparti
cl
es 92=82+2x-y
emitted.
92=82+16-y
Soluti
on
92=98-y
Letthenumberofal phapart
icl
esemi
tt
edbex.The
expressionforthedecayis; y=6
230 4
Th→22
90
2
86
Rn +X(
2
He) Ei
ght∝ -
par
ti
clesandsi
xβ-
par
ti
cl
esar
eemi
tt
ed.
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l
.com 232
Thus; Exampl
e4
234 218
4x+222=230 2x+86=90 Urani
um 234( 92
U)decaystopoloni
um (84
Po) by
emitt
ing al
pha par ti
cles.Writ
e down t
he nuclear
4x=8 or 2x=4 equati
onrepresentingthedecay.
x=2 x=2 Sol
uti
on
Twoal
phapar
ti
clesar
eemi
tt
ed. Lett
henumberofal
phapar
ti
cles(
hel
i
um)bex.
Exampl
e2 234
U→28
18 4
Po + x(He)
92 4 2
214 214
Lead-214( Pb)decaystopol
oni
um-214( Po)by
82 84 234=218+4x
emitti
ng β-par t
icl
es.Cal
cul
atethe numberofβ-
part
iclesemitted. 16=4x
Sol
uti
on x=4
Letxbet
henumberofβ-
par
ti
cl
esemi
tt
ed. Thedecayequat
ioni
s,t
her
efor
e;
214 0
Pb→21
82
4
84
Po + x(
-1
e) 234
U→28
18 4
Po + 4(He)
92 4 2

82=84-x

x=2

Twoβ-
par
ti
clesar
eemi
tt
ed.

Nov
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,
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es 0705525657 Page63of63
 232
Pr
oper
ti
esofemi
tt
edr
adi
ati
ons

Al
phapar
ti
cles

(
i) Ar
e posi
ti
vel
y char
ged hence defl
ect
ed by
el
ect
ri
candmagnet
icfi
elds.(
Seedi
agr
am).

(
ii
)They hav
el ow penetr
ati
ng power buthi
gh
i
oni
zi
ngeff
ectbecauset
heyar
eheavyandsl
ow.

(
ii
i)Theyloseener
gyr
api
dlyandsohav
ever
yshor
t
range.

(
iv)Canbest
oppedbyat
hinsheetofpaper
.

(
v) Theyaf
fectphot
ogr
aphi
cpl
ates

Bet
apar
ti
cles

(
i) Hav
enomassandar
erepr edby-0
esent 1
e.

(
ii
)Arenegati
vel
ychar
gedhencedef
lectedbybot
h
el
ect
ri
candmagnet
icf
iel
ds.(
seediagram)
.

(
ii
i)Have mor e penetr
ating power t
han al
pha
par
ti
clesbutl
owerionizingef
fect
.

(
iv)Penet
rate a sheetofpaperbutst
opped by
al
uminium f
oil
.

Gammar
ays

(
i) Hi
ghener
get
icel
ect
romagnet
icr
adi
ati
on.

(
ii
)Hav enomassandnochargehencecannotbe
def
lect
edbyel
ect
ri
candmagnet
icf
iel
ds.

(
ii
i)Hav
ev eryhi
ghpenet
rat
ingpowerandv
eryl
ow
i
oni
zingpower.

(
iv)Can penet
ratethrough a sheetofpaperand
al
uminium sheet
sbutst oppedbyathickbl
ock
ofl
ead.

Summar
y

Note:The mai n diff

erence between X-rays and
gamma r aysi sthatgamma r ays or
igi
natef r
om
energychangesinthenucleusofatomswhi leX-
rays
ori
ginat
ef rom energy changes associated with
el
ectronstr
uctur
eofatoms.
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l
.com 232

Radi
ati
onDet
ect
ors Di
ff
usi
onCl
oudChamber

Met
hodsOfDet
ect
ingNucl
earRadi
ati
ons

The methods of det

ect
ion r
ely on t
he i
oni
zi
ng
proper
ty.

1.Phot
ogr
aphi
cEmul
sions

Allthethr eeradiati
onsaffectphotographi cemul si
on
orpl ate.Phot ographi
cf ilms arev ery usefult o
workers who handl er adioact
ive mat erial
s.These
workersar egiv enspecialbadgeswhi chcont aina
smal lpi ece ofunexposed phot ographicf il
m.I f,
duringt het i
mei thadbeenwor n,thewor kerwas
exposed t o r adiati
ons, i t should dar ken on
development , i mplyi
ng t hat f urther saf et
y Funct i
onsofthecomponentsofdif
fusi
onchamber
precautionsshoul dbetaken.
Dryice:cool
stheblackenedsur
facemakingtheai
r
2.CloudChamber atthelowersur
faceofthechambercool
.
When ai ri s cool ed unt i
lt he v apouri tcont ains Sponge:i tensurest hatthedr yiceisi ncont actwi th
reachessat uration,itispossi blet ocooli tf urther thebl ackenedsur face
without condensat i
on occur ring. Under t hese
conditi
ons,thev apouri ssaidt obesuper saturated. Wedges:i tkeeps t he chamber i n a hor izont al
Thiscanonl yoccuri ft heai risf r
eeofanydust , posi ti
on.
whichnor mal lyact sasnucl eionwhi cht hev apour
cancondenset of orm dr oplets.Gaseousi onscan Li ghtsour ce:ill
umi natest het racksmaki ng t hem
alsoactasnucl eiforcondensat i
on.Thei onizationof cl ear l
yv i
sibl
e.
airmoleculesbyr adiati
onsisi nvestigatedbyacl oud
chamber , Blackenedsur face:pr ovidesbet terv isi
bil
it
yoft he
tracksf ormed.
Thecommont ypesofcl oudchamber sar eexpansi on
cloudchamberanddi f
fusioncl oudchamber .Inbot h Pr i
ncipleofoper ati
on
types,satur
at edv apour( wateroral cohol)i smadet o
condenseonai rionscausedbyr adiations.Whi tish Theal cohol fr
om thef eltri
ngv aporizesanddi f f
uses
l
inesoft i
nyl iquiddr opsshow upast rackswhen tow a r
ds the black surface. T he radioact ive
i
lluminated. subst anceemi tsr adiati
onswhi ch ionizest heai r.
The v apor i
zed alcoholcondenses on t he i ons
ExpansionCl oudChamber formi ng tracks.Thet r
acksar ewel ldef i
ned ifan
elect r
icf i
eldi screat ed byf requent l
yr ubbing t he
Per spexl i
doft hechamberwi t
hapi eceofcl oth.The
tracksobt ai
nedi nt heabov ecloudchamber sv ar y
accor ding t ot he t ype of r adiation.Al coholi s
pref err
ed because i tis highlyv olati
le and hence
ev aporateseasl y
.

Whenaradioacti
veel
ementemit
sradi
ati
onsi
ntot
he
chamber
,theairi
nsi
deisi
oni
zed.

Ift
hepist
onisnowmov eddownsuddenl
y,ai
rint
he
chamberwil
lexpandandcool
ingoccur
s.

Whent
hishappens,thei
onsf or
medactasnucleion
whi
ch the satur
ated alcohol or wat
er vapour

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 232
condenses, for
ming t racks. The shape and
appearance ofthe t
rack wi l
lwhich t
ype oft
he
part
icl
eshavebeenemitted.

The tr
acks due to al
pha parti
cl
es ar
e shor
t,
st
rai
ghtandthi
ck.Thi
sisbecause:

(
i)Al
phapart
icl
escauseheav
yi oni
zat
ion,r
api
dly
l
osi
ngener
gy,hencet
hei
rshor
trange.

(
ii
) They ar
e massive and t
heirpath cannot
t
heref
orebechangedbyairmol
ecul
es.

(i
i
i)Alphapar
ti
cl
escausemor eionsont
hei
rpat
hs
astheyknockoffmor
eelect
rons,see

Thet r
acksformedbybet apar t
icl
esaregenerall
y
thi
nandi r
regulari
ndirect
ion.Thisisbecausebeta
part
icl
es,being light
erand f aster
,cause less
i
onizati
on of ai r molecules. In addi
ti
on,t he
part
icl
esarer epel
ledbyelectronsofatomswi t
hin
thei
rpath.

Gammar
ayspr
oducescant
ydi
sj
oint
edt
racks,

Gei
ger
-Mul
l
erTube

TheGei
ger
-Mul
l
er(
G-M)t
ubei
sat
ypeofi
oni
zat
ionchamber
.
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l
.com 232

Thet hi
nmi cawi ndow al l
owspassageofr adiati
ons Backgr
oundRadi
ati
on
theseradiati
onsionizest heargongasi nsidet het ube.
Theelectr
onsar eat tr
actedt otheanodeast heposi t
ive  Radiati
onsthatareregisteredorobservedin
i
ons mov es towar ds t he cat hode.Mor ei ons ar e theabsenceofar adi
oacti
v esour
ce.
Thecount
produced as coll
isions cont i
nue.Smal lcur rents ar e regi
steredintheabsenceoft heradioacti
ve
producedwhi chareampl ifi
edandpassedt ot hescal er sourceiscal
ledbackgroundcount.
connectedt othet ube.Thepr esenceofsmal lamount
ofhalogeni nthet ubei st ohelpabsor bingt heki netic  sources of t
hese backgr
ounds r
adi
ati
on
energyoft hepositiveionst or educefur t
herioni sati
on i
nclude:
and enhance quickr eturnt o nor mal
.Thi si s call
ed
quenching the tube i .
e.Br omi ne gas act s as a (
i)Cosmi
cray
sfr
om out
erspace.
quenchingagent.
(
ii
)Radi
ati
onsf
rom t
hesun.
Thegol
dleafel
ect
roscope
(
ii
i) Some r ocks which contai
n traces of
A char ged electroscope l oses i ts char ge i n the r
ad i
oact
ivemater
ial
,e.
g.,
g r
ani
te,
presence ofa r adioacti
v e sour ce.The r adioacti
ve
(
iv)Nat
uralandart
if
ici
alr
adioi
sot
opes.
sour ceionizestheairar oundt heel ectroscope.Ionson
theopposi techarget ot hatoft heel ectroscopear e
attr
act ed tot he cap and ev entually neutral
ize the
char geoft heelectr
oscope.Asadet ectorachar ged
electroscope is notsui tablef ordet ecti
ng bet a and
gammar adiat
ionsbecauset heirionizingeffectinairis
not suf fi
cientl
yi ntense so t he l eaf may not f all
noticeably.

I
nexper
iment
s,t
heav
eragebackgr
oundcountr
ateshoul
dber
ecor
dedbef
oreandaf
tert
heexper
imentsuch
t
hat
:

cor
rectcountr
ate=countr
ate-
backgr
oundr
adi
ati
onsr
egi
ster
ed

Ar
ti
fi
cial
Radi
oact
ivi
ty Hal
f-
li
fe

Some nat urall

y occurri
ng nucli
des can be made  The ti
me t aken f
orhal fthe numbers of
art
if
ici
all
y r adi
oact
ive by bombar di
ng them with nucl
i
des initi
all
y present i
nar adi
oact
ive
neutr
ons,protonsoralphapar
ti
cles. sampletodecay.
14
Forexampl e,whenni trogen-
-14(7
U)nucl
ide,whichi s  Hal f-
li
fe ofa radi
oact
ive subst
ance can be
stable,isbombar dedwithfastmov i
ngalphaparticl
es, det
e r
mi nedusi
ngthefol
lowingme t
hods:
radioactiveox ygenisf
ormed.Thisisrepr
esentedby ;
Decayseri
es
4 14 17 1
He+ 7U→ 8O+1H
2
Decayformula
Other arti
fi
ci
all
yr adioact
ive nucl
ides are si
l
icon-
27 T

()
1t
27 35 36
( S i
),sul
phur-
35( S)andchlor
ine-
3 6( Cl
)
14 16 17 N=N0
2
DecayLaw
wher
e,
St
atest
hatt
her
ateofdi
sint
egr
ati
onatagi
vent
imei
s

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,
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 232
di
rectl
yproport
ionalt
othenumberofnucl
i
despr
esent N=or
igi
nalcountr
ate
atthatt
ime.Thi
scanbeexpressedas;
No=Remai
ningcountr
ate
dN
∝ -N,wher
eNi st
henumberofnucl
i
despr
esent
dt T=t
otal
timeofdecay
atagi
vent
ime.I
tfol
l
owsthat
;
t=hal
f-l
i
fe
dN
=-λN,wher
eλi
saconst
antknownast
hedecay
dt
const
ant.

Thenegat
ivesignshowst
hatt
henumberNdecr
eases
asti
meincreases.

dN
isr
efer
redt
oast
heact
ivi
tyoft
hesampl
e.
dt

(
ii
i)Det
ect
ingPi
peBur
sts

Fr
om agr
aph Under gr
oundpi pescar r
y i
ngwateroroi lmanysuffer
burstsorl eakages.Ifthewat eroroilismixedwi th
radi
oact i
vesubst ancesf r
om t
hesour ce,themixture
willseepoutwher ethereisanopening.Ifadetector
i
s passed on t he ground near t he area,t he
radi
at i
onswi l
lbedet ected.

(
iv)Det
ermi
ningThi
cknessofMet
alFoi
l

I
ni ndustr
ieswhi ch manufacturethin met alfoi
ls,
paperand plastics,r
adioact
iver adiat
ionscanbe
used to det er
mi ne and mai nt
aint he r equir
ed
thi
ckness.Ifabet asource,forexampl e,isplaced
ononesi deoft hefoilandG- Mt ubeont heother,
thecountratewillbeameasur eoft hethicknessof
themetalfoi
l.

Appl
i
cat
ionsofRadi
oact
ivi
ty

(
i) Car
bonDat
ing

Livi
ng or ganisms t ake i n smal l quant it
ies of
radioactive carbon-14,i n addit
ion tot he or di
nary
Carbon- 12.Ther atioofcar bon-
12t ocar bon-14i nthe
organisms r emai ns fairl
yconst ant.The count -r
ate
cangi vethisv al
ue. At hi
cknessgaugecanbeadapt edf oraut omat i
c
controlofthemanuf acturingprocess.
Whent heor ganismsdi e,thereisnomor eintakesof
carbonandt hereforet her at
iochangesduet ot he (
v )TraceElements
decay ofcar bon-14.The count -
rat
e ofcar bon-14
thereforedeclineswi thtime.Thenewr atioofcar bon- Themov ementoft r
acesofaweakr adioi
sotope
12t ocar bon-14ist henusedt odet er
mi netheagef or i
ntroduced i nto an organi sm can be moni tored
thef ossil
. usi
ng a r adiati
on det ector.I n agricult
ure,t hi
s
method i s applied t
o st udyt he plantupt ake of
fer
til
i
zer sandot herchemi cals.

(
ii
)Medi
cine (
vi)Det
ect
ionofFl
aws
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l
.com 232
Gammar ays,l
i
keX- rays,ar
eusedi nt hecont
rolof Cracks and airspaces i
n welded joint
s can be
cancerousbodygr owths.Ther adiati
onkil
lscancer detected usi
ng gamma r adi
ati
on from cobalt
-60.
cell
swhent hetumourissubjectedt oit
.Gammar ays Thecobal t
-60isplacedononesi deofthejoi
ntand
are also used i n the steri
lizat
ion of medical aphot ographi
cf i
lm ontheot her.Thef i
lm,when
equipment,and forkilli
ng pests ormaki ng t
hem developed,wil
lshowanyweaknessi nthejoi
nt.
ster
ile.

Nucl
earFusi
on

Hazar
dsofRadi
ati
on Experi
mentsshow t hatal otofener gyi srel
eased
whent henucleioflightel ementsfuset oget
herto
Whent hehumanbodyi sexposedt oradi
ation,the for
m aheav i
ernucleus.Thef usi
ngtoget herofnuclei
effectofther adiati
ondependsoni t
snat ure,the toform aheavi
ernucl eusiscall
ednucl earfusi
on.An
doser ecei
vedandt hepar ti
rradiated.Gammar ays exampleofnuclearf usionistheformat ionofalpha
presentthemai nr adiati
onhazar d.Thisi sbecause part
icl
eswhenl i
thi
um f useswithhydrogen;
theypenetr
atedeepl yintothebody ,causingdamage
to bodycellsand t issues.Thismayl ead to skin Nucl
earFi
ssi
on
burnsandbl i
sters,sor esanddel ay edeffectssuch
as cancer ,leukaemi a and her edi t
ary def ects. Itwasdiscoveredthatifanucleusofur ani
um is
Extremelyheavydoses ofr adiati
on mayl ead to bombarded wit
h a neutron,the ur
anium nucl
eus
death. spl
it
sintotwoal mostequalnucl
ei.Whenanucleus
i
s bombarded and i tsplit
s,itis saidto have
under
gonenuclearfi
ssi
onasshownbel ow.

Pr
ecaut
ions 235
U+1
92 0
n→15
38
6
Ba+95
36
Kr+3(
1
0
n)+ener
gy

(
i) Radi
oacti
veelementsshoul
dneverbehel
d Protonsandneut r
ons(nucleons)arekepttoget
herin
wit
hbarehands. the smal lvol
ume oft he nucleus bywhatcal l
ed
binding ener
gy.To spli
tt he nucleus,thi
sbinding
(
ii
) Forcepsorwellprot
ectedt
ongsshoul
dbe energy has to be rel
eased.The ener gy rel
eased
usedwhenhandli
ngthem. duringthespli
tt
ingiscal
lednuclearenergy.
(
ii
i)Forthe safet
y ofthe users,radi
oacti
ve Theemi t
tedneutronsmayencounterotherurani
um
mat
eri
alsshoul
dbekeptinthi
ckleadboxes. nuclides,resul
ti
ng in more spl
it
ti
ng wi t
hf urt
her
r
eleaseofenergy.Theproducedneutr
onsar ecal
led
(
iv)I
n hospit
als and resear
ch l abor
ator
ies,
f
issi
onneutrons.
r
adi
ati
onabsorber
sareused.

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,
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 232

Chapt
erEl
even ELECTRONI
CS

Byt
heendoft
hist
opi
c,t
hel
ear
nershoul
dbeabl
e Cont
ent

a) Stat
et hedi ff
erencebetweenconduct orand  Conduct
ors,
semi
conduct
orsi
nsul
ator
s
i
nsulators
b) Defi
nei ntr
insicandextri
nsicconduct or s  I
ntr
insi
candext
ri
nsi
csemi
-conduct
or
c) Expl
aindopi nginsemi -conductor
d) Expl
aint hewor kingofapinjunctiondi ode  Dopi
ng
e) Sketchcur rentv ol
tagecharacterist
icsf ora
di
ode  P-
njunct
iondi
ode
f) Expl
aint heapplicati
onofdioder ecti
ficati
on
 Appl
i
cati
onofdiodes:hal
fwav
erect
if
icat
ion
andf
ullwav
erecti
fi
cati
on

I
ntr
oduct
ion  Conduct
ionband–f
reeel
ect
rons.

Defi
nit
ion – st
udyofmot
ion off
reeel
ect
ronsi
n  Val
enceband–unf
il
led,
fewel
ect
rons.
el
ectr
icalci
rcui
ts.
 Forbi
ddenband/ ener
gygap–nof or
bidden
Appl
icat
ions– pocketcalcul
ators,clocks,musi
cal band,conduct
ionandv al
encebandov
erlap.
i
nstr
ument s,
radi
os,
TVs,comput ers,
robotset
c.
 Resistance i ncr
eases wi th r i
se i n
Cl
assesofMat
eri
al temper at
ure.Ari
seint emper atur
eincreases
the v ibr
ati
ons of t he at oms and t hi
s
 Conductor
s– hasf reeelect
rons– notti
ghtl
y i
nterfereswiththeelectronf l
ow.Hencet he
bound tot he nucl
eus oft he at
om copper, resi
stance ofa conduct ori ncr
eases wi t
h
al
uminium. temper at
ure.

 I
nsul
ator
s-hav
eimmobi
l
e(f
ixed)el
ect
rons I
nsul
ator
s:-
 Semi-
conduct
ors– wi
thconduct
ing pr
oper
ties
bet
ween conduct
ors and i
nsul
ators si
li
con,
ger
manium.

TheEner
gyBandTheor
y.

 Whentwoormor eatomsarebroughtcl
oserto
eachother
,theener
gylevel
sspli
tintosmall
er
ener
gylevel
scall
edbands.Thi
si sduet othe
i
nter
act
ionofbothelect
ri
candmagnet i
cfiel
ds
ofel
ect
rons
 Conduct
ionband–hasnoel
ect
rons,
empt
y.
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l
.com 232
Ty
pesofbands  Val
enceband–f
il
ledwi
thel
ect
rons.

 Conduct
ionband– elect
ronsarefreetomov
e  For
biddenband–hasv
erywi
degap
undert
heinf
luenceofanel
ectr
iccur
rent
.
 Temperatur
eincr
easehasnoef
fectont
hei
r
 Val
enceband– her
eel
ect
ronsar
enotf
reet
o conduct
ivi
ty.
move.
Semi–conduct
ors:
-
 Forbiddenband/ ener
gyband– representsthe
energy levelthatcannotbe represented by
el
ectrons.Thewi dthoft
hebanddeterminesthe
conductivi
tyofthemater
ial
.

Conduct
ors, i
nsul
ator
s and semi
-conduct
ors i
n
ter
msofenergybandtheor
y

Conduct
ors:
-

 Conduct
ionband–emptyatO.
K.Par
ti
all
yfi
l
led
atr
oom temperat
ure.

 Val
enceband–fi
l
ledatO.
K;f
ullofel
ect
ronsat
ver
ylowt
emperat
ures

 For
biddenband–hav
ever
ynar
rowgap.

  Resi
stancer
educeswi
thr
isei
ntemper
atur
e.

 Increaseintemperat
urei ncreasest hechanceof Ext
ri
nsi
cSemi
-Conduct
ors
electrons movi
ng from t he v al
ence band to
conduct i
onband.Electr
icalr esist
ancetheref
ore Madebyaddi
ng acontrol
l
ed amountofdi
ff
erent
reducesbecausethet otalcur rentfl
owisduet o el
ementt
oani
ntr
insi
csemi-
conduct
or.
thef l
ow ofelect
ronsandhol es.Hav enegati
ve
temper at
urecoef
fi
cientofr esistance. Twot
ypesofext
ri
nsi
csemi
-conduct
ors:
-

Not
e:semi–conduct
ors  N–Typesemi-
conduct
or–f or
medbydopi
nga
gr
oup4el
ementwit
haGr oup5element
.
 Atr oom t emper atur
e:-Has hol es inthe
valence band & f ree el ect
rons in the  P–Ty pesemi-
conduct
or–f ormedbydopi nga
conduct i
onband.AtOK i tbehavesli
kean group4e l
ement wi
thagroup3e l
e ment
.
insulat
or.
 Group 4 elements – Tetraval
ent – Sili
con,
 HOLES:Hol esarecr eat edwhenanel ect
ron germanium,et
c
mov es f r
om v alence band t o conducti
on
band.  Group 5 elements – Pentavalent – dopi
ng
el
ement , donor impuri
ty – phosphor ous,
 Holesar ev eryimpor tantforconductionof anti
mony .
electri
ccurrentinsemi -conduct
ors.
 Group 3 el ements – Tr iv
alent – bor on,
Ty
pesofSemi -Conductors al
umi ni
um andindi
um

I
ntr
insi
csemi
-conduct
ors N-
TypeSemi–Conduct
or

 They are pure semi-

conduct
ors, el
ect
ri
cal  Formed by addi ng a Pent av
alent at om
proper
ti
esofapur
esubst
ance. (Phosphor
us)t o a gr
oup 4 semi-conductor
(Si
li
con)andanext r
aelect
ronislef
tunpai red
 Hasequal
numberofel
ect
ronsandhol
es. andisavai
labl
eforconduct
ion.

 Conducti
vi
ty is v
ery l
ow, i
nsul
ator at l
ow  Majori
tychargecar
ri
ersareel
ect
rons;mi
nor
it
y
temperat
ures. chargecar
rier
sareposi
ti
vehol
es.

