Assi

gnment#01

Mechani
csofmat
eri
al

Submi
tt
edBy
:

MuhammadZeeshan

BMEF19M019

Submi
tt
edTo:

Engr
.Qasi
m Al
i

Bachel
orofMechani
calEngi
neer
ing

Col
legeofEngi
neer
ing&Technol
ogy
,

Uni
ver
sit
yofSar
godha.

1
St
ressSt
rai
nCur
ve:
Inengi neeringandmat eri
al sscience,ast ress–st r
aincur vef oramat eri
algivest he
rel
at i
onshipbet weenst r
essandst rain.I
tisobt ai
nedbygr aduall
yapplyingloadtoat est
couponandmeasur ingt hedef ormat i
on,from whi cht hest ressandst raincanbe
determined.
Thesecur vesr ev eal manyoft heproper t
iesofamat eri
al,suchas
they i
eldst rengt h,theul timat etensilestrength,strainhardening, necki
ngandf racture
I
tals ohelpsi nf abrication.Whet heryouar elookingt operform extrusi
on,r
olli
ng,bendingor
someot heroper ation,thev aluess t
emmi ngf r
om t hisgraphwi l
lhelpyout odeter
minet he
for
c esnec es saryt oinduc epl asti
cdef ormati
on.

St
ress-
str
aincur
vet
ypi
cal
ofal
owcar
bonst
eel
.
El
ast
icsRegi
on:

Iti
st heregi onwher ethemat erialcanbedef ormedandwhenr eleasedwi l
lreturnback
toi t
soriginalconf i
gurati
on.Manymet alsint heelasti
cregionhav ear esultingstrain
thati s proporti
onalt ot he t ensil
el oad when t he appli
ed tensileload i s smal l
.
Mat hemat i
cally
,thiscanbewr itt
enasσ=Eε, andmor egenerall
yisknownasaf or
m of
Hooke'sl aw.Ei sthepr oportionalityconst antandi scall
edthemodul usofel asti
cit
yor
Young'smodul us.Phy si
cally
,t helargert hev alueofthemodul usofel ast
ici
tyt hesti
ffer
themat er i
alis,i.
e.,themor er esistantt obendi ngthematerialis..Ther egionoft he
stress-
straincurvei nwhicht hemat eri
alreturnst otheundeformedst atewhenappl i
ed
forcesarer emov ediscalledtheel asti
cr egion.

2
Pl
ast
icRegi
on:

Theregi oninwhicht hemat eri

aldeformsper manentlyiscall
edthepl ast
icr
egion.For
str
essesbey ondtheelasticli
mit,amat eri
alexhibi
tsplasti
cbehavior.Thismeanst he
materi
aldef ormsi r
reversi
blyanddoesnotr etur
nt oitsorigi
nalshapeandsi ze,even
whent heloadi sremov ed.Whenst ressisgraduall
yincreasedbeyondt heel
asti
climit
,
themat eri
alsundergoplasti
csdef or
mat i
on.

Yi
eldst
rengt
h:
They i
eldstrengthoryi
eldst
ressisamat eri
alpr
opert
yandisthest r
esscorresponding
totheyiel
dpoi ntatwhi
chthemateri
albeginstodefor
m pl
ast
ical
l
y.They iel
dstrengthis
oft
enusedt odet er
minethemaximum all
owableloadinamechanicalcomponent,since
i
trepresentstheupperli
mittofor
cesthatcanbeappl i
edwit
houtproducingpermanent
defor
mat i
on.

St
rai
nHar
deni
ng:
Aft
eramat er
ialyiel
ds,itbegi
nstoexperienceahighrat
eofplasti
cdeformat
ion...
.In
thestress-str
aincur vesbelow,thestr
engthoft hemateri
alcanbeseent oincrease
betweent hey i
eldpointYandt heult
imatestrengt
hatpoi
ntU.Thisincr
easei
nstrength
i
sther esultofstrainhardeni
ng.

Ul
ti
mat
eTensi
leSt
rengt
h(UTS)
:
Ult
imatetensil
e str
ength(UTS),often shortened tot ensil
e strengt
h( TS),ul
ti
mate
str
engthisthemaximum stressthatamat erialcanwi t
hstandwhi lebei
ngstret
chedor
pul
ledbeforebreaki
ng.Inbri
ttl
emat eri
alstheul t
imatetensil
est rengt
hi scl
osetothe
yi
eldpoint
,whereasinduct
il
emat eri
alstheulti
mat etensi
lestrengt
hcanbehi gher.
Thehighestpointofthestress–str
aincurv eist heulti
matet ensil
estrengt
handhas
uni
tsofstress.
Necki
ng:
Necking,isamodeoft ensil
edef ormat i
onwher er el
ati
velylargeamount sofst rai
n
l
ocalizedisproport
ionat
elyinasmal lregionoft hemat erial
.Theresultingprominent
decreaseinlocalcross-
sectionalareapr ovidesthebasisforthename" neck".Because
thelocalstr
ainsintheneckar elar
ge, neckingisoftencl
oselyassociatedwi t
hy i
eldi
ng,a
for
m ofpl astic defor
mat i
on associ ated wi t
h ducti
le mat er
ial
s,of ten metals or
polymers.Onceneckinghasbegun, theneckbecomest heexclusivelocationofy i
eldi
ng
i
nt hemat eri
al,asther educedareagi vest heneckthelargestlocalstress.Theneck
eventual
lybecomesaf r
acturewhenenoughst rai
nisappli
ed.

3
Fr
act
urest
rengt
h:
Fractur
eist hesepar at
ionofanobj ectormat erialintotwoormor epi
ecesunderthe
acti
onofst ress.Thef ractur
eofasol i
dusual l
yoccur sduetothedevel
opmentof
certai
ndisplacementdi scont i
nui
tysurfaceswithint hesoli
d.
Fractur
estrengt h,alsoknownasbr eakingstrengt h,isthestr
essatwhi
chaspecimen
fai
lsv i
af r
act ur
e.Thi si susuall
ydet erminedf oragi v
enspecimenbyat ensi
letest
,
whichchartst hestress-strai
ncurve.
Met
alf
ati
gue:
Anot herdeformationmechani sm i smetalf atigue,whichoccur
spr i
mar i
lyinductil
e
met als.I
twasor iginal
lythoughtthatamat erialdeformedonlywit
hintheelast
icrange
returnedcompl et
elyt oit
sor i
ginalstat
eoncet heforceswereremoved.pendi
ngont he
mat erial
,shape,andhow cl oset otheelasti
cl i
mititisdef
ormed,fai
luremayr equi
re
thousands, mil
li
ons, bi
ll
i
ons,ortril
l
ionsofdefor mations.

Mechani
calpr
oper
ti
esofMat
eri
al:

Tof i
nalizethemat er
ialforanengi neer
ingproductorapplicat
ion,i
si timport
antto
understandthemechani calproper
ti
esoft hemateri
al.Themechanicalproper
ti
esofa
materialarethosewhichaf f
ectthemechanicalst
rengthandabili
tyofamat eri
altobe
moldedi nsui t
abl
eshape.Someoft hetypi
calmechanicalpropert
iesofamat er
ial
i
nclude:

 Str
ength
 Toughness
 Hardness
 Hardenabil
it
y
 Bri
ttl
eness
 Malleabi
li
ty
 Ductil
it
y
 Fati
gue

St
rengt
h:
I
tisthepropert
yofamat er
ialwhi
chopposest hedefor
mat
ionorbreakdownofmat erial
i
npresenceofext ernalf
orcesorload.Material
swhichwefinal
i
zef orourengi
neering
pr
oducts,musthav esuit
ablemechanicalst
rengtht
obecapabletoworkunderdif
ferent
mechanicalf
orcesorloads.

4
Toughness:
Itistheabili
tyofamat eri
altoabsor btheenergyandget splasti
call
ydef ormedwit
hout
fractur
ing.It
snumer i
calvalueisdet er
minedbyt heamountofener gyperuni tv
olume.
ItsunitisJoul e/m3.Val ueoft oughnessofamat er
ialcanbedet er
mi nedbystress-
strai
nchar acteristi
csofamat eri
al.Forgoodt oughness,mat eri
alsshouldhavegood
strengthaswel l asductil
it
y.
Forexampl e:br itt
lemat eri
als,havi
nggoodst rengthbutl i
mitedduct i
li
tyarenottough
enough.Conv er sely,materi
alshavinggoodduct il
i
tybutlowst rengtharealsonottough
enough.Ther efor e,tobet ough,amat er
ialshouldbecapabl et owi t
hstandbothhigh
stressandst r
ain.

Har
dness:
I
tistheabi
l
ityofamateri
alt
oresi
sttoper
manentshapechangeduetoext
ernalst
ress.
Therear
evariousmeasur
eofhardness–Scr
atchHardness,I
ndent
ati
onHardnessand
ReboundHardness.

Scr
atchHar
dness:
ScratchHar dnessistheabi l
it
yofmateri
alstot heopposet hescr atchestoout er
surfacelay
erduet oext
ernal
force.
Indentat
ionHardness
Itistheabil
it
yofmat er
ial
stoopposethedentduet opunchofexternalhardandshar p
objects.
ReboundHar dness
Reboundhar dnessisal
socalledasdy
namichardness.Itisdet
erminedbyt heheightof
“bounce”ofadi amondti
ppedhammerdroppedfrom afixedhei
ghtont hemat er
ial
.
Har
denabi
li
ty:

I
ti stheabili
tyofamat erialtoat
tai
nt hehardnessbyheatt reat
mentprocessi
ng.Iti
s
determined byt hedepth up to which themat eri
albecomeshar d.TheSIuni tof
hardenabil
i
tyi s meter( simil
artol ength).Har denabi
l
ity ofmateri
alisi nver
sel
y
proport
ionaltotheweld-
abi l
i
tyofmaterial
.

Br
it
tl
eness:
Bri
tt
lenessofamat erialindi
catesthathoweasi lyitget
sfractur
edwhenitissubjected
toaf orceorload.Whenabr i
tt
lemat er
ialissubjectedtoastressi
tobserv
esv er
yl ess
ener
gyandget sf r
actureswi t
houtsignif
icantstrai
n.Bri
ttl
enessisconv
ersetoduct il
it
y
ofmat eri
al.Bri
tt
lenessofmat eri
alistemper at
uredependent.Somemet alswhichar e
duct
ileatnormal temper atur
ebecomebr i
tt
leatlowt emperat
ure.

5
Mal
leabi
li
ty:
Malleabi
li
tyisapropertyofsoli
dmaterial
swhi chindi
catesthathow easil
yamat eri
al
getsdeformedundercompr essi
vest
ress.Mal leabil
i
tyi
sof t
encategori
zedbyt heabi li
ty
ofmat eri
altobef or
medi nt hefor
m ofat hinsheetbyhammer ingorr oll
ing.Thi s
mechanicalproper
tyisanaspectofpl astici
tyofmat er
ial
.Mal l
eabil
i
tyofmat erialis
temperatur
edependent.Wit
hr i
seint
emper ature,themall
eabil
it
yofmat er
ialincreases.

Duct
il
it
y:
Ducti
li
tyisapropert
yofasol i
dmat eri
alwhichindi
catesthathoweasilyamater
ialgets
defor
medundert ensi
lestr
ess.Ductil
i
tyisoftencategori
zedbytheabili
tyofmateri
alt
o
getstret
chedintoawi rebypul l
i
ngordr awing.Thismechanicalproper
tyisalsoan
aspectofplast
ici
tyofmateri
alandist emperatur
edependent.Withri
seintemperatur
e,
theducti
li
tyofmateri
ali
ncreases.

Fat
igue:
Fatigueist heweakeni ngofmat erialcausedbyt herepeat edl oadingofthemat erial
.
When a mat erialis subj
ected to cyclicloading,and l oading gr eat
ert han cer tain
thresholdvaluebutmuchbel owthest rengthofmat eri
al(ultimat etensil
estrengt hli
mi t
ory i
eld st
ress l i
mit),microscopi
c cr acks begint ofor m atgr ain boundar ies and
i
nter f
aces.Ev entual
lyt he cr
ack reaches to a cr i
ti
calsi ze.Thi s crack pr opagat es
suddenl yandt hestructur
eget sfractured.Theshapeofst ructureaf f
ectsthef ati
gue
verymuch.Squar eholesandshar pcor nersleadtoelevatedst resseswher et hef ati
gue
crackiniti
ates.