HEATTRANSFER

Heati st hermal ener gy.I

tcanbet r
ansf er
redfr
om onepl acetoanot herbyconduct i
on,
conv ectionandr adiati
on.Conductingandconv ecti
oninvolveparti
cles,butradiationinv
olves
electromagnet i
cwav es.Thetransferofheatisnormallyfrom ahightemper atureobjecttoa
l
owert emper atureobj ect.HEATt r
ansferchangest heint
ernalenergyofbot hsy stemsinvolv
ed
accor dingtot hef i
rstlawofTher mody namic.I
nt hesimplestofterms, t
hediscipl i
neofheat
transferi sconcer nedwi t
honlyt wothings;t
emper atur
eandt heflowofheat .Temper at
ure
represent stheamountoft her
mal energyav ai
l
able,whereasheatf l
owr epresent sthemov ement
oft hermal energyf rom placetoplace.

I
nami croscopicscal
e,thermalener
gyisrel
atedtothekineti
cenergyofmol ecul
es.Thegr eat
er
amat eri
al’stemperat
ure,thegr
eaterthet
hermal agi
tat
ionofitsconsti
tuentmolecul
es
(manifestedbothinli
nearmot i
onandv i
brat
ionalmodes.)I
tisnaturalf
orregionscontai
ning
great
ermol ecul
arki
nemat i
cenergytopassthisener
gyt oregi
onswi t
hlesskineti
cenergy.

Severalmateri
alproperti
esservetomodifytheheattransferr
edbetweentwor egionsat
di
fferi
ngtemper at
ures.Examplesincl
udethermal conducti
vit
ies,
specif
icheats,materi
al
densit
ies,f
lui
dv el
ocit
ies,fl
uidv
iscosi
ti
es.Surfaceemissivit
yandmor e.Takentogether
,these
propert
iesservetomaket hesoluti
onofmanyheatt r
ansferproblemsandinvolvedprocess.

3.
1HeatTr
ansf
erbyConduct
ion

Heatenergycanmov ethr
oughsubstancebyconduct
ion.MetalsAreGoodconductor
sofheat
,
butnon-metalsandgasesareusual
l
ypoorconductorsofheat.Poorconduct
orsofheatar
e
cal
ledinsul
ator
.Heatenergyi
sconductedfr
om thehotendofanobj ectt
othecol
dend.

Theel ect
ronsinapieceofmet alcanleav et
heiratom andmov eaboutinthemet ali
ons.The
partsofthemet alatomsleftbehindar enowchar gedmet ali
ons.Theionsarepackedcl osely
togetherandtheyv i
brateconti
nually.Thehotterthemet al,t
hemor ekineti
cenergythese
vibr
ationshave.Thiskinet
icenergyist ransf
erredfrom hotpartsofthemet al
tocool erpartsby
thefreeelect
rons.Thesemov ethrought hestr
uctureoft hemet al
,col
l
idingwit
hi onsast heygo.

Consi
derar
ect
angul
arbl
ockoft
hickness,
L,whosef
acesar
eatt
emper
atur
esθ2andθ1.

Fi
g.3.
1Def
ini
ti
onofTher
mal
Conduct
ivi
ty

Thent
het
emper
atur
egr
adi
entov
ert
hel
engt
h,Li
s.

……………….
…….(
3.1)
Wenowconsi deranelementabcdofunitcross-sect
ionarea,
andwedenotebydQ/dttheheat
fl
owingt
hroughitpersecond.ThevalueofdQ/ dtdependsonthetemperat
uregr
adi
ent,and,
si
ncesomesubst ancesarebett
erconductorthanothers,
ital
sodependsonthemater
ialoft
he
bar.Wet
hereforewrit
e.

…….
.…………….
(3.
2)

Whereki safact
orydependingonthemat eri
als.i
tiscal
l
edther
mal conduct
ivi
tyofthemater
ial
concer
ned.From theaboveequati
on(3.2)
, t
her el
ati
ondQ/dt
,whentheheatflowisnormalto
anareainsi
dethemat er
ialmaybedefinedast heheatfl
owpersecondperunitareaperuni
t
temperat
uregradi
ent.

I
fthecr
oss-sect
ionareaoftheel
ementabcdi sAinFi
g.3.
1,i
tst
hicknessi
sl,
andt
he
t
emperat
ureofthefacesarea 2andθ1,thent
herat
eoffl
owofheatis

…………………………….
.(
3.3)

So ………………………………(
3.4)

Heatf
lowpersquar
emet
erpersecond=conduct
ivi
tyxt
emper
atur
egr
adi
ent
.
Uni
tsandmagni
tudeofconduct
ivi
ty

Equat
ion(
3.3)hel
psust
ofi
ndt
heuni
toft
her
mal
conduct
ivi
ty.Wehav
e

K= ………………………(
3.5)

Theuni
tyofdQ/ sJS-1orW,
dti theuni
t sm2,
yofAi theuni
toft
emper
atur
egr
adi
ent
,isKm-1.

sot
heuni
tofKi
s

Thethermal conduct
ivi
tyofcopper
,car
dboar
d,wat
erandai
rar
eroughl
y380,
0.2,
0.6and0.
03
-
1 -1
Wm K r especti
vel
y.

Exampl
e3.
1

Calcul
atethequanti
tyofheatconduct
edt ough2m2ofabr
hr i
ckwall12cm t
hickin1houri
fthe
0 0
temperatur
eononesi dei
s8Candont heothersi
dei
s28C.(Ther
malconductanceoft
hebri
ck
=0.13W m -1K-1)

Temper
atur
egr
adi
ent=

Q=KAtxt
emper
atur
egr
adi
ent

=0.
13x2x3600x =156kJ
3.
2Heatt
ransf
erbyconv
ect
ion

Li
quidsandgasesarefl
uids.Theparti
clesi
nthesefl
uidscanmov efr
om pl
ace.Convecti
on
occurswhenpart
icl
eswithalotofheatenergyinali
quidorgasmov eandt
aketheplace
part
icl
eswithl
essheatenergy.Heatenergyi
stransf
erredf
rom hotpl
acest
ocoolerplacesby
convect
ion.

Li
quidsandgasesexpandwhentheyareheated.Thi
sisbecausetheparti
clesi
nliqui
dsand
gasesmov efast
erwhentheyar
eheatedthantheydowhent heyarecol
d.Asar esult
,the
part
icl
estakeupmorevolume.Thi
sisbecausethegapbetweenpar t
icl
esthemselvesstayst
he
samesize.

Theli
quidorgasi nhotareasisl
essdenset hantheli
quidorgasincol
dareas,
soi
tri
sesint
o
thecol
dar eas.Thedensercoldl
iquidorgasfall
sint
ot hewarm ar
eas.I
nthi
sway,
Convecti
on
curr
ent
st hattransf
erheatfr
om placetoplacearesetup.

Fi
g3.
2conv
ect
ioncur
rent
s

Ther
ear
etwot
ypesofconv
ect
iveheatt
ransf
er

I
. Naturalconvecti
on: Whent hef l
uidmot ioniscausedbybuoy ancyt hatresultfrom the
densityvari
ati
onsduet ovariati
onsoft emper atur
ei nthef l
uid.Forexampl e, inthe
absenceofanext er nalsource,whent hemassoft heflui
disi ncont actwithahot
surf
acei t
smol eculessepar ateandscat tercausingt hemassoff l
uidtobecomel ess
dense.Whent hishappens, t
hef l
uidisdisplacedv ert
icall
yorhor izontall
ywhi lethecooler
fl
uidgetsdenserandt hefluidsinks.Thehot tervolumet ransfersheatt owar dsthe
coolervolumeoft hatflui
d.

I
I. Forcedconvect
ion:
Whenthef
lui
disfor
cedtof l
owov ert
hesur
facebyext
ernal
sour
ce
suchasfansandpumps,cr
eat
inganart
if
ici
all
yinducedconv
ect
ioncurr
ent
.

Ther
ateofconv
ect
iveheatt
ransf
eri
sgi
venby
:

q=hA(Ts―Tb) ………………………(
3.6)
Aisthesurfacear eaofheatt r
ansf .TSi
er sthesurf
acet emperatureandTbi sthet emperat
ure
ofthefl
uidatbul ktemper ature.Howev er,
Tbvari
eswitheachsi tuati
onandi sthetemper at
ureof
thefl
uid‘
‘f
ar’’awayf rom thesur face.Thehistheconstantheatt r
ansfercoeffi
cientwhich
dependsuponphy sicalpropertiesofthefl
uidsuchastemper atureandt hephysicalsi
tuati
onin
whichconvectionoccur s.Ther efore,
theheatt
ransf
erconf i
dentmustbeder iv
edorf ound
experi
mentall
yf orev er
ysy stem analyzed.

ConsiderthelargemassM ofai ratthesurfaceoft heeart

hthati
sshowni nfig.3.1.Theli
nes
l
abeledTO,T1,T2,etcarecall
edisother
msandr epresentt
hetemper at
uredi
str
ibutionoftheair
atti
met .Pointpisont hesurfaceofthesurfaceoft heeart
hthatisatemperatureT0atthetime
t.Thetransf
eroft her
mal energyperunitt
imet othepointPisgivenbyΔQ/ ΔT.Bymul ti
plyi
ng
anddividi
ngbyt hedistanceΔxwecanwr it
et hi
sas

T4 T3 T2 T1 T0

p
v

Fi
g3.
1lar
gemassofai
ratt
hesur
face

…………………(
3.7)

But

Thev
eloci
tyofai
rmov
ingt
owar
dsP.t
her
efor
e,equat
ions(
3.7)become.

………………………………(
3.8)

ButQ,
ont
her
ighthandsi
desi
deofequat
ion(
3.38)canber
epl
acedwi
th

ΔQ=mcΔT ……………….
(3.
9)

Subst
it
uti
ngequat
ion(
3.9)i
nto(
3.8)weget

………………………(
3.10)

Equati
on(3.10)i
sagoodexampleofthediff
erencebetweenheatandt her
malenergy
,HereQis
thether
mal ener
gyandΔQ/Δtbisthethermalenergyperuni
tti
met hatistr
ansf
err
ed,andthi
s
i
swhati scall
edheat
.Hence,
thether
mal ener
gyt r
ansfer
redt
othepoi ntPbyconvect
ion
becomes.

ΔQ=mcv ………………………………(
3.12)
ThetermsΔT/ Δxiscal
ledthetemperat
uresgr
adi
ent,
andtel
lshowt hetemperaturechangesas
mov einthex-
dir
ecti
on.Wewi l
lassumeinthi
sanal
ysi
sthatt
het emperatur
egradienti
s
constant
.From t
heabov eequati
on(3.
11)wecangetener
gytransferperuni
tmassas

……………………(
3.12) I
fthemassoft
heai
rthati
sinmot
ioni
sknown.

Exampl
eofener
gyt
ransf
erperuni
tmass

Thetemperat
uregradi
entoftheairi 00Cper100km andt
s2. hespeci
fi
cheatcapacit
yofai
ris
-
10 -
1
100j
kg C , howmucht her
mal ener
gyperuni
tmassistr
ansfer
redbyconvect
ionin12.
0.Hr.I
f
theai
rismovingataspeedof10.0km/hr?

Theheatt
ransf
err
edperuni
tymassi
sfoundf
rom

6Jkg-1
=2421.

Thedesi
ntyott
hef
lui
dcanbeusedt
orepr
esentt
hemass,
becauset
hedensi
tyρ=m/
v,wher
e
Visthev
olumeoft
heair
,wecanwri
tet
hemassas

m=ρV………………………………….(
3.13)

Ther
efor
e,t
het
her
mal
ener
gyt
ransf
err
edbyconv
ect
iont
othepoi
ntPbecomes

ΔQ=VρC …………………………………….
(3.
14)

Thet
her
mal
ener
gyt
ransf
err
edperuni
tvol
ume.

ΔQ=VρC …………………………………….
(3.
15)

Exampl
eofener
gyt
ransf
erperuni
tvol
ume:

Thetemper aturegr
adi
entoft
heairi
s2.00Cper100km andthespeci
fi
cheatcapacityofai
ris
1009jkg-10C-1,howmuchther
malenergyperuni
tvol
umet r
ansfer
redbyconvect
ionin12.0hrif
3.
theai
rismov i
ngataspeedof10.
0km/ hr?Thedensi
tyofai
rispair=1.293kg/m

Theheatt
ransf
err
edperuni
tvol
umei
sfoundf
rom

ΔQ=VPC

1Jm-3
=2747.
3.3.Heatt
ransf
erbyr
adi
ati
on

Radi ationisheattr
ansferbytheemissionofel ect
romagneti
cwaveswhichcar
ryenergyaway
from t heemi t
ti
ngobject.Forordi
narytemperatures(l
essthanr
edhot’
’
),ther
adiat
ionisint
he
i
nf r
ar edr egi
onoftheelectromagneti
cspectrum.Radiati
onemitt
edbyabodyisaconsequence
oft hermal agit
ati
onofitscomposingmol ecules.Radi
ati
onheattr
ansf
ercanbedescribedbya
referencet otheso-call
ed‘blackbody’

f
ig.3.Bl
ackbody

Ablackbodyisahypotheti
cthatcompl et
elyabsor bsallwavel
engt
hsofther
malradi
ati
on
i
ncidentoni
t.Suchbodiesdonotr ef
lectl
ight
, andt her
efor
eappearbl
ackift
hei
rtemperat
ures
arelowenoughsoastobesel f-
luminous.Allblackbodiesheat
edtoagiv
entemperat
ureemi t
ther
mal r
adi
ati
on.

Theradiati
onener
gyperunitt
imefor
m abl ackbodyi
sproport
ional
tothef
our
thpoweroft
he
absol
utetemperat
ureandcanbeexpressedwi t
hStef
an-
Boltzmannlawas

T4-
p=ɛΔA( T4C)……………………
(
3.16)

Wher ePisthenetradi
atedpower ,ɛist
heemi ssi
vi
ty(
oneforabl
ackbody)
,Ai
sther
adiati
on
area,Tisthet
emper at
ureofr adi
ati
on,δist
heSt ef
an’
sconst
antandTci
sthet
emper
atureof
-
8 2 4
surroundi
ng.Whereδ=5. 6703x10 watt/
m K.

Allmaterialradi
antthermalenergyinamount sdet erminedbytheirtemperatur
e.wherethe
energyiscar ri
edbyphot onsofli
ghtintheinfrar
edandv isi
bleport
ionsoftheelectr
omagneti
c
spectr
um.Whent emperaturesareunif
orm, t
her adiati
onf l
uxbetweenobjectsisinequi
l
ibri
um
andnonett hermalenergyisexchanged.Thebal ancei supsetwhent emperaturesar
enot
unif
orm, andt her
mal energyistr
ansportedfrom sur f
acesofhighert osur
facesoflow
temperature.

NetRadi
ati
onLossRat
e.

Ifahotobj
ecti
sradi
ati
ngener
gyt
oit
scool
ersur
roundi
ngs,
thenetr
adi
ati
onheatl
ossr
atecan
beexpr
essedas3
 TAC―T4C)
p=ɛΔA0( ………………………….
(3.
17)

Wher
e;

Th=hotbodyabsol
utet
emper
atur
e(K)

Tc=col
dsur
roundi
ngsabsol
utet
emper
atur
e(K)

Ac=ar
eaoft
heobj m2)
ect(

Exampl
e3.
2–Radi
ati
onf
rom t
hesur
faceoft
hesun

Ift
hesurf
acetemperat
ureofthesuni
s5800Kandifweassumet hatt
hesuncanber egar
ded
asablackbodyther
adiat
ionener
gyperuni
tti
mecanbeexpressedbymodif
ying(
3.17)li
ke

670310-8w/
m2K4)( 4
=(
5. 5800K)

EXERCI
SE

1.
(a)Def
inedt
hef
oll
owi
ngt
erms:
Conv
ect
ionConduct
ingandr
adi
ati
on.

(b)Findther
mal ener
gytr
ansferperuni
tmassi
fthet emper
aturegradi
ent 0⁰Cper100km
s4.
andt hespeci
fi
cheatcapaci
tyofai s1009JKg-1K-1,
ri in10hrifai
rismovi
ngataspeedof10
km/ hr.

2.(
a)Def
inet
her
mal
conduct
ivi
tyandst
atei
tsuni
ts.

(b)Oneendofthemet albarismaint
ainedat1000Candtheotherendat200C.Descr
ibethe
temperatur
evar
iat
ionalongthebarwhent hebari
s:-(
i)Lagged(i
i)Unl
agged.Drawsketchand
expl
ainthei
rvar
iat
ions.

3.(b)Fi
ndtheamountofther
mal energythatfl
owsperdayt hroughaconcret
ewall10cm t hick,
0
400cm longand300cm highi
fthet emperatur
eofinsidewall50Cwhi l
ethetemper atureof
theoutsi
dewall
is100C.(
Coeffi
cientofther
mal conducti
vi
tyforconcr
eteis1.
30.Jm-1S-1K-1)

4.(
a)Def
inet
het
erm bl
ackbody

(b)Assumethetotal
surfaceareaofthehumanbodyi s1.2m2andt hesur
facetemper
atur
eis
0
30Cassumeemi ssi
vi
ty,
ɛ=1.Det er
mine:(
i)Thetot
alrateofradi
ati
onofenergyf
rom t
hebody,
0
(i
i)Thenetr
adiat
ionheatloss,
ifthesurr
oundingt
emper atur
eis20C.

5.(
a)Def
inet
het
erm;
Conduct
ionandRadi
ati
onexpl
ainonesi
mil
ari
tyandonedi
ff
erence.

(
b)Fi
ndt
heamountoft
her
mal
ener
gyt
hatf
lowsperdayt
hroughasol
i
doakwal
loft
her
mal
conducti
vi
t 47x10-1Jm -1S-10C-1,
yof1. wit
h10cm t
hick,3.0m long,
and2.5m hi
gh,
ifthe
0 0
temperat
ureofthei
nsi
dewall is50Cwhi let
het
emper atureoftheout
sidewal
li
s20C.