Nov
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edI
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,
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 232
 Usual
lynotused i
n a pur
e st
ate e.
g.si
l
icon,  Phosphor
ousi
scall
edaDONORATOM.Si
l
icon
Germani
um hasnowmoreelect
rons

P-
TypeSemi–Conduct
or

Ext
ri
nsi
csemi
-conduct
ors  Formedbyaddingat r
ival
entatom (Boron)t
oa
group4atom (
Sil
icon)
,af our
thelectr
onwi l
lbe
 Wit
haddedimpur
it
iest
oimpr
ovei
tsel
ect
ri
cal unpair
edandagapwi llbelef
tcalledapositi
ve
pr
oper
ti
es. hole.

 Al lsemi -
conductor
sinpr act
icalusehasadded  Pur esemi -conductorisdopedwi thimpuri
tyof
i
mpur i
ties group3el ement;combi nati
oncr eat
esapositi
ve
holewhichaccept sanelectron.
Dopi
ng:-Apr ocessofaddingav er
ysmal lquant
it
y
ofimpurit
iest oapur esemi-conductortoobtaina  The doping mat erialcreates a posi
ti
ve hole,
desi
redproperty. which can accept an el ectr
on – called an
Accept
or .
 Pr ocessofi nt
roduci
ngani mpurit
yatom int
othe
l
atti
ceofapur esemi -
conductor.

Bi
asi
ng

i
)For
war
dBi
as

 Adiodeisf
orwar
dbi
asedwhenthecat
hodei
s
connect
edt
on-si
deandanodet
othep-si
dei
n
acir
cuit
.

 Infor
wardbias,t
hedeplet
ionl
ayeri
snar
rowed
andresi
stancei
sreduced.

 I
tall
owshol
est
ofl
owt
on-
sideandel
ect
ronst
o
p-
side.

P-
NJunct
ionDi
odes(
Junct
ionDi
odes)  Themajor
itychargecar
rier
scr
ossthej
unct
ion.
I
tconduct
scurrentandthebul
bli
ght
s
Def
ini
ti
on

 An el
ect
ronic dev
ice wi
thtwo elect
rodes,whi
ch
al
l
owscurrenttofl
owinonedi
rect
iononly.

 I
tisanel
ect
ri
cal
onewayv
alv
e.I
tisasol
i
ddev
ice.

For
mat
ionofP-
NJunct
ionDi
ode

 Itconsist
sofsuchap- njunct
ionwi t
ht hep-si
de Rev
erseBias
connected t
othe Anode and the n-
side t
ot he
cathode.  Adi odei
sr ev
ersebi
asedwhenthecat
hode
i
sconnectedtop-si
deandanodetothen-
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l
.com 232
 Formedbydopingacr
ystalofpur
esili
consot
hata si
dei
naci
rcui
t.
j
unctioni
sformedbetweent hep-t
ypeandn-ty
pe
regi
ons.  Thecur r
entthroughthedi odeisv i
rt
ual
ly
zero.I
thardl
yconduct s,thebul
bdoesnot
Ci
rcui
tsy
mbol l
ight.El
ectr
onsandhol esarepull
edaway
fr
om thedeplet
ionlay
er ,maki
ngitwi
der.

 Theelectr
onsandhol esar eattr
act edto
opposi
teendsoft hedi odeawayf rom the
j
uncti
on.Thewi derthedepleti
onlay er,t
he
hi
ghertheresi
stanceoft hej
uncti
on.
Depl
eti
onLay
er

 The region bet

ween the p-t
ype and n-
type semi
-
conductorwhichconduct
sv er
ypoorly
.

 Atthejunct
ionel
ectr
onsdi
ff
usef
rom bot
hsi
desand
neutr
ali
zeeachother
.

Junct
ion

 Theplace(boundary
)bet
weent
wodi
ff
erentt
ypesof Char
act
eri
sti
cCurv
esf
orP-
NJunct
ionDi
odes
semi
-conductors.
For
wardbi
asing
 Anarrow depl
eti
onlayeri
ffor
medonei t
hersi
deof
Theci
rcui
tbel
ow showshow t
heconnect
ionsar
e
t
he juncti
on free fr
om charge car
ri
ers & hi
gh
made.
r
esi
stance.

Di
agr
am ofunbi
asedJunct
ionDi
ode

Thechar acter
ist
icgr aphofcur r
ent,Iagainstreverse
biasv oltagei sobtainedasshownbel ow.Thecur veis
non- ohmi c.i
ti s non- li
near. The current increases
exponent i
all
ywi thv ol
tageupt oapointwher eashar p
i
ncr easei ncur r
enti snot i
ced.Thi svol
tagei scal l
ed
threshold/ cut-
in/
breakpoint v ol
tage.At thisv oltage
potent i
alt hebar r
ierisov ercomebybi asandchar ges
Appl
i
cat
ionofzenerDi
odes
easilyflowacr osst hejuncti
on.
 Used i
n indust
ry as vol
tage r
egul
ator
s or
st
abi
li
zer
s,byprovi
dingaconst
antvol
tagetoa
l
oad.

 Vol
tager
emai
nsconst
antascur
renti
ncr
eases.

Appl
i
cat
ionofP-
NJunct
ionDi
odes

a)Topr ot
ectequipment
,ci
rcui
tsordev
icesbya
rev
ersepowersuppl
y.

b)Tor
ect
if
yact
odc

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,
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 232
c)Enabl
ethe Audi
o Fr
equencyener
gycar
ri
erby
modul
atedr
adi
owavestobedetect
ed.
Rev
erseBi
asi
ng
Recti
fi
cati
onandSmoot hing
Inreversebiasing,resist
anceisveryhigh,however,the
fl
ow ofl eakagecur rentresult
sf r
om f l
ow ofmi norit
y A)Defini
ti
on
chargecar ri
ers.Atbr eakdownv ol
tageorZenerbr eak
down cov al
ent bonds r apt
urel i
berat
ing el
ectrons.  Rect i
fi
cati
on ist he pr ocess ofconvert
ing a.
c
Those el ect
rons col l
ide wit
h some at oms causi ng curr
enttod.ccurrent.
i
onisati
ont hisi scal
ledav al
anchebreakdown.Thet wo
processes pr oduce excess el ectr
ons f or heav y  ARect ifi
eri
sadev i
cet hatchangesa.ctod.c.
conduction.Bey ond breakdown volt
age a diode i s
damaged. b)Reasonsforrect
if
ication

TheZenerDi
ode  The conversion of a. c.t o d.c.is oft
en
necessar
yf orallelect
ri
cequi pment,suchas
Def
ini
ti
on radi
os, T.V. set s, comput ers, musical
i
nstruments,e.t
.c,usest eadyd.c.
 AzenerDi odei sasili
conp-nsemi -
conduct or
,
whichisdesi gnedtowor ki nreversebi ased Typesofr
ecti
fi
cati
on
connecti
on.
Ther
earet
wot ypesofrecti
ficat
ion,
namel
y:
-
Pr
inci
pleofoperat
ion
 Half-
wav er
ecti
ficat
ion
 When t he r ever
se-bi
as of t he diode i s
incr
eased,alargesuddenincreaseincurrentis  Full
-waverect
if
icati
on.
obtai
nedatonepar ti
cularr
eversevol
tage.

 Att herever
sev ol
tage,thep-njunct
iondiode
breaks down into a conduct
or,by breaki
ng
downt hebarr
ierl
ayer.

 The br
eakdown oft he p-
njuncti
on di
ode i
s
knownaszenerbreakdownorzeneref
fect
.

 Thecharacter
ist
icisal
mostav ert
icall
i
ne,i
.e.
thezenercurr
ent,
whichoccurasaresul
toft
he
zenervol
tage.

Hal
f-
wav
erect
if
icat
ionandsmoot
hing

 Onedi
odei
susedwhi
chr
emov
est
henegat
ivehal
f-
wav
ecy
cleoft
heappl
i
eda.
c.

 I
tgiv
esav ar
yingbutone-
waydi
rectcur
rentacr
osst
hel
oadR.Ri
sapi
eceofel
ect
roni
cequi
pment
r
equi
ringad.
c.suppl
y.
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l
.com 232
 I
ftheY-i
nputter
minal
sofaCROar
econnect
edf
ir
stacr
osst
hei
nput
,thewav
efor
m ont
hel
eftwi
l
lbe
di
spl
ayedonthescr
een.

 WhenaCROi
sconnect
edacr
ossR,
theout
putwav
efor
misseent
obeposi
ti
vehal
f-
wav
eoft
hea.
c.

 Smoot
hingi
sdoneusi
ngacapaci
torconnect
edacr
ossR,
togi
veamuchst
eadi
erv
ary
ingd.
c.suppl
y.

 Thesmoot hi
ngcapaci
torprov
idesext
rachar
gesot
hatcur
rentf
lowscont
inuousl
yev
enast
hephase
cur
rentchangesandt
hecurr
entgotozero.

 Thel
argert
hecapaci
tor
,thebet
tert
hesmoot
hing.

 Ont heposi
ti
vehal
f-
cycl
eofthea.
c.i
nputt
hedi
odeconduct
s,cur
rentpassest
hroughRandal
soi
ntot
he
capacit
orCtochar
geitup.

 Onthenegat
ivehal
f-
cycl
e,t
hedi
odei
srev
ersi
ngbi
asedandcannotconduct
,butC par
tl
ydi
schar
ges
t
hroughR.

 Thechar
ge-st
ori
ngactionofthecapaci
tor
,Ct
husmai
ntai
nscur
renti
nRandast
eadi
erp.
dacr
ossi
twhen
thedi
odeisnotconducti
ng.

NOTE:-Asi
ngl
edi
odeonl
yal
l
owhal
foft
hea.
c.t
ofl
owt
hrought
hel
oadR,sof
arhal
foft
hepowersuppl
yis
cutof
f.

Ful
l
-wav
eRect
if
icat
ionandsmoot
hing

Ther
ear
etwomet
hodsf
orobt
aini
ngaf
ull
-wav
erect
if
icat
ionnamel
y:
-

 Usi
ngt
wodi
odes–Ful
l
-wav
ecent
re-
tapt
ransf
ormer
.

 Usi
ngf
ourdi
odes–Ful
l
-wav
ebr
idger
ect
if
ier

Usi
ngCent
re-
TapTr
ansf
ormer

 I
naf
ull
-wav
erect
if
ier
,bot
hhal
vesoft
hea.
c.cy
clesar
etr
ansmi
tt
edbuti
nthedi
rect
ion,
i.
e.samesi
de.

OR

Nov
els,
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edI
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KASNEB,
HighSchool
,
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mar
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es 0705525657 Page75of75
 232

 Duri
ngthefi
rsthalf-
cycl
e,whenAispositi
ve,DIconductsthr
ought
hel
oadRatt
hesamet
imeBi
s
negat
ivewi
threspecttoT,sonocur
rentf
lowsinthediodeD2.

 I
nthenexthalf
-cycl
ewhenBi sposi
ti
ve,D2 conduct
sthr
ought
hel
oadRi
nthesamedi
rect
ionas
bef
ore.Ai
sposi
tiv
ewi t
hrespectt
oTsonocur rentf
lowsi
nD1.

Usi
ngt
hebr
idgeRect
if
ier–f
ourdi
odes

 I
nthe1sthal
f-
cycl
e,di
odeD2andD4conduct
s.

 I
nthe2ndhal
f-
cycl
e,di
odeD3andD1conduct
s.

 Dur
ingbot
hcy
cles,
cur
rentpassest
hroughRi
nthesamedi
rect
ion,
giv
ingap.
d.t
hatv
ari
esasshownbyt
he
CRO.

 Whenal
argecapaci
tori
sconnect
edacr
ossR,
theout
putd.
c.i
ssmoot
hedasshown.

 Duri
ngthefi
rsthal
fcycle,poi
ntAi sposi
ti
vewithrespecttoC,di
odeD1andD3aref or
wardbiasedwhil
e
di
odeD2 andD4 arereversebiased.Curr
enttheref
oreflowsthr
oughABDCA.Dur ingthesecondhalf
-
cycl
e,poi
ntAbecomesnegat ivewi t
hrespecttopointC.diodesD2 andD4 becomef or
wardbiased
whil
eD1andD3ar ereversebi
ased.Conventi
onalcurr
entther
efor
eflowsthr
oughCBDAC.

 I
facapaci
tori
sconnect
edacr
osst
her
esi
stor
,ther
ect
if
iedout
puti
ssmoot
hened.

Adv
ant
agesofbr
idger
ect
if
ier

 Asmal
l
ert
ransf
ormercanbeusedbecauset
her
eisnoneedf
orcent
re–t
appi
ng.

 I
tisusedf
orhi
ghv
olt
ager
egul
ati
on.
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l
.com 232

QUESTI
ONS

1. Draw t
hestruct
ureofacryst
all
att
icetoshow 5. What i s meant by t he foll
owing terms:
thear
rangementofel
ect
ronsinf
oll
owing: semiconduct or
, i ntr
insi
c conduction,
extri
nsicconduct i
on,dopi ng,donorat oms,
 Pur
esi
l
icon. acceptorat oms,n- type semiconductor,p-
type,semiconductor,depleti
onlayer
, f
orward
 P-
typesemi
conduct
ors bias,hol
e,reversebiasandZeneref fect?
 N-
typesemi
conduct
ors 6. Expl
ainhow dopingproducesap-
typeand
ann-typesemiconduct
or.
2. Expl
ain how t emperat
ures r
ise af
fect
st he
el
ectr
icalconduct
ivi
tyorpur
esemiconduct
ors. 7. Dist
ingui
sh bet
ween el
ect
roni
cs and
elect
rici
ty.
(a)Draw t
hesy
mbolofap-
ndi
agr
am j
unct
ion
diode. 8. a)Whati
srect
if
icat
ion?
(
b)Useacir
cuitdi
agr
am t
odist
ingui
shbet
ween (
b)Wit
hdiagr
ams,descri
behow hal
f-wav
eand
f
orwardandreser
vebi
asofp-
njunct
iondi
ode. f
ull
-wav
erect
if
icat
ioncanbeachi
eved.
3. (
a)Usealabell
eddiagr
am toexplainhowaf ul
l
v
alverect
if
icat
ionmaybeachi evedbyusinga
r
esist
orand:(i
)Twodiodes. (
ii)Fourdi
odes. 9. Expl
ain why a di
ode conduct
s easi
l
y on
for
wardbiasandnoti
nrever
sebias.
4. Witht he ai
d ofa di agram expl
ain how a
capacit
ycanbeusedt osmoothenaf ul
lwave
whichhasbeenr ecti
fi
ed.Showusingasketch
how thesmoot henedwavewillappearonthe
screenofC.R.
O.

ENDOFSECONDARYSCHOOLSYLLABUS.WI
SHYOUALL
THEBEST.

FORMORESI
MILARRESOURCES

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edI
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 232
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