1|

Page
I
NTRODUCTI
ONTOREASERCH
DEFI
NITI
ONOFRESEASCH
 Process ofarr
ivi
ng atdependabl
e solut
ions t
hrough pl
anned sy
stemat
ic
coll
ecti
onanal
ysi
sandint
erpr
etat
ionofdata

 Asy
stemat
icpr
ocessofcol
l
ect
ingexami
ningandi
nter
pret
ingdat
a

NURSI
NGRESEARCH
Astudyintothoseaspect
sofprofessionalact
ivi
tywhi
char
epr
edomi
nant
lyand
appr
opri
atelyther
esponsi
bil
i
tyofnurses

COMPONENTSOFRESEARCH
 Sy
stemat
ic-
sol
vespr
obl
emsi
nasy
stemat
icway

 Obj
ect
ive-i
tat
tempt
stof
indanunbi
asedsol
uti
ont
oapr
obl
em.

 Basedonobser
vabl
eexper
ienceorempi
ri
cal
evi
dence

 Empl
oyscar
eful
l
ydesi
gnedpr
ocedur
esorr
igor
ousanal
ysi
s.

TYPESOFRESEARCH
a)BASEDONAI
MSOFRESEARCH

1)BASI
CRESEARCH

Thisisat ypeofresear
cht
hatai
msatbui
l
dingknowl
edgebutnotofi
mmedi
ate
appl
icat
ionbypr
act
it
ioner
s

Itdoesn’tpr
oducer esul
tsofimmedi at
eandpr act
icalusebutitprov
idesempi
ri
cal
knowledgewhichconstit
utesf
oundat
ionsforf
undamentalknowl
edge

2)ACTI
ON/
APPLI
EDRESEARCH

Thi
sisatypeofresear
chthatf
ocusesonact
ivi
ti
esi
nor
dert
oobt
aini
nfor
mat
iont
o
sol
veoper
ati
onal
probl
ems.

I
tsolvesi
mmediat
eandpracti
calprobl
emsr
equi
ri
ngsci
ent
if
icandi
mmedi
atesol
uti
ons
ontopofaddi
ngtosci
ent
if
icknowledge.

2|
Page
I
tpr
ovi
desi
nfor
mat
ionf
orpl
anni
ngandi
mpl
ement
ati
onofpr
oject
sandPr
ogr
ammes.

Itis conducted bef

ore a pr
ojecti
simplement
ed (f
easibi
l
ity
/basel
i
ne st
udy
)ort
o
eval
uateapr ogr
amme( formati
veandsummati
veeval
uati
on)

Act
ionr
esear
chhas5st
eps

1)Pr
obl
em i
dent
if
icat
ion

Pr
obl
em i
denti
fi
cati
onisdonet hr
oughv
ari
ousway
ssuchas:Obser
vat
ion,Di
scussi
on
wi
thot
herpeopl
e,Exper
ienceet
c.

2)Consi
der
ati
onofact
ional
ter
nat
ives

Ther esearcherdev elopsanumberofal ternat

ivesol
uti
onstotheprobl
em andthen
consi
der sthest rengthsandweaknessesofeachoft hesol
uti
on.Ineval
uat
ingthe
var
ious act i
on alternati
ves the research would consi
dersuch f
actor
s as AFASS
(af
fordabil
i
t y
,feasibi
lit
y,acceptabi
l
ity,sust
ainabi
li
ty,
safet
y)

3)Act
iont
aki
ng

Thi
sinv
olvesimplementat
ionofact
ionthati
sconsider
edt hemostdesi
rabl
e.I
twi
l
l
i
ncl
udesuchacti
vi
tiesasdevel
opi
nganacti
onplan,
mobil
izi
ngresour
ceset
c

4)Ev
aluat
ionofconsequencesofact
ions

Ther esear
chafterimpl
ementi
ngtheacti
onwillt
herev
iew t
heoutcomes,thi
swil
l
i
ncludeassessmentofthesuccessoft
heacti
oninaddr
essi
ngtheprobl
em andany
chall
engesencount
eredi
nthei
mplement
ati
onst
age.

5)Ext
ract
ionsofl
essonsl
ear
nt

Theresear
chertheni
dent
ifi
eswhatworkedwel
landwhatdi
dn’
tworkwel
lther
easons
why.Thisi
sthestept
hatcontr
ibut
est
onewknowledgei
nact
ionr
esear
ch

b)BASEDONTYPEOFDATACOLLECTED

1)QUANTI
TATI
VERESEARCH

Thi
si satypeofresear
cht
hatdeal
swi
thquant
it
ati
vedat
a.I
trel
i
esont
hepr
inci
pleof
ver
if
iabi
l
ityorpr
oof.

Knowl
edgei
sder
ivedf
rom whatcanbepr
ovenbydi
rectobser
vat
ionandf
ocuseson

3|
Page
measur
ement
s.

Char
act
eri
sti
cs

 Conci
seandnar
row

 Col
l
ect
sinf
ormat
ionundercondi
ti
onsofcont
rol

 Usesstr
ucturedpr
oceduresandf
ormali
nst
rument
stocol
l
ecti
nfor
mat
ionsuch
asquest
ionnair
es,
int
erv
iews.

 Anal
ysi
sisdonet
hroughst
ati
sti
cal
procedur
es

 I
nvest
igat
ordoesnotpar
ti
cipat
eint
heev
ent
sunderi
nvest
igat
ion

 Begi
nswi
thpr
econcei
vedi
deasabouthowconcept
sar
eint
err
elat
ed

 Emphasi
sobj
ect
ivi
tyi
nthecol
l
ect
ionandanal
ysi
sofdat
a.

Quant
it
ati
ver
esear
ch i
sfur
therdi
vi
ded i
nto non exper
iment
aland exper
iment
al
r
esear
ch

a)EXPERI
MENTALRESEARCH

Thisisastudyconcer nedwithcause-ef f
ectrel
ati
onshi
ps.Itinvol
vesmanipul
ati
onor
contr
olofi ndependentv ari
able( cause)and measurementofdependentv ari
able
(ef
fect
).In experi
ment alresearch,the resear
cherisinterest
ed in cont
rol
l
ing the
ext
raneousvari
ablesthatmayi nf
luencetheresul
ts.

Exper
iment
alr
esear
chi
sfur
thercl
assi
fi
edi
nto:

i
) Tr
ueExper
iment
s

Tr
ueexper
iment
sar
echar
act
eri
zedby

 Mani
pul
ati
onoft
heexper
iment
alv
ari
abl
e(s)

 Controlbyintroducti
onofoneormor econtr
olsov ertheexperi
ment alsituat
ion
i
ncludingtheintroduct
ionofacont r
olorcompar i
songr oup.Thi
sensur esthatthe
dependentv ar
iableisasar esul
tofindependentvariabl
eandnotot herv ar
iables.
Acont rol
groupist hegroupthatdoesnotreceiv
et heexperimental
treatment .

 Randomizat
ion-subj
ect
sarerandomlyassi
gnedtoeit
hert
heexper
iment
alort
he
compari
songroup.Eachindi
vi
dualhasanequalchanceofbei
ngpl
acedint
oany
ofthegr
oupsinanexperi
mentalstudy

4|
Page
 i
i) Quasi
-Exper
iment

Thi
sisanexper
imentalresear
chinwhi
cht
her
eisnocont
rolgr
ouport
hesubj
ect
sar
e
notr
andoml
yassignedtogroups.

I
tinv
olv
esmostl
yimpl
ement
ingaspeci
fi
ctr
eatmentandl
aterexami
ningt
heef
fect
sof
t
reat
mentusi
ngsel
ect
edmet
hodsofmeasurement
s.

Exampl
e:r
andomi
zedcl
i
nical
tri
als.

b)NONEXPERI
MENTALRESEARCH(
DESCRI
PTI
VE)

Thi
sisast udythatexpl
oresaphenomenoninr eall
i
fesit
uat
ions.Thepurposeisto
obser
ve,descr
ibeandexploreaspect
sofasituati
onasitiswithoutmanipul
ati
on.I
t
doesnottr
ytoexplai
norunderst
andtheunder
lyi
ngcausesofv
ariabl
eofi
nterest
.

Nonexper
iment
alr
esear
chi
sfur
therdi
vi
dedi
nto

i
) Sur
vey

Thisisat y
peofdescr i
pti
veresearchthatfocusesonobtai
ningi
nfor
mat i
onregar
ding
preval
ence,di
str
ibut
ionandint
errel
ati
onshipsofvari
abl
eswit
hinapopulat
ion

Itobt
ainsinf
ormati
onfr
om asampleofpeoplebymeansofselfrepor
ti.
e.peopl
eint
he
samplerespondtoaseri
esofquest
ionsposedbyt
heinvest
igator.

Sur
vey
sasksubj
ect
stor
epor
tthei
rat
ti
tudes,
opi
nions,
per
cept
ionsorbehav
ior
s.

AdvantageofSur v
eyinclude:abi
l
itytopr
ovi
deaccur
ateinfor
mat
iononpopulati
ons
usi
ngr elat
ivel
ysmallsamplesandalsoabi
li
tyt
oobtai
nlargeamountofdat
ar at
her
qui
cklyandwi thmi
nimalcost.

Thedisadvant
ageofsurv
eyisthatdatamaybeunr
eli
abl
ebecausei
nsel
frepor
t,peopl
e
tendt
opr ovi
desoci
all
yaccept
ableresponses.

i
i) Cor
rel
ati
onalst
udi
es

Thisisat
ypeofresearchwherethei
nvesti
gat
orexaminest
hest r
engt
hofrelati
onshi
ps
betweenvar
iabl
esbydet ermi
ninghow changesinonev ari
ableareassociat
edwith
changesi
nanothervar
iabl
ei.
e.howv ar
iabl
eXisrel
atedtovar
iabl
eY.

5|
Page
Thisrel
ati
onship canbeposi
ti
veornegativ
e.Themagni
tudeand di
rect
ionoft
he
rel
ati
onshi
pisindi
catedbyt
hecor
rel
ati
oncoeff
ici
ent
.

I
ncor
rel
ati
onal
studi
es,
onegr
oupofsubj
ect
sismeasur
edont
wov
ari
abl
es.

i
ii
) Compar
ati
vest
udi
es

Thi
sisast udythatex
ami nesthedi
ff
erencesbet
weent
woi
ntactgr
oupsonsome
i
ndependentvari
abl
esofint
erest
.

Unl
ikeinexper
iment
aldesi
gnt
her
esear
cheri
snotabl
etomani
pul
atet
hei
ndependent
var
iabl
e.

Compar
ati
vest
udi
esar
ecl
assi
fi
edas:

1)Ret
rospect
ive

Dependentv
ariabl
e(ef
fect
)isidenti
fi
edinthepresent(
adiseasecondi
ti
on)at
tempt
i
smadet odeterminet
heindependentvar
iabl
e(cause)t
hatoccurr
edint
hepast.

Exampl
e:casecont
rol
studi
es.

2)Pr
ospect
ive

Independentvari
abl
e( pr
esumed cause i
sidenti
fi
ed atthe pr
esentt
ime and t
hen
subject
sarefol
lowedinfut
uret
oobservethedependentv
ari
abl
e.

Exampl
e:cohor
tst
udi
es.

Di
ff
erencesbet
weenexper
iment
alandDescr
ipt
iveResear
ch

 Descri
pti
ve resear
ch merel
y descr
ibes somet
hing wher
eas exper
iment
al
resear
chtest
sahy pot
hesi
s

 Researcher
s can cont
rolv
ari
abl
es i
n exper
iment
alr
esear
ch butcannoti
n
descri
pti
veresear
ch

 Descr
ipt
iver
esear
chi
ssubj
ect
ivebutexper
iment
alr
esear
chi
sobj
ect
ive

 Exper
iment
alr
esear
chcanl
eadt
opr
edi
cti
onsbutdescr
ipt
iver
esear
chcannot
.

6|
Page
 2)QUALI
TATI
VERESEARCH

Thisi
saty peofr
esear
chinwhi
chasystemat
ic,subj
ecti
v eappr
oachi
susedtodescribe
l
ifeexper
iencesandgiv
ethem meani
ng.Dat
acol l
ectedisinthefor
m ofwor dsr
ather
thannumbersanddataist
hengr
oupedint
ocategori
es,themesandpatt
erns.

Char
act
eri
sti
cs

 Col
l
ect
sinf
ormat
ionwi
thoutf
ormal
str
uct
uredi
nst
rument
ssuchasKI
I,
FGDet
c.

 I
tinv
olv
essust
ainedi
nter
act
ionwi
tht
hepeopl
ebei
ngst
udi
ed.

 Itdoesnotat
temptt
ocontr
olthecont
extoft
her
esear
chbutr
atherat
tempt
sto
captur
ethecont
exti
nit
senter
it
y.

 I
tat
tempt
stounder
standt
hephenomenoni
nit
sent
ir
it
y.

 I
thas f ew preconcei
ved i
deas and stresses t
he impor
tance ofpeople’
s
i
nter
pret
ation of event
s and cir
cumst ances rather t
han the resear
cher
s
i
nter
pret
ation

 Anal
ysesnar
rat
ivei
nfor
mat
ioni
nanor
gani
zedbuti
ntui
ti
vef
ashi
on.

 Doesnotai
mtogener
ali
zet
hef
indi
ngs.

Adv
ant
ages

 Permi
tsr esearch to go bey
ond t
he st
ati
sti
calr
esul
ts usual
l
yrepor
ted i
n
quant
it
ati
ver esear
ch

 Enabl
esst
udyofat
ti
tudesandot
heremot
ional
behav
ior

Qual
i
tat
iver
esear
chi
ncl
udes:

i
) Phenomenol
ogi
calst
udi
es

Thesearestudi
esthatexaminehumanexper i
encest
hroughthedescri
pti
onst
hatar
e
provi
dedbypeopl
einvol
ved.Theseexper
iencesar
ecal
led“l
iv
edexperi
ences

Thegoal
ist
odescr
ibet
hemeani
ngt
hatexper
ienceshol
dforeachsubj
ect
.

I
nthesest
udi
essubj
ect
sar
easkedt
odescr
ibet
hei
rexper
iencesast
heyper
cei
vet
hem.

i
i
) Et
hnogr
aphi
cst
udi
es.

7|
Page
Thi
sinv
olv
est
hecol
l
ect
ionandanal
ysi
sofdat
aaboutcul
tur
algr
oups.

Systemat
icprocessofobser vi
ng,det
ail
i
ng,descr
ibi
ng,documenti
ngandanal
yzi
ngt
he
l
ifewaysorparti
cul
arpatter
nsofaculturei
nordertograspthel
if
eways/
pat
ter
nsoft
he
peoplei
nthei
rfami9l
iarenvi
ronment.

Theresear
cherli
veswit
hthepeopleandbecomespartoft
hei
rcul
tur
eori
nter
views
peopl
ewhoar econsi
der
edknowl
edgeabl
eaboutt
hecul
tur
e.

i
ii
) Gr
oundedt
heor
y

Thisi
sast udyi
nwhichdataarecoll
ectedandanal
yzedandthenat
heor
yisdev
eloped
thati
sbased(gr
ounded)onthedata.I
tusespur
posivesampl
i
ng.

i
v) Hi
stor
icalst
udi
es

Concernedwi t
ht heidenti
fi
cat
ion,l
ocat
ion,ev
aluat
ionandsynt
hesisofdatafr
om t
he
past.Itseekst odiscovertheeventsofthepastandt orel
atethoseevent
st ot
he
presentandfutur
e.

v
) Casest
udi
es.

Thi
si sanindept
hexami nat
ionofpeopleorgroupsofpeople,i
nsti
tut
ionetc.case
st
udiesmaybeconsi
deredquali
tat
iveorquant
it
ati
vedependi
ngont hepurposeofthe
st
udyandthedesi
gnchosenbytheresear
ch.

In qual
it
ati
ve case st
udies,t
he r
esear
chermustbe i
nterested i
nthe meani
ng of
experi
encestot hesubject
sthemsel
vesrat
hert
hangenerali
zi
ngt her
esul
tstoother
groupsofpeople.

Casest
udi
escanbeusedtogener
atehy
pot
hesi
sbutnott
otesthy
pot
hesi
s.Theyar
e
al
soti
meconsumi
ngandcost
ly.

c)BASEDONTI
MEFRAMEFORSTUDY

1)LONGI
TUDI
NAL

Thi
sisastudywhichf
oll
owssubj
ectsoveraper
iodoft
imeint
hefuture.
I
nstudythatfol
l
owsthesubj
ectsforsi
xormor emonthsi
sconsi
dered
l
ongit
udi
nal

8|
Page
 2)CROSSSECTI
ONAL

Thi
sisast
udywhi
chexami
nest
hesubj
ect
satonepoi
nti
nti
me.

THERESEARCHPROCESS
PHASES

Ther
esear
chpr
ocesscangener
all
ybedi
vi
dedi
nto4phases:

a)Concept
ual
/thi
nki
ng/
planni
ngphase

 Thi
sinv ol
ves f
ormulat
ion and del
i
mitat
ion oft
he pr
obl
em,f
ormul
ati
on of
obj
ect
ives,hy
pothesi
sandresear
chquesti
ons

 Li
ter
atur
erev
iew

 Dev
elopmentoft
heor
eti
cal
/concept
ual
framewor
k

 Det
ermi
ningmat
eri
alsandmet
hods.

Theendpr
oductoft
hisphasei
sar
esear
chpr
oposal
.

b)Empi
ri
cal
/doi
ngphase

Thisincl
udesdatacol
l
ect
ionandpr
epar
ati
onf
oranal
ysi
s.I
nthi
sphaset
her
esear
ch
proposali
simplement
ed.

c)I
nter
pret
ive/
anal
yti
cphase

Thi
sist
hephaseofdat
aanal
ysi
sandi
nter
pret
ati
on.

d)Communi
cat
ion/
dissemi
nat
ionphase

Thi
sist
hephaseofwr
it
ingt
her
epor
tandcommuni
cat
ingt
hef
indi
ngs.

STEPS

Ther
esear
chpr
ocesscanal
sobedi
vi
dedi
nto10keyst
eps:

1)I
dent
if
icat
ionoftheresear
cht
opi
c-Thi
sincl
udesbackgr
oundi
nfor
mat
ionand
pr
obl
em stat
ement.

2)For
mul
ati
onofr
esear
chobj
ect
ives,
hypot
hesi
sandr
esear
chquest
ions.

9|
Page
 3)Expl
aini
ngt
her
ati
onal
e/j
ust
if
icat
ionoft
her
esear
chpr
obl
ems.

4)Rev
iewofl
i
ter
atur
e.

5)Hi
ghl
i
ght
ingt
hemat
eri
alsandmet
hods.

6)Det
ermi
ningt
hemet
hodsofmeasur
ement
s.

7)Conduct
ingapr
etest
/pi
l
otst
udy

8)Dat
acol
l
ect
ionandpr
esent
ati
on

9)Dat
aanal
ysi
sandi
nter
pret
ati
on

10)
Communi
cat
ionoft
her
esear
chf
indi
ngs.

STUDYVARI
ABLES

Def
ini
ti
on
 Vari
ablesareatt
ri
but
es,proper
ti
esand/orchar
act
eri
sti
csofi
ndi
vi
dual
s,ev
ent
s
orobject
sthatar
eexaminedinastudyor

 Anymeasur
edchar
act
eri
sti
csonwhi
chi
ndi
vi
dual
obser
vat
ionsar
emadeor

 Anyf act
or,char
act
eri
sti
c,qual
i
tyorat
tri
but
eofcasest
hati
smeasur
ed or
recor
dedinastudy

Ty
pes
1)Pr
edi
ctor
/expl
anat
ory
/independent

 Fact
orst
hatt
her
esear
chert
hinksexpl
ainv
ari
ati
onsi
ndependentv
ari
abl
e

 I
tisthev ar
iabl
emani
pul
atedbyt
her
esear
chert
oascer
tai
nit
sef
fecti
fanyon
dependentvari
abl
e

 Notdependentonanyot
her

 Usual
l
ycomesf
ir
st.

2)Dependent
//cr
it
eri
on

10|
Page
  Ameasur
edv
ari
abl
ewhi
chi
sdependentupont
hei
ndependentv
ari
abl
e

 Var
iat
ionont
hedependentv
ari
abl
eiswhatr
esear
cht
ri
est
oexpl
ain(
eff
ect
)

 I
tist
heout
comev
ari
abl
ethatt
her
esear
cherwant
stoexpl
ain

 Usual
l
yther
eisonedependentv
ari
abl
e.

 Usual
l
ycomesl
aterorl
ast
.

3)Di
scr
ete/
cat
egor
ical
var
iabl
e

Thesear
evar
iabl
est
hatt
akeonl
yaf
ewv
aluese.
g.gender
,mar
it
alst
atus

4)Ext
raneousi
nter
veni
ngv
ari
abl
e

Thesearevar
iablest
hatar
enotofdirecti
nterestt
otheresear
cherbutt
hatcoul
daf
fect
thevar
iabl
esbeingmeasur
ed.e.g.age,l
evelofnutr
it
ion

Theyaret
houghtt
oaf
fectt
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
weent
hedependentandi
ndependent
var
iabl
e

I
DENTI
FICATI
ONOFRESEARCHTOPI
C

Resear
chTopi
c/pr
obl
em
 Abr
oadi
ssue/ar
eat
hati
simpor
tantt
oheal
th/
humanser
vicepr
ofessi
on

 Ani
ssue/
areaunderi
nvest
igat
ionor

 I
ssueorconcernthatpuzzl
est
her esearcherduetoi
tseffect
sorconsistence
despi
te measur
es t
aken e.g neonataldeaths,mat
ernalmor t
ali
ty,st
udents
perf
ormancee.t
.c

St
epsi
ntopi
csel
ect
ion
1)I
dent
if
ywhati
nter
est
sorpuzzl
esonei
nanar
eae.
g.neonat
almor
tal
i
ty

11|
Page
 2)I
denti
fykeywordsforthet
opici
.e.zerodowntot
her eal
aspectt
hati
spuzzl
i
nge.
gincr
easeinneonatal
mortal
i
ty,
upt akeo0f
vcont
racepti
ves

3)Def
inet
hetopici
.eanaly
zekeywordskeenl
ybydet er
mini
ngwhattoconcent
rat
e
one.gneonat
aldeat
h-earl
yorl
ate,
malnutr
it
ion-
causesoref
fect
s

4)For
mul
atet
het
opi
c.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofagoodr
esear
cht
opi
c
 Resear
chabl
e/f
easi
ble

 Addr
essescur
rentconcer
nsorpr
ior
it
yar
easi
nnur
sing

 Capt
ivat
est
hei
nter
est
soft
her
esear
cher

 Paymor
eat
tent
iont
oet
hical
issues.

 Enhanceexi
sti
ngknowl
edgebyf
il
li
ngi
nthegapst
hatexi
st

 I
mpr
ovesnur
singser
vicesbycont
ri
but
ingt
omor
eknowl
edgeandbet
terski
l
ls.

Sour
cesofr
esear
chpr
obl
ems
 Exper
ience–t henur
se’
sev
ery
dayexper
iencepr
ovi
desar
ichsuppl
yofpr
obl
ems
fori
nvesti
gat
ion

 Nursi
ng l
i
terature-ideasforresear
chpr oj
ectsoft
encomef rom readi
ng t
he
nur
singl
it
erature(publi
shedr
esearchrepor
ts)andt
extbooks/
art
icl
es

 Exi
sti
ng Theori
es – thi
s incl
udes theoret
ical schemes and concept
ual
fr
ameworksthathav
ebeendevel
opedi
nnur si
ngandot herr
elat
eddi
sci
pli
nes.

 I
deasf r
om externalsources-aresear
chtopiccanbegi v
ent ostudentsasa
di
rectsuggest
ion.Inothercasesideasforstudi
esmayemer geasar esul
tof
br
ainst
ormingsessionorfrom di
scussi
onswit
hothernur
ses,r
esear
cherse.t.c

 Societ
altrends–soci
alconcer
nsr
efl
ect
edi
nthepol
i
cies,
legi
slat
ionandf
undi
ng
pri
orit
iesoftheGover
nment.

 Themedi
a–i
ssueswhi
char
efr
equent
lyr
epor
tedi
nthemedi
acanal
sof
ormt
he

12|
Page
 basi
sofar
esear
chpr
obl
em.

Condi
ti
ons/component
sfort
heexi
stenceofar
esear
chpr
obl
em
1)Ther
emustbeani
ndi
vi
dual
orgr
oupwhi
chhassomedi
ff
icul
tyorpr
obl
em

2)Ther
emustbesomeobj
ect
ivest
obeat
tai
ned.

3)Ther
e mustbe al
ternat
ive means (
orcour
ses ofact
ion)f
orobt
aini
ng t
he
obj
ecti
ve(
s)onewi
shestoattai
n

4)Ther
emustbesomeenv
ironment
(s)t
owhi
cht
hedi
ff
icul
typer
tai
ns.

Wr
it
ingdownt
her
esear
chpr
obl
em
Agoodst
atement

 Cl
ear
lyandunambi
guousl
yident
if
iest
hev
ari
abl
e(s)underconsi
der
ati
on

 Cl
ear
lyexpr
essest
hev
ari
abl
esr
elat
ionshi
ptoeachot
her

 Speci
fi
esnat
ureoft
hepopul
ati
on(
s)bei
ngst
udi
ed.

 Speci
fi
est
heenv
ironment
(s)wher
ethest
udywi
l
lbeunder
taken.

FORMULATI
ON OFRESEARCH OBJECTI
VES,QUESTI
ONSAND
HYPOTHESI
S
RESEARCHOBJECTI
VES
Def
ini
ti
on
 Aspect
soft
hephenomenonunder
studyt
hatt
her
esear
cherdesi
rest
obr
ingout
att
heendoft
heresear
chper
iodor

 Cl
ear
,conci
se,
decl
arat
ivest
atementexpr
essedt
odi
rectabi
gst
udy

 Obj
ect
ivesar
eusual
l
yder
ivedf
rom t
hest
atedpr
obl
em oft
hest
udy
.

I
tfocusesonident
if
icati
onanddescr
ipt
ionofv
ari
abl
esand/
ordet
ermi
nat
ionoft
he
r
elat
ionshi
psamongv ar
iabl
es.

13|
Page
Theobj
ect
ivessuggestthemannerinwhichther
esearcherseekst
ost
udyt
hequest
ion
andt
helev
el ofev
idencetobeobtai
nedthrought
hestudyfindi
ngs

Verbslikediscover
,expl
oreordescr
ibesuggestaninv
estigat
ionofaninfr
equentl
y
resear
chedtopic.Verbsl
iket
estorcomparesuggestastudywi t
hbet
terest
abl
ished
knowledgebase.

I
mpor
tance
1)Br
idgethegapbetweenther
esear
chandi
tspur
posesandt
hest
udydesi
gnand
pl
anfordat
acoll
ecti
onandanal
ysi
s

2)Summar
izewhati
stobeachi
evedbyt
hest
udy

3)Gui
dei
nfor
mul
ati
onoft
est
abl
ehy
pot
hesi
s

4)Bui
l
dacl
osel
i
nkwi
tht
hest
atementoft
hepr
obl
em

5)Hel
pther
esear
chert
okeepwi
thi
nthescopeofst
udybydef
ini
ngt
hear
eaof
f
ocus

Ty
pes
1)Br
oad

2)speci
fi
c

Char
act
eri
sti
csofagoodr
esear
chobj
ect
ive
 Speci
fi
c-addr
essi
ngoneout
comeori
ssue

 Measur
abl
e-useacti
onver
be. g.det
ermi
ne,compar
e,i
nvest
igat
e,expl
ore,f
indout
,
exami
ne,i
nquir
e,est
abl
i
she.t
.c.

 Achi
evabl
e–i
nter
msoft
ime,
resour
ces

 Real
i
sti
c

 Ti
mebound/
ti
mel
y

RESEARCHQUESTI
ONS
Def
ini
ti
on

14|
Page
ASt
atementt
hati
dent
if
iest
hekeystudyvari
abl
es,
thei
rpossi
blei
nter
rel
ati
onshi
psand
t
henatur
eoft
hepopul
ati
onofi
nter
eststat
edasaquesti
on.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofagoodr
esear
chquest
ion

 I
thast
hekeyv
ari
abl
esoft
hest
udy

 I
tst
atest
hepossi
blei
nter
rel
ati
onshi
pofst
udyv
ari
abl
es

 I
tident
if
iest
hepopul
ati
onofst
udy
.

Component
s/par
ts

 St
em –what
,who,
why
,how

 Topi
c

Lev
elsofQuest
ions

Thisdependsonamountofknowl
edgeav
ail
abl
e,numberofv
ari
abl
eandav
ail
abi
l
ityofa
theor
yaboutthet
opi
c.

1)Lev
el1Quest
ions

 Hasast
em andt
het
opi
c

 Thestem i
sal
way
s“whati
s”or“
whatar
e”andt
het
opi
cisasi
ngl
eent
it
yor
concept

 Theyl
eadt
oexpl
orat
ionandr
esul
tincompl
etedescr
ipt
ionoft
het
opi
c.

 Hasonl
yonev
ari
abl
eandonepopul
ati
on

 Ther
eisl
i
ttl
eornopr
iorknowl
edgeoft
het
opi
c.

2)Lev
el2Quest
ions

 Bui
l
dont
her
esul
tsofst
udi
esatt
hef
ir
stl
evel
.

 Hasat
leastt
wov
ari
abl
es

 Looksattherel
ati
onshi
pbet
weenv
ari
abl
es-t
hest
em quest
ionasks“
whati
sthe
rel
ati
onshi
p?”

15|
Page
  Li
ter
atur
eisav
ail
abl
efr
om pr
evi
ousst
udi
es

3)Lev
el3Quest
ions

 Bui
l
dsont
her
esul
tsofpr
evi
ousr
esear
ch.

 Thesear
e“why
”quest
ions-
askwhyt
her
elat
ionshi
pexi
sts

 Al
ll
evel
3quest
ionsl
eadt
oexper
iment
aldesi
gns.

 Eachhast
wov
ari
abl
es

 Eachquesti
onspeci
fyt
hatonev
ari
abl
ecausesori
nfl
uencest
heact
ionoft
he
otherv
ari
abl
e

 Researcheranswerst
hei
nit
ialwhyquest
ionbef
orepr
oposi
ngt
her
elat
ionshi
p
betweenv ar
iabl
es

HYPOTHESI
S
Def
ini
ti
on
 St
atementofpr
edi
ctedr
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenv
ari
abl
esunderst
udyor

 Tent
ati
vepr
oposi
ti
onf
ormul
atedf
orempi
ri
cal
test
ingor

 Tentat
iveexpl
anat
ionf
orcer
tai
nbehav
iorpat
ter
ns,phenomenaorev
ent
sthat
haveoccurr
ed.

Sour
cesofhy
pot
hesi
s
 Chance

 Cri
ti
calanal
ysi
soft
hepr
obl
em anddi
scussi
onwi
thot
herexper
iencednur
sesor
col
leagues

 Theor
ies-t
heor
ypr
ovi
desdi
rect
ionbyst
ati
ngwhati
sknown.

 Obser
vat
ion

 Exper
ience

 Fi
ndi
ngsf
rom ot
herst
udi
es

16|
Page
Char
act
eri
sti
csofawor
kabl
ehy
pot
hesi
s
1.Test
abl
e–possi
blet
omeasur
ebyei
therqual
i
tat
iveorquant
it
ati
vemet
hods.

2.Logi
cal
,fact
ual/
theorybased-asoundhy pothesi
sisconsi
stentwit
hex i
sti
ng
bodyoft
heoryandresear
chfindi
ngs.I
tshoul
dbebasedonasoundr at
ional
e.

3.Dir
ectl
yrel
atedt otheresear
chpr obl
em-hypot
hesi
sshouldcont
ainessent
ial
l
y
thesamemat er
ialast
heproblem st
atementorpur
posest
atement
.

4.St
atesar
elat
ionshi
pbet
weeni
ndependentanddependentv
ari
abl
es

5.Repr
esent
sasi
ngl
euni
t/subsetoft
hepr
obl
em

Wor
dingt
hehy
pot
hesi
s

Awel
lst
atedhy
pot
hesi
sshoul
dcommuni
cat
e

 Thev
ari
abl
esoft
hehy
pot
hesi
s

 Thepopul
ati
onbei
ngst
udi
ed

 Thepr
edi
ctedout
comeoft
hehy
pot
hesi
s.

Pur
poseofhy
pot
hesi
s
1.Prov
idesdir
ect
ion-br
idgest
hegapbet
weent
hepr
obl
em andev
idenceneededf
or
i
tssolut
ion

2.I
dent
if
ytheant
ici
pat
eddi
rect
ionoft
her
elat
ionshi
p

3.Formthebasisf
ortheul
ti
mateconcl
usi
onsofsol
uti
ons-concl
usi
onsar
emadeon
thebasi
softher
esult
softhet
est
sofhypot
hesi
s

4.Gui
decol
l
ect
ionofdat
a.

5.Per
mit
sther
esear
cht
ounder
standt
hepr
obl
em wi
thgr
eat
ercl
ari
ty.

Ty
pesofhy
pot
hesi
s
Resear
chv
snul
l

a)Resear
ch/
sci
ent
if
ic/
wor
kabl
e/al
ter
nat
ive

I
tconsi
stsofast
atementaboutexpect
edr
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenv
ari
abl
es.

17|
Page
I
tcanbe:

1)Di
rect
ional

Thi
sisaHy pot
hesi
sthatspecifi
est heexpecteddi
rect
ionofrelati
onshipbetweent
he
i
ndependentanddependentvari
ables.Exi
stenceoft
herelat
ionshipisproposedandt
he
nat
ureofthedir
ecti
onofthi
sr el
ati
onship.

I
tusest ermssuchasposi t
ive,negati
ve,lessthane.gther
eisanegat
ivecor
rel
ati
on
betweenincr
easeinageandper formance;mor egir
lst
hanboysareli
kel
ytohavea
fr
iendoftheopposi
tegenderbeforeform one.

2)Nondi
rect
ional

I
ndi
cat
etheexistenceofarel
ati
onshipbet
weenv ari
ablesbutt
heant
ici
pat
eddi
rect
ion
oft
her
elat
ionshi
pisnotst
ated.I
tisformul
atedbecause:

 Ther
elat
ionshi
phasnev
erbeenst
udi
edpr
evi
ousl
yor

 Ther
ehasbeenconf
li
cti
ngexpl
oredf
indi
ngsi
npr
evi
ousst
udi
es

b)Nul
l/
stat
ist
ical

Nul
lhypothesi
sstat
est hatnodi
ff
erenceexi
stsbet
weengr
oupsort
hatt
her
eisno
cor
rel
ati
onbetweenvar
iables.

I
findataanal
ysi
sast ati
sti
cal
lysi
gni
fi
cantr
elat
ionshi
pemergesbet
weent
hev
ari
abl
es
ataspeci
fi
edl
evelofsigni
fi
cance,
thenul
lhypot
hesisi
srej
ect
ed.

Rej
ect
ionoft
henul
lhy
pot
hesi
sist
heaccept
anceofal
ter
nat
ivehy
pot
hesi
s.

Si
mpl
evscompl
ex
a)Si
mpl
e/bi
var
iat
ehy
pot
hesi
s

Thi
scont
ainsonl
yonei
ndependentandonedependentv
ari
abl
e

b)Compl
ex/mul
ti
var
iat
e

Complexvar
iablescont
aint
woormor
eindependentv
ari
abl
es,t
woormor
edependent
var
iabl
esorboth.

Unl
esst
hest
udyi
sexami
ningt
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenv
ari
abl
es,hy
pot
hesesar
enot

18|
Page
requi
red.Qual
i
tat
iveresearchaswel
lassi
ngl
evar
iabl
edescr
ipt
iveandmet
hodol
ogi
cal
studi
esdonottesthy
pot heses

Whenhy
pot
hesescannotbet
est
edi
nther
esear
ch,
resear
chquest
ionsar
eposed.

LI
TERATUREREVI
EW
Thisis a pr
ocess ofcr
it
ical
l
yrevi
ewing and document
ing r
elev
antpubl
i
shed and
unpubl
ishedr
esear
chworkdonethusf
arintheareaunderi
nvest
igat
ion.

I
tentai
l
st hesystemat
ici
dentif
icat
ion,l
ocati
onandanal ysi
sofdocument
scont
aini
ng
i
nfor
mationrel
atedtot
heresearchprobl
em beingi
nvest
igated.

Pur
poseofl
it
erat
urer
evi
ew

i
) Pr
eventdupl
i
cat
ionofwor
kthathasal
readybeendone

i
i
) Tor efi
net
hepr
obl
em st
atementbyest
abl
i
shi
ngwhatot
her
shav
elear
ntand
report
ed

i
i
i) Helpstheresearchertofami
l
iari
zewi t
hther esearchmethodol
ogy
-byident
ifyi
ng
thestrat
egiespr ocedur
esandmeasur ingi nst
rument
st hathavebeenf ound
useful
intheinvesti
gati
onoftheresearchproblem

i
v) Hel
pst
her
esear
chert
ojust
if
ywhyt
her
esear
chi
sneeded.

v
) To ensur
et hatno i
mpor
tantvar
iabl
et hathas been f
ound i
nthe pastt
o
repeat
edl
yhaveani
mpactonthepr
oblem i
signor
ed.

v
i) Help maket heresearcherfami
l
iarwi
th pr
evi
ousst
udi
esand t
husf
aci
l
itat
e
i
nterpr
etat
ionoft
her esult
s.

Scopeofl
it
erat
uresr
evi
ew

Li
ter
aturerev
iewfocusonareasrel
atedt
othet
opi
cunder
studyst
art
ingwi
tht
her
ecent
publ
icat
ionsorar
ti
cles(
5-10year
s)

Ami
nimum of10andmaxi
mum of20publ
i
cat
ionssuf
fi
cef
ort
her
esear
chatt
hisl
evel
.

Whenr
evi
ewi
nganyl
i
ter
atur
ether
esear
chneedst
o:

 Assesst
hest
rengt
hsandweaknessesofpastwor
kont
hesubj
ect

 Repor
tanyi
nconsi
stentf
indi
ngs

 I
dent
if
ygapsi
nknowl
edge

19|
Page
  Det
ermi
net
hecont
ri
but
ionofpr
oposedst
udy

 Consi
dert
hepossi
bil
i
tyofuni
ntent
ional
dupl
i
cat
ion

Sour
cesofl
it
erat
ure

i
) Pr
imar
y

Thi
sisadi r
ectdescript
ionofanyoccurr
encebyanindiv
idualwhoactual
lyobserv
edor
wit
nessedtheoccurrence.I
tisthewor
kwr i
tt
enbythepersonwhoisactuall
yinv
olvedi
n
orisresponsi
bleforgeneratingthei
deapubli
shed.Thi
si stheper
sonwhoconduct s
empir
icalr
esearchandpublishesit

e.
g.ThesesandDi
sser
tat
ions

i
i
)Secondar
ysour
ces

Theseincl
udeanypubli
cat
ionwri
tt
enbyanaut horwhowasnotadirectobserveror
part
ici
pantintheevent
sdescri
bed.e.
g.books,Govtdocument
s,Journal
s,report
s,
Newspapers,
Magazi
nes.

St
eps

1)I
denti
fythevar
iouspubl
i
shedandunpubl
i
shedmat
eri
alsav
ail
abl
eont
het
opi
cof
i
nter
estandgai
naccesstot
hese

2)Gathert
herel
evanti
nfor
mati
onbyei t
hergoi
ngt
hrought
henecessar
ymat
eri
alsi
na
l
ibr
aryorget
ti
ngaccesstoonl
inesources

Pr
epareani
ndexcar
dorcomput
erent
ryf
oreachar
ti
cler
eadt
ohel
por
gani
zet
he
i
nformat
ion.

Cont
entofani
ndexcar
d

 Quot
ati
onorci
tat
ion

 Keywor
d

 Asummar yofcont
entofbookorar
ti
cleconcent
rat
ingoni
nfor
mat
ionr
elev
antt
o
t
hestudy
.

 Br
iefanal
ysi
soft
hecont
entwi
thcomment
ssuchas:

o Pr
obl
em t
hatwasr
esear
ched

o Appr
opr
iat
enessoft
hemet
hodol
ogy

20|
Page
 o I
mpor
tantf
indi
ngsoft
hest
udy

3)Wr
it
eupt
hel
i
ter
atur
erev
iew

Anal
yze,
organi
zeandr
epor
tal
lrel
evanti
nfor
mat
ioni
nanor
der
lyway
.

Uset heobject
ivest
oor
gani
zey
ourwr
it
eupandusey
ourownwor
dsusi
ngr
elev
ant
ref
erences.

THEORETI
CAL/CONCEPTUALFRAMEWORK

Fr
amewor
k

Thi
sisanexplanat
ionbasedontheli
ter
atur
eyouhav
ereadonhow v
ari
abl
esi
nthe
st
udyar
eexpectedtorel
atet
oeachot
her

Concept
ualf
ramewor
k

Expl
anati
onbasedonli
ter
atureandresear
chaboutvari
abl
esbutt
helit
erat
uredoesn’
t
cont
ainanypar
ti
cul
art
heorythatexpl
ainst
her
elat
ionshi
pamongvar
iabl
es

Theor
eti
calf
ramewor
k

Var
iabl
eshav
ebeenstudi
edbefor
eandhav ebeenfoundtoberel
atedt
ooneanother
andther
eisanexi
sti
ngtheor
ythatexpl
ainst
her el
ati
onshi
poroneproposedbythe
aut
hor

Li
ter
atur
eshoul
dbeaddedt
oexpl
aint
het
heor
ybei
ngused.

Fr
om t
heor
eti
cal
framewor
k:

 Testabl
ehypot
hesi
scanbedev
elopedt
oexami
newhet
hert
het
heor
yfor
mul
ated
i
sv ari
edornot

 I
ft est
abl
e hypotheses are notdev
eloped dev
elopi
ng a good theor
eti
cal
f
rameworkiscent
raltounderst
andi
ngt
heprobl
em underi
nvest
igat
ion.

 I
dent
ifyt
henet
wor
kofr
elat
ionshi
psamongv
ari
abl
esconsi
der
edi
mpor
tantf
or
t
hestudy

 I
dent
if
ythepr
obl
emsf
ir
standt
hent
hepr
obl
emst
hatcont
ri
but
etoi
t.

Feat
uresoft
heor
eti
calf
ramewor
k

 Cont
ainsVar
iabl
esconsi
der
edr
elev
antt
othest
udy

21|
Page
  I
tshowst
herel
ati
onshi
pbet
weent
woormor
evar
iabl
esandhowt
heyar
erel
ated
t
oeachot
her

 Showsthenat
ureanddi
rect
ionoft
her
elat
ionshi
pasest
abl
i
shedf
rom pr
evi
ous
st
udies

 Acl
earexpl
anat
ionofwhyweexpectt
her
elat
ionshi
ptoexi
st

 Aschemat i
cdiagr
am ofthetheor
eti
calf
ramewor
ksor
eader
scanseeandcl
ear
ly
comprehendthetheor
izedrel
ati
onshi
p.

CI
TATI
ONANDREFERENCI
NG

Thi
si sthepr
ocessofidenti
fyi
ngthesour
cesofdi
rectquot
ati
onsandofanyf
act
sor
opi
nionsusedbyther
esearcher.

Reasons

i
) Toshow any
onet
haty
ouunder
standt
het
opi
candcandemonst
rat
eyourown
thought
soni
t.

i
i
)Todemonst r
atethatyouhav
ereadwi
del
yanddeepl
yi.eshow t
hedept
hand
scopeofy
ourresear
ch.

i
i
i)Toenabl
ether
eader
stol
ocat
ewher
eyouobt
ainedeachquot
eori
dea

i
v)Byprov
idi
ngtheori
ginalsourceyouareacknowl
edgi
ngt
haty
ouhav
ereadt
he
wor
kandrecogni
zetheorigi
nalaut
hor
.

Ci
tat
ionst
yles

Cit
ati
onwithi
nyourtextl
i
nkspecif
icpassagestothesourcesy
ouconsul
tedorquot
ed.
Thiscanbedonethr
oughint
extparent
heti
cnotes,
footnot
esorendnot
es.

I
naddi
ti
on,
ali
stofwor
ksci
tedi
spl
acedatt
heendoft
hepaper
.

Ther
ear
emanydi
ff
erentci
tat
ionst
yles.Thesei
ncl
ude:

i
) Har
var
dUni
ver
sit
y(aut
hor
-dat
e)st
yle

Thisis wi
dely accept
ed in academi
c publi
cat
ions.When you ref
ert oideas or
i
nformat
ionyouhav ecol
lect
edduringy
ourresear
chy oui
ncl
udetheauthoranddat
eof
thepubl
i
cati
onreferr
edtoorcit
ed.

22|
Page
i
i
) APAst
yle(
Amer
icanPsy
chol
ogi
calAssoci
ati
on)

Thi
siscommonlyusedi
nsoci
alsci
ences.Whenusi
ngAPAaut
hordat
emet
hodi
sused
i
ntheint
extci
tat
ion.

i
i
i) MLA(
moder
nLanguageAssoci
ati
onofAmer
ica)

Thi
siscommonl
yusedi
nli
ter
atur
e.

i
v) Chi
cagoUni
ver
sit
yst
yle

Har
var
dUni
ver
sit
yst
yle
I
nint
extci
tat
ionmor
eemphasi
smaybepl
acedon:

 Thewr
it
erhencey
oust
artwi
tht
hewr
it
erf
oll
owedbyt
hepar
ent
hesi
s

Ki
mani(
2004)f
oundoutt
hatt
her
eisahi
ghdr
opoutamongmot
her
senr
oll
edi
nthe
ANC cl
i
nic

 Thei
deai
nwhi
chcasey
oust
artwi
tht
hepar
ent
hesi
s(i
ndi
rect
)

Ther
eisahi
ghdr
opoutamongmot
her
senr
oll
edi
ntheANCcl
i
nic(
Kimani
,2004)

I
ntextci
tat
ion
1)Aut
hor
’snamement
ionedi
nthet
ext

Whenmakingref
erencet
oanaut
hor
’swor
kiny
ourt
extt
hei
rnamei
sfol
l
owedbyy
ear
ofpubl
i
cat
ion

E.g.Ki
mani(
2004)f
oundoutt
hatt
her
eisahi
ghdr
opoutamongmot
her
senr
oll
edi
n
theANC cli
nic

2)Aut
hor
’snamenotment
ionedi
nthet
ext

Theauthorandtheyearofpubli
cat
ionshoul
dbeplaceatt
her
elev
antpoi
nti
nthe
sent
enceoratt
heendofthesent
enceinbr
acket
se.
g.

Ther
eisahi
ghdr
opoutamongmot
her
senr
oll
edi
ntheANCcl
i
nic(
Kimani
,2004)

3)Mor
ethanoneaut
hor
’swor
kci
ted

23|
Page
Whererefer
enceismadetomor
ethanoneaut
hori
nasent
enceandt
heyar
eref
err
edt
o
di
rect
ly,
theyarebot
hcit
ed.

E.
g.Kimani(
2004)andKwamboka(2006)havebot
hfoundoutt
hatt
her
eisahi
ghdr
op
outamongmothersenr
oll
edi
ntheANCclini
cor

Ther
eisahi ghdr
opoutamongmot
her
senr
oll
edi
ntheANC cl
i
nic(
Kimani
,2004;
Kwamboka,
2006)

4)2,
3or4aut
hor
sci
ted

Theaut
hor
sar
eci
tedwi
tht
hel
astt
woj
oinedby“
and”

E.g.MainaandMaranga(
2004)r
epor
tedt
hatt
heupt
akeofLongt
erm cont
racept
ive
methodsi
slow.Or

Theupt
akeofLongt
erm cont
racept
ivemet
hodsi
slow(
Mai
naandMar
anga,
2004)

Mai
na,MakeniandMar
anga(
2004)r
epor
tedt
hatt
heupt
akeofLongt
erm cont
racept
ive
met
hodsislow.Or

TheuptakeofLongt
erm cont
racept
ivemet
hodsi
slow (
Mai
na,Makeni
,Li
j
oodiand
Mar
anga,2004)

5)Mor
ethan4aut
hor
sci
ted

Onl
ythef
ir
staut
horshoul
dbeusedf
oll
owedby“
etal
”

Mai
naetal(
2004)r
epor
tedt
hatt
heupt
akeofLongt
erm cont
racept
ivemet
hodsi
slow.
Or

Theupt
akeofLongt
erm cont
racept
ivemet
hodsi
slow(
Mai
naetal
,2004)

6)Sev
eral
wor
ksbyt
hesameaut
hori
ndi
ff
erenty
ear
s

Ifthe worksil
lust
rat
esthe same poi
ntand publi
shed i
n diff
erentyear
st hen t
he
ref
erenceshoul
dbecitedi
nchronol
ogi
calor
deri
.e.ear
li
estf
irstwit
hy ear
sseparat
edby
semicolons

E.
g.Mai
na(
2004;
2011)r
epor
tedt
hatt
heupt
akeofLongt
erm cont
racept
ivemet
hodsi
s
l
ow

7)Sev
eral
wor
ksbyoneaut
hori
nthesamey
ear

I
fsev
eralwor
kspubl
i
shedi
nthesamey
earar
eref
err
edt
oonasi
ngl
eoccasi
on,t
hese

24|
Page
shoul
dbedi
ff
erent
iat
edbyaddi
ngal
owercasel
ett
erdi
rect
lywi
thnospaceaf
tert
he
year

E.
g.t
her
eisneedt
oaddl
i
fet
oyear
saddedt
oli
veoft
heel
der
ly(
Mor
aa,
2011a;
b)

8)Cor
por
ateaut
hor
s

Ift
hewor kisbyarecognizedor
ganizat
ionandhasnoper sonalauthort
heni ti
susually
cit
edundert hebodyt hatcommi ssi
onedt hework.Thisappliest opubli
cati
onsby
Associ
ations,Companiesand Gov tDepart
ments.ItisAccept ableto usest andard
abbrev
iati
onsoracronymsf orthesebodiesprov
idedthatfullnamei sgiventhef i
rst
ti
mewi ththeabbr
evi
ati
oni nbr
ackets.

E.
g.accor
dingt
oWHO(
2006)
……

9)I
fnoaut
horordat
eisgi
ven

I
ftheaut
horcannotbeidenti
fi
eduseanonymous(
Anon)andt
het
it
leoft
hewor
kand
dat
eofpubl
i
cati
on.Tit
leshoul
dbeinit
ali
cs

g.Chi
E. l
dMor
tal
i
tyi
nKenya(
Anon)
,2001……….
.

Whendat
eisnot
egi
venusenodat
e(n.
d)

E.
g.accor
dingt
oMuchai
(n.
d)………….
.

10)Secondar
ysour
ces

Youmaycomeacrossasummaryofanotheraut
hor’
sworkint
hesour
cey
ouar
e
readi
ngwhi
chy
ouwoul
dli
ket
omakeref
erencet
oinyourwor
k.

Thi
sisci
ted:

Br
own(
1994)ci
tedi
nMor
aa(
2006)
…………….

11)Quot
ingpor
ti
onsofpubl
ishedt
ext

I
fyouwanttoi
ncludet
extf
rom publ
i
shedworkyoumustincl
udequot
ati
onmar
ksand
maybei
ntr
oducedbysuchphr
asesastheaut
horst
atest
hat…

E.
g.t
heaut
horst
atest
hat

“
Ther
eisneedt
oaddl
i
fet
oyear
saddedt
oli
veoft
heel
der
ly”(
Mor
aa,
2011p.20)

St
artt
hequot
ati
ononasepar
atel
i
nei
ndent
ed1/
2”f
rom t
hel
eftmar
gin.

12)Pagenumber
s

25|
Page
Incl
udi
ng page numbersinthe r
efer
ence wil
lhel
pt he r
eader
st r
ace yoursour
ce
especi
all
ywhenusingquot
esandforparaphr
asi
ngspeci
fi
cparagr
aphsint
het ext

p.f
orsi
ngl
epage(
p.12)

pp.f
ormul
ti
plepages(
pp.12,
40-
42)

Ref
erenci
ng
Basi
crul
es

 Alll
inesaf
tert
hefi
rstl
i
neofeachentryi
ny ourref
erencel
i
stshoul
dbei
ndent
edone
halfinchf
rom t
hel
eftmar
gin(hangi
ngindentat
ion)

 Authorsnamear einvert
ed(l
astnamefi
rst
).Giv
et hel
astnameandini
ti
alsforal
l
t
h
authorsofaparti
cularworkuptothe4 author.I
fmorethan4aut
hors,wri
tethe
fi
rstauthorandt
heinit
ial
sfol
l
owedbyetal.

 Ref
erencel
i
stshoul
dbeal
phabet
izedbyt
hel
astnameoft
hef
ir
staut
horofeach
work

 I
fyouhavemor ethanonearticl
ebythesameaut hor
,singl
eauthorr
efer
encesor
mul
ti
pleaut
horref
erenceswit
ht hesameexactauthorsinexactt
hesameor der
,li
st
byt
heyearofpubl
i
cationst
art
ingwiththeear
li
est
.

Ref
erenci
ngDi
ff
erentsour
ces:

a)Books

Author
,initi
als,year
.Ti
tl
e oft
he book:subt
it
le,Edi
ti
on.Pl
ace ofpubl
icat
ion
(t
own/cit
y):Publi
sher

E.
g.Calf
ee,R.C(1991)APA gui
de to ci
tat
ion:a pr
act
i de,2nd Edi
calGui ti
on.
Washi
ngt
onD.C:Ameri
canPsy
chol
ogi
calAssociat
ion

b)Ar
ti
clesi
nJour
nal
sorper
iodi
cal
s

26|
Page
 Author
,ini
ti
als,year.Ti
tl
eoft heart
icl
e,ful
lti
tl
eoft
hej
our
nal
,vol
umenumber
(i
ssuenumber /
partnumber)pagenumbers.

E.
g.Imhoff
,J.
A(2010)Useofnonfi
nanci
ali
ncenti
vesi
nmoti
vat
ingheal
thwor
ker
s.
Jour
nalofHumanresour
ceManagement,
66(
3),1200-
1223

Ti
tl
eoft
hej
our
nal
shoul
dbei
nit
ali
cs.

c)El
ect
roni
cjour
nal
sour
ces

(
i) Jour
nal
sav
ail
abl
efr
om Dat
abases

Aut
hor,i
nit
ial
s.Year.Ti
tleoft
heart
icl
e.Ful
lti
tl
eoft
hejournal[t
ypeofmedium]
vol
umenumber( issue/par
tnumber
)pagenumber.Avai
lablethrough:Nameof
Dat
abase[dataaccessed]

I
mhof f,J.A(
2010)Useofnonf inanciali
ncent
ivesinmotivat
ingheal
thworkers.
JournalofHumanr esour
ceManagement[ e-
jour
nal]66(
3),1200-
1223av
ailabl
e
nd
thr
ough: BMCdatabase[May2 , 2012]

(
ii
) Fr
om i
nter
net

Author,i
nit
ial
s.Year.Ti
tl
eofthear
ticl
e.Ful
lti
tl
eofthejournal[
onl
ine]v
olume
number( i
ssue/par
tnumber)pagenumber.Avai
labl
eat:f
ullwebaddress[dat
a
accessed]

E.
g.I mhoff,J.A(2010)Useofnonf inanci
alincent
ivesinmot i
vati
ng heal
th
workers. Jour
nalof Human r esource Management [ online]66(3),1200-
nd
1223avai
lableat
:htt
p:/
www.someadress.com/ful
l/
url[
May2 , 2012]

I
nst
eadofusi
ngURLy
oucanusedi
git
alobj
ecti
dent
if
ier(
DOI
)wheni
sav
ail
abl
e

d)Ar
ti
clesi
nMagazi
nes

Aut
hor,ini
ti
als.Year
.Ti
tl
eofthear
ti
cle.Ful
lti
tl
eofMagazi
ne,Day
,mont
h,page
numberandcolumnnumber.

Schul
tz,
S.(
2005)cer
vical
Cancer
.ThePar
ent
s,3rdSept
.pp1A,
2A

e)Ar
ti
clei
ntheNewspaper

Aut
hor,i
nit
ial
s.Year
.Tit
leoft
hear
ti
cle.Ful
lti
tl
eofNewspaper
,Day
,mont
h,page
numberandcolumnnumber
.

27|
Page
E.
g.Bar
aza,
S(2012)cer
vical
Cancer
.TheEastAf
ri
canSt
andar
d,6thMay
,p1A

Forl
ett
erst
otheedi
tor
,youadd[
let
tert
otheedi
tor
]af
tert
het
it
lebef
oret
het
it
leoft
he
Newspaper
.

E.
g.Bar
aza,S(
2012)NHI
F:ACashcow[
let
tert
otheedi
tor
]TheEastAf
ri
canSt
andar
d,
t
h
6 May,p1A

f
)Int
erv
iews,
emai
landot
herper
sonal
communi
cat
ions

Nopersonalcommunicat
ioni
sincl
udedi
nyourr
efer
encel
i
st.I
nst
ead,par
ent
het
ical
l
y
ci
tei
nthemai nt
extonl
y:

(
Communi
cat
or’
sname,
dat
eofcommuni
cat
ion)

E.
g.E.Robbi
ns,
Per
sonal
Communi
cat
ion, y4th,
Januar 2012)

g)Conf
erencer
epor
ts.

Aut
hor/
aut
horshi
p,edi
tor/organizat
ion,y
ear
.Ful
lti
tl
eofconf
erencer
epor
t,l
ocat
ion,
dat
e,pl
aceofpubli
cat
ion:publ
isher

e.
g.Makal
iJ.
W, 2006.6thGl
WHA, obalf
orum onHeal
th,
Nai
robi
,23rd-
27thJune,
Genev
a,
WHO

h)Conf
erencepaper
s

Aut
hor
,ini
ti
als,y
ear.Ful
lti
tl
eofconfer
encepaperin:f
oll
owedbyedit
orornameoft he
or
gani
zati
on,ful
lti
tl
eoftheconf
erence,l
ocat
ion,date,pl
aceofpubl
icat
ion:publ
isher

e.
g.Makali
J.W,2006.Prev
alenceofcer vi
calcanceramongWRAi
nZambi
ain: 6th
WHA,
Gl
obal
forum onHealth,
Nairobi
,23rd-
27thJune,Geneva,
WHO

i
)DVD,v
ideoorFi
l
m

Ful
lti
tl
eofDVD orv ideo.Yearofrelease.[t
ypeofmedi um]Di
rect
or.(
ifr
elev
ant
)
Count
ryofor
igi
n:Fi
lm st
udioormaker.(Otherr
elev
antdet
ails)
.

e.gGreatfi
lmsfr
om t
he80s:aselecti
onofcli
psfr
om War
nerBr
other
stopf
il
msf
rom
the1980s.2005[
DVD]NewYork:
War nerBr
other
s.

Foraf
il
mthesuggest
edel
ement
sshoul
dincl
ude:

Ti
tl
e.Yearofr
elease.[
Medi
um]Di
rect
or.Count
ryofor
igi
n:Fi
lm st
udi
o.

28|
Page
e.
g.Macbet
h,1948.[
Fil
m]Di
rect
edbyOr
sonWel
l
s.USA:
Republ
i
cPi
ctur
es

j
)Br
oadcast

Forabr
oadcastt
hesuggest
edel
ement
sshoul
dincl
ude:

Ser
iest
it
leandepi
sodenameandnumberi
frel
evant
,Yearofbr
oadcast
.[t
ypeof
medi
um]Br
oadcast
ingor
gani
sat
ionandChannel
,dat
eandt
imeoft
ransmi
ssi
on.

e.
g.Agenda-
Kenya,
2010.[
TVpr
ogr
amme]KBC,
KBC1,
30Januar
y2010,
9.00.

Forabr
oadcastobt
ainedt
hroughBoB(
BoxofBr
oadcast
s)

Li
tt
leBr
it
ain,2006.[
TV pr
ogr
ammer
ecor
ding]BBC,BBC2,30Januar
y200620.
00.
Av
ail
abl
ethr
ough:
BoxofBr
oadcast
sdat
abase[
Accessed12August2011]

29|
Page
HI
GHLI
GHTI
NGRESEARCHMETHODOLOGY
(
MATERI
ALSANDMETHODS)

RESEARCHDESI
GN
Resear
chDesi
gncanbedef
inedas:

 Thescheme,out
li
neorpl
an t
hati
sused t
o gener
ateanswer
stor
esear
ch
probl
emsor

 Abl
uepr
intorgui
det
other
esear
cheract
ivi
ti
esor

 Anar
rangementofcondi
ti
onsforcol
l
ectionandanal
ysi
sofdat
ainamannert
hat
ai
mstocombinerel
evancewit
htheresearchpur
poseor

 Theoveral
lpl
anforobtai
ninganswer
stot
her
esear
chquest
ionsandf
ort
est
ing
ther
esearchhy
pothesi
s

Ar esear
chdesi
gnspel
lsoutthestrat
egiesthatther esear
cheradopt
stodev
elop
i
nformati
ont
hati
saccur
ate,
obj
ect
iveandinter
pret
able.

Everyresear
cherhast
oident
if
yanappr
opr
iat
eresear
chdesi
gnt
hathe/
shewi
l
lusef
or
thestudy.

Fact
orst
oconsi
derwhensel
ect
ingadesi
gn
 Av
ail
abl
einf
ormat
ion(
stat
eofknowl
edge)aboutt
hepr
obl
em

 Thenat
ureoft
hepr
obl
em andi
tsenv
ironment(
set
ti
ng)

 Av
ail
abi
l
ityofr
esour
cesf
ort
hest
udy

30|
Page
  Theski
l
lsandcr
eat
ivi
tyoft
her
esear
cher

 Thet
ypeofcompar
isonst
hatwi
l
lbemade.

 Thepr
ocedur
est
hatwi
l
lbeusedt
ocont
rol
ext
raneousv
ari
abl
es

 Whenandhowmanyt
imesdat
awi
l
lbecol
l
ect
edf
rom t
her
esear
chsubj
ect
s

 Whet
herani
nter
vent
ionwi
l
lber
equi
redatt
heendoft
hest
udy
.

Ty
peofdesi
gns

1)Quant
it
ati
vedesi
gns
a)Exper
iment
aldesi
gn

 Tr
ue-
det
ermi
nedbymani
pul
ati
on,
randomi
zat
ionandcont
rol

 Quasi-
thoseinwhi
chei
thernocompar
isongr
ouporr
andom assi
gnment
ofsubj
ects.

b)Nonexper
iment
aldesi
gn

 Survey-
obtai
ndat
aoncert
ainv
ariablestodetermi
nethecharact
eri
sti
csof
populat
ionsont
hosesamevar
iables.I
tcol
lectsdat
athroughsel
freport
.

 Correl
ati
onalst
udi
es-
exami
ne t
he st
rengt
h ofr
elat
ionshi
ps bet
ween
var
iabl
es.

 Comparat
ivestudies-
examinet hedif
fer
encebet
weeni
ntactgr
oupson
somedependentvari
ableofint
erest
.

 Methodologi
calstudies-concer
nedwi t
h thedev
elopment
,test
ingand
ev
aluati
onofresearchinstrumentsandmet
hods

2)Qual
i
tat
ivedesi
gns

 Casest
udi
es-
indept
hexami
nat
ionofpeopl
eorgr
oupsofpeopl
e.

I
tmaybequal
i
tat
iveorquant
it
ati
vedependi
ngont
hepur
poseanddesi
gn

31|
Page
 chosenbyt
her
esear
cher
.

 Phenomenological studies-
examine human exper iences t
hrough
descr
ipt
ionsprovidedbypeopl
einvolv
ed(
li
vedexper
iences)

 Et
hnogr
aphi
calst
udi
es-col
l
ectdat
afr
om gr
oupssuchascul
tur
algr
oups.

 Gr
oundedt
heor
y-st
udt
hatdev
elopsat
heor
ybasedont
hedat
acol
l
ect
ed.

 Hist
ori
calst
udi
es-
concer
nedwi
thcol
l
ect
ionandanal
ysi
sofdat
afr
om t
he
past
.

Qual
it
iesofanef
fect
iveResear
chdesi
gn
 Sy
stemat
icandl
ogi
cal
-ef
fect
ivel
yaddr
esst
hequest
ionsr
aisedi
nthest
udy

 Cont
ri
but
etoaccur
ateandf
airi
nter
pret
ati
onofr
esul
ts

 Cl
ari
fytother
esear
chert
her
espondent
sandt
hemeansbywhi
cht
hest
udywi
l
l
beconduct
ed

 Cont
ri
but
etodeeperi
nsi
ght
sandbet
terunder
standi
ngoft
her
esear
cht
opi
c

RESEARCHSI
TE
Thi
sref
erst
othel
ocat
ionoft
hest
udy

The select
ion ofa research si
tei s essent
ial
.Thi
sis because i
tinf
luences t
he
usef
ulnessoftheinf
ormationproduced.

I
nsel
ect
ingar
esear
chsi
te:

 I
denti
fythel
argestar
easwhi
char
erel
evantt
oyourr
esear
chquest
ionsand
obj
ecti
ves

 Consi
dertheheterogenei
tyofthepot
enti
alst
udypopulat
ionandchoosear
easor
communitieswhichr epr
esenttherangeofv ar
iat
ionsont hemostimport
ant
char
acter
isti
cs

 I
dent
if
yandsel
ectact
ualcommuni
ti
eswhi
chf
ulf
il
lthesecr
it
eri
abymaki
ngsi
te

32|
Page
 v
isi
ts,
discussi
ngwi
thcommuni
tyl
eader
s

 I
ssuesofaccessi
bil
i
tyshoul
dal
sobeconsi
der
ed.

I
tisi
mpor
tantt
odi
scusshowt
her
esear
chsi
tewassel
ect
edandt
her
easonswhy
.

e.
g.thestudywascarri
edoutinMathareSl
ums.Pur
posi
vesampl
i
ngwasusedt
osel
ect
MathareSlumsbecauseithas……………..

I
nsel
ect
ingt
hest
udysi
tei
tisi
mpor
tantt
oconsi
dert
hef
oll
owi
ngf
act
ors

 st
udydesi
gn

 si
zeoft
hest
udypopul
ati
on-
avai
l
abi
l
ityoft
headequat
esubj
ect
s

 av
ail
abl
eresour
ces

 av
ail
abl
eti
me

 pur
poseoft
hest
udy

STUDYPOPULATI
ON
Popul
ati
onr
efer
sto:

 ent
ir
esetofel
ement
sthatmeetspeci
fi
edcr
it
eri
aor

 Acompletesetofpersonsorobj
ect
sthatpossesssomechar
act
eri
sti
cst
hati
s
ofi
nter
esttother
esearcheror

 Ent
ir
eaggr
egat
eofel
ement
sorcasest
hatmeetadesi
gnat
edsetcr
it
eri
aor

 A compl
etegr
oup/setofindi
vi
dual
s,element
sorbothwhi chhav
easetof
commonobser
vabl
echaract
eri
sti
cspr
edefi
nedbyt
hei
nvest
igator
.

I
tisimport
antfortheresearchertof
indoutasmuchaspossi
bleaboutt
hest
udy
popul
ati
oni
ncl
udingdemographics.

33|
Page
Ty
pesofpopul
ati
on
1)Tar
getpopul
ati
on

Thisconsi
stsofeveryel
ementinthewor
ldt
hatmeetsthesampli
ngcr
it
eri
a.Itist
he
enti
regroupofpeopleorobject
st owhi
chther
esearcherwi
shestogeneral
i
zethe
fi
ndingsoft
hestudy.

2)Accessi
blepopul
ati
on

Thisr ef
erstot hatpor
ti
on oft
he t
argetpopul
ati
on t
hatt
he i
nvest
igat
orcan
reasonabl
yreach.

Thi
sisref
err
edtoast hestudypopulat
ionanditi
st hepopulat
ionfr
om which
sampl
esar
edrawnbecauset
heli
kel
ihoodofget
ti
ngali
stoft
argetpopul
ati
oni
slow.

I
tisi
mpor
tantt
odescr
ibey
ourt
argetpopul
ati
oni
ngr
eatdet
ail
discussi
ng:

 Whot
heyar
e

 Wher
etheyar
elocat
ed

 Whent
heycanbef
ound

 Whetherornotther
eisal
i
sti
ngofy
ourpopul
ati
onandwhet
hert
hisl
i
sti
ngi
s
av
ail
abletoyou.

In descri
bing t
he st
udypopul
ati
on i
tisi
mpor
tantt
o hi
ghl
i
ghtt
he i
ncl
usi
on and
excl
usioncrit
eri
a

a)I
ncl
usi
oncr
it
eri
a

Someti
mescal
ledel
igi
bil
i
tycr
it
eri
a,incl
usi
oncri
teri
aref
erstot
hosechar
act
eri
sti
cst
hat
mustbemeti
nordertobeconsi
deredforpar
ti
cipat
ioni
nthest
udy.

Theinv
estigatorspeci
fi
eswhatthesampl
ewi
l
llookl
i
keandwhatchar
act
eri
sti
csal
l
st
udypart
icipantswil
lhavei
ncommon.
34|
Page
Forex
ample:inast
udyofef
fi
cacyofadr
ugi
ntr
eat
mentofDM,t
hepar
ti
cipant
smust
hav
eadiagnosi
sofDM.

b)Excl
usi
oncr
it
eri
a

Thisrefer
stot hosecharact
eri
sti
csthatifpresent
,wouldmakepersonsineli
gibl
etobe
i
nt hesampleev enthoughtheymeetalltheincl
usi
oncrit
eri
a.Theseexcl
usi
onsl i
mitt
he
represent
ati
venessofthesampleandt heref
orethegeneral
i
zabil
i
tyofthefi
ndings.

Theseshouldrepr
esentonl
ythosecondi
ti
onsorchar
act
eri
sti
csthatmi
ghtpot
enti
all
y
makeadiffer
enceintheout
come.e.g.i
ntheabov
estudy
,expect
antmot
hersmightbe
excl
uded.

SAMPLI
NG

Ter
minol
ogi
esusedi
nsampl
ing.
Sampl
e

 Achosenr
esear
chgr
oupwi
thi
napopul
ati
onor

 Asubsetofcasesorsubj
ect
sthatar
etakent
orepr
esentt
hepopul
ati
on

El
ement
soft
hesampl
e

Thisref
erst
obasicuni
tsaboutwhi
chinfor
mat
ioni
scol
l
ect
ed.Thesear
etheent
it
ies
thatmakeupthesampl
esandpopul
ati
ons.

Sampl
ingf
rame

Thisisacompr ehensi
vel i
stofallsampl
i
ngel
ement
sint
het
argetpopul
ati
one.
g
nat
ional
censusr
egister
,li
stofal
lnur
ses

35|
Page
Sampl
ingbi
as

Syst
emati
cov er
represent
ati
onofsomesegment soft
hepopul
ati
oni
nter
msoft
he
char
act
eri
sti
csrelev
anttotheresear
chquest
ion

Sampl
inger
ror

Thisisthedif
fer
encebet
ween popul
ati
on par
amet
ersand sampl
est
ati
sti
cs.E.g
aver
ageage.

SAMPLI
NGMETHODS
Sampl
ingref
erstot heprocessofselecti
nganumberofi
ndi
vi
dualsforast
udyinsucha
waythattheselectedindivi
dual
sr epresentt
helar
gegroup(enti
repopul
ati
on)from
whi
chtheyareselected

Resear
chers use samples i
nst
ead ofpopul
ati
ons because ofeff
ici
encyand cost
ef
fecti
venessasiti
spracti
cal
lyi
mpossibl
etost
udytheenti
repopul
ati
on

I
n quanti
tat
iver esear
ch the majorconcerni n sampl
ing i
s how wel
lt he sampl
e
r
epresent
sthet argetpopulat
ion.Theref
oretheresul
ti
ngsampleshouldlookliket
he
t
argetpopul
ati
ononi mportantcharact
eri
sti
cs.

Inquali
tat
ivest
udiestheconcernishowwel lthesampl
erepresentsthephenomenaof
i
nterest
.Thereforeint hiscase,the sample mustbe appropri
ateto provi
de bot
h
suff
ici
entandrelev
antinformat
ionontheresearchpr
obl
em.

Samplingstrat
egiescanbeclassi
fi
edintopr
obabi
l
ityornonpr
obabi
l
itydependi
ngon
thepossibi
l
ityofsel
ecti
onofeachelement
.

a)Pr
obabi
li
tysampl
ingmet
hods
Thisrefer
st orandom samplingstrategyt hatgiv eseachelementinthepopul
ati
onan
equalindependentchanceofbeingsel ected.Thisisthemostr espect
edandprefer
red
approach.Itcanbeusedt oprovi
deinf ormat i
onaboutgr oupsthataret
oolar
getostudy
i
nt heirentit
y.Ital
soprov i
desanef fi
cientsy stem ofcapturi
nginasmal lgr
oupt he
var
iati
onsorhet er
ogeneit
ythatexistsint hetargetpopulat
ion.

36|
Page
Pr
obabi
l
itysampl
i
ngt
echni
quesi
ncl
ude:

1)Si
mpl
erandom sampl
ing

Thisreferstoaprocessinwhichther
esear
cherdefi
nest
hepopulat
ion,l
i
stsand
consecuti
vel
ynumbersallel
ement
softhepopulat
ionandt
henrandomlyselect
sa
samplefrom t
hel
i
stby:

 Put
ti
ngallt
henumber
sinacont
aineranddr
awi
ngoutt
hedesi
rednumberof
el
ement
s.

 Usingat abl
eofrandom number s.I
nthiscase,t
heresearcherbegi
nsatanypoint
ont heli
stofnumber sandreadsconsecutivenumbersi nanydir
ecti
onchoosing
thosenumber sthatcorrespondstot henumber edelementsinthepopulati
on.
Thisisdoneunt i
lthedesiredsampl esizeisachiev ed.Thestart
ingpointis
select
edbycl osi
ngtheeyesandpoi nt
ingatthedatai
nt hetabl
e.

Thi
smet
hodi
scumber
someandnott
hemostst
ati
sti
cal
l
yef
fi
cientmet
hod

2)Sy
stemat
icsampl
ing

Samplingtechni
quewhereelementsaresel
ectedf rom t
hepopulat
ionatpredeter
mined
t
h
fi
xedinter
valsi.
eeachsubj
ectisselect
edatthen numberoft hesampli
ngf rame.The
i
nter
val i
sdeterminedbydi
vi
dingthetot
alpopulat
ionbyt hedesi
redsamplesize.

3)St
rat
if
iedsampl
ing

Thisi s used when t he composi ti

on ofthe population inrespectto some study
characteri
sti
csimpor t
anttot hest udyi
sknown.Thepopul ati
onisfir
stdivi
dedint
ot wo
ormor esubgr oups/ str
atabyt hatchar
acter
isti
csot hateachelementbelongstoone
andonl ystratum.Thi si sfollowedbysi mpler andom selecti
onofel ementsforeach
group.Ifdesiredt her esearchermayusepr oporti
onatesampl i
ngt oensurethatthe
sampleaccur atel
yr efl
ectsthecomposi ti
onoft hepopul at
iononthecharacter
ist
icsby
whichthepopul at
ioni sstrat
ified.

Thismethodi
sappropr
iat
ewhentheresear
cheri
sint
erestedi
nissuesrel
atedtogender
,
raceoragedi
spar
it
iesi
nthepopul
ati
on.Thegoaloft
histechni
queistoachiev
edesired

37|
Page
r
epr
esent
ati
onf
rom v
ari
ousgr
oups.

Howev
er,
biascanoccuri
nsomegr
oupsbei
ngov
err
epr
esent
ed.

4)Cl
ust
er/
mul
ti
stagesampl
ing

Thi
sstrategyi
nvol
vestheselect
ionofstudyuni
ts(cl
ust
er)insteadofthest
udyunits
i
ndi
vidual
ly.Thestr
ategyemploysrandom sel
ecti
onoff i
rstlargert
hensubsequent
small
ersampli
ngunit
s/cl
ust
ers.Thi
smethodisusedwhen:

 I
tismostpossi
blet
ogett
het
otal
li
stoft
het
argetpopul
ati
on

 Whent
hepopul
ati
oni
slar
geandwi
despr
ead.

Adv
ant
agesofpr
obabi
li
tysampl
ingmet
hods

 Resul
tscanbegener
ali
zed

 Al
l
owsuseofi
nfer
ent
ial
stat
ist
ics

 Sampl
ingbi
asi
smi
nimi
zedasev
erymemberhasanequalchanceofbei
ng
sel
ect
ed

 Lar
gepopul
ati
onscanbeanal
yzed

Di
sadv
ant
agesofpr
obabi
li
tysampl
ingmet
hods

 Nonr
esponsi
ver
atemaybehi
ghast
her
espondent
sar
eunpr
edi
ctabl
e

 Selecti
onofthef
ir
stsamplememberorpr
epar
ati
onoft
her
andom t
abl
emay
resulti
nabi
asint
heenti
resampl
e

 Requi
resexper
ti
se

b)Nonpr
obabi
li
ty
I
nthi
smet
hod,t
hesampl
eel
ement
sar
echosenf
rom t
hepopul
ati
onbynonr
andom

38|
Page
methods.Thesestrategi
esarelessl
ikel
ytoproducesampl ethatar erepresentat
iveof
t
hepopul at
ion.Theyar eusedwhent heresearcherisnotinterestedinsel ect
inga
r
epresent
ati
v esampleofthepopulat
ion.Mostl
yusedi nqual
it
ati
v estudiesbecauset he
f
ocusisoni ndepthinfor
mationandnotgeneral
izati
onsormakingi nfer
ences.Theyar e
wi
delyusedbecauseofconv eni
enceandthedesiretouseavai
lablesubjects.

Theyi
ncl
ude

1)Conv
eni
ence/
acci
dent
alsampl
ing

Thisist
heprocessofsel
ect
ingel
ement
stobei
nthesampl
esi
mpl
ybecauset
heyar
e
readi
l
yavai
l
able.

Thi
sisthesimplestwit
hpotent
ial
lythel
eastrepresentat
ivenessofallthesampli
ng
st
rat
egi
es.I
tiscurr
ent
lythemostfr
equent
lyusedsampl i
ngstrategyi
nnursingst
udi
es.

2)Pur
posi
ve/j
udgment
al

Part
ici
pantsarehandpