Respi

rati
onisanener
gyrel
easi
ng,
enzymaticall
ycontr
oll
edcat
aboli
cpr
ocesswhi
chi
nvol
vesa
st
ep-wiseoxi
dati
vebr
eakdownoffoodsubstanceinsi
deli
vi
ngcel
ls.

Li
vi
ngorganism requi
reenergyf
orallacti
vi
ti
esli
keabsor
pti
on,
mov ement
, r
eproduct
ionorev
en
br
eathi
ng.Energyrequi
redisobt
ainedfrom oxi
dati
onoff
oodduri
ngrespi
rati
on.

Cell
ularr
espir
ati
onisthemechani
sm ofbr
eaki
ngdownoff
oodmat
eri
alswi
thi
nthecel
lto
rel
easeenergyforsy
nthesi
sofATP.

Br
eaki
ngdownofcompl
exmol
ecul
est
akespl
acet
opr
oduceener
gyi
ncy
topl
asm andi
nthe
mit
ochondr
ia.

Breaki
ngdownofC-Cbondofcomplexcompoundsthroughoxidat
ionwithi
nthecel
lsl
eadi
ngto
rel
easeofener
gyi
scall
edrespi
rat
ion.Thecompoundsthatgetoxi
dizedarecal
ledr
espi
rat
ory
substr
ates.

Energyrel
easeddur
ingoxi
dat
ioni
snotuseddir
ectl
ybututi
l
izedinsynthesisofATP,whichi
s
brokendownwhenenergyisr
equi
red.Ther
efor
e,ATPiscal
ledenergycurrencyofcel
ls.

Theprocessofrespi
rat
ionr
equi
resoxy
gen.I
npl
ant
soxy
geni
stakeni
nbyst
omat
a,l
ent
icel
s
androothai
rs.

Pl
ant
scangetal
ongwi
thoutr
espi
rat
oryor
gansbecause:

Eachpl
antpar
ttakescar
eofi
tsowngas-
exchangeneeds.

Pl
ant
sdonotpr
esentgr
eatdemandsf
orgasexchange.

Di
stancet
hatgasesmustdi
ff
usei
nlar
gepl
anti
snotgr
eat
.

Dur
ingphot
osy
nthesi
sO2i
srel
easedi
nleav
esanddi
ff
uset
oot
herpar
tofl
eav
es.

Duri
ngpr
ocessofrespi
rat
ionoxygeni
sut
il
izedandcar
bondi
oxi
deandwat
eri
srel
easedal
ong
wit
hener
gymoleculesi
nform ofATP.

Respirat
oryQuoti
enti
st herat
ioofthev
olumeofcar
bondi
oxi
deproducedtothevol
umeof
oxygenconsumedi nrespi
rati
onoveraperi
odoft
ime.RQi
sequal
toonef orcar
bohydr
ateand
l
esst hanoneforprot
einandpeptones.
Aer
obicRespir
ati
onisanenzymat
ical
lycont
rol
l
edr el
easeofener
gyinast
epwi
secat
aboli
c
pr
ocessofcompleteoxi
dati
onoforgani
cfoodint
ocarbondioxi
deandwat
erwi
thoxygenact
ing
aster
minaloxi
dant.

Gl
ycol
ysi
s

Theschemeofgl
ycol
ysi
sisgi
venbyGust
avEmbden,
Ott
oMey
erhof
,andJ.Par
nas.I
tisal
so
cal
l
edasEMPpathway .

Glycol
ysisi
sthepart
ial
oxi
dat
ionofglucoseorsimi
larhexosesugari
ntot
womolecul
esof
pyruvi
cacidthr
oughaseri
esofenzy
memedi at
edreacti
onreleasi
ngsomeATPandNADH2.I
t
occursincyt
oplasm.

I
nplantsglucosei
sderi
vedfr
om sucr
oseorfrom st
oragecar
bohy
drat
es.Sucr
osei
sconv
ert
ed
i
ntoglucoseandfr
uctosebyenzy
meinver
tase.
Gl
ycol
ysi
sst ar
tswit
hphosphor
ylat
ionofgl
ucosei
npr
esenceofenzymehexoki
naset
ofor
m
Gl
ucose-
6-phosphat
e.Onemolecul
esofATPisusedi
nthi
sprocess.

I
nnextstepsGlucose-
6-phosphat
eisconv
ert
edi
ntof
ruct
ose-
6-phosphat
e,cat
aly
sedbyenzy
me
phosphohexosei
somerase.

Fr
uctose-
6-phosphat
eusesanothermolecul
eofATPt
ofor
m Fr
uct
ose-
1-6bi
phospaht
ein
pr
esenceofenzy mephosphf
ruct
okinase.

I
ngl ycoly
sistwomol eculesofATPar econsumedduringdoubl
ephosphor
ylat
ionofgl
ucoseto
fructose1,6bi
phosphate.Twomol eculesofNADPH2ar eformedatt
hetimeofoxidat
ionof
glyceral
dehyde3-phosphateto1,3biphosphogl
ycer
ate.EachNADHisequiv
alentt
o3ATP, so
thatnetgainingl
y col
ysisis8ATP.

Pyruv
icaci
disthekeypr
oductofgl
ycol
ysi
s,f
urt
herbr
eakdownofpy
ruv
icaci
ddependsupon
theneedofthecel
l
.

I
nanimalcel
l
s,l
ikemuscl
esduri
ngexer
cise,
whenoxygeni
sinsuf
fi
cientf
oraer
obicrespi
rat
ion,
pyr
uvi
cacidi
sreducedt
oLacti
caci
dbyenzy mel
act
atedehydr
ogenaseduetoreducti
onby
NADH2.

Fer
ment
ati
on

I
nferment
ati
onbyyeast,py
ruv
icacidisconver
tedtoethanolandCO2.Theenzymei
nvol
vedi
s
pyr
uvi
caci
ddecarboxy
laseandalcoholdehy
drogenasecatal
ysethi
sreact
ion.

I
nbot
hlact
icaci
dfer
ment
ati
onandal
cohol
fer
ment
ati
onv
eryl
essamountofener
gyi
srel
eased.

Yeast
spoi
sont
hemsel
vest
odeat
hifconcent
rat
ionofal
cohol
reachesabov
e13%.

Finalpr
oductofgly
col
ysi
s,py
ruv
atei
str
anspor
tedf
rom t
hecy
topl
asm i
ntomi
tochondr
iaf
or
furt
herbreakdown.

Oxi
dati
onofPyruvat
etoAcety
l-
CoAisdonetopr
oduceCO2andNADH.Thereact
ioncat
aly
zed
bypyr
uvicdehy
drogenaser
equir
est
hepart
ici
pat
ionofsev
eral
Coenzy
mesincl
udi
ngNAD+.
TheAcet
ylCoAent
ersacy
cli
cpat
hwaycal
l
edTCAcy
cleorKr
eb’
scy
cle.

Tr
icar
boxy
li
cAci
dCey
cle/
KrebsCy
cle
TCAcycl
ewasdiscover
edbyHansKr
ebsi
n1940.Thi
scy
clei
scal
l
edTCAcy
clebecausei
nit
ial
pr
oducti
sci
tr
icacid.

Acet
ylCoAcombinewit
hOAA(Oxal oacet
icaci
d)andwat
ert
oyi
eldci
tr
icaci
dinpr
esenceof
enzy
mecitr
atesy
nthasetor
eleaseCoA.

Ci
tr
atei
stheni
somer
isedt
oisoci
tr
ate.I
tisf
oll
owedbyt
wosuccessi
ve

st
epsofdecar
boxy
lat
ion,
leadi
ngt
othef
ormat
ionofα-
ket
ogl
utar
icaci
dandt
hensucci
nyl
-CoA.
I
nther
emai
ningst
eps,
succi
nyl
-CoAi
soxi
disedt
oOAAal
l
owi
ngt
hecy
clet
ocont
inue.

Ther
earethr
eepoint
sint
hecy
clewher
eNAD+i
sreducedt
oNADH2andonepoi
ntwher
eFAD
+isr
educedtoFADH2.

Amol eculeofgl
ucoseproducestwomol ecul
esof,2ATPandt wopyruvat
ewhileunder
goi
ng
gl
ycolysis.Thet
womol ecul
esofpyruv
atear ecomplet
elydegr
adedinKrebscycl
etoformtwo
moleculesofATP,andt wopyruv
atewhileundergoi
ngglycol
ysi
s.Thetwomoleculesof
pyr
uvatear ecompl
etel
ydegradedinKrebscy cl
etofor
mt womoleculesofATP,and.2NADH2
and2FADH2.

py
ruv
ic+4NAD++FAD++2H2O+ADP+Pi3CO2

Terminal
Oxidati
onisthenameofox i
dati
onf
oundinaerobi
crespi
rat
iont
hatoccur
stowards
endofcatabol
icprocessandi
nvol
vesthepassageofbothel
ectr
onsandprot
onsofreduced
coenzymetooxygent opr
oducewater.
El
ect
ronTr
anspor
tChai
n

Themetabol
icpat
hwaythr
oughwhi
chtheel
ect
ronpassesfrom onecarri
ertoanot
heri
nsi
de
thei
nnermit
ochondr
ial
membranei
scall
edETCormitochondr
ialrespi
rat
orychai
n.

Elect
ronsfrom NADHpr oduceddur
ingcit
ricacidcycl
eareoxidizedbyNADHdehy drogenase
andelectr
onsaretransf
erredtoubi
quinonelocatedwit
hintheinnermembrane.Ubiquinoneal
so
recei
veselect
ronsfrom FADH2whichistransferr
edtocytochr
omecv i
acyt
ochromebc1
complex.

Whentheelect
ronspassfrom onecarr
iert
oanotherv
iael
ect
rontr
anspor
tchai
n,t
heyproduce
ATPfrom ADPandinorganicphosphat
e.ThenumberofATPmolecul
essynt
hesi
zeddepends
uponelect
rondonor
.

Oxi
dat
ionofonemolecul
eofNADHgivesr
iset
o3mol
ecul
esofATP,
whi
l
eoxi
dat
ionofone
mol
eculeofFAD2pr
oducetwomolecul
esofATP.
Theenergyr
eleaseddur
ingETCi
susedtomakeATPwi
tht
hehel
pofATPsy
nthase,
whi
ch
consi
stsoft
womaj orpart
sF1andF0.

F1i
saperi
pher
almembraneprot
eincomplexhavi
ngsi
teforsynthesi
sofATPfrom ADPand
i
nor
gani
cphosphat
e.F0i
sint
egralmembraneprot
eint
hatform channel
forpr
oton.

ForeachATPpr oduced2H+passesthroughF0f
rom t
hei
nter
membr
anespacet
othemat
ri
x
downtheelect
rochemicalpr
otongr
adient.
Amphi
bol
i
cPat
hway

Gl
ucoseist
hefavor
edsubstr
ateforr
espi
rat
ion.Al
lcar
bohy
drat
esar
eusual
l
yconv
ert
edi
nto
gl
ucosebef
oreusedforr
espi
rat
ion.

Fat
sneedstobebr
okendownint
oglycerolandf
att
yaci
d,whi
chi
sfur
therbr
okenconv
ert
edi
nto
Acet
ylCoAandent
erther
espi
rat
orypathway.

Pr
otei
nsar
ebr
okeni
ntoami
noaci
dsandf
urt
herent
eri
ntoKr
ebscy
cle.

Breaki
ngdownprocesswi t
hinl
ivi
ngorgani
sm i
scal
l
edcat abol
ism andsy
nthesi
spr
ocessi
s
call
edanabol
i
sm process.So,r
espir
ati
onisanAmphibol
i
cpat hway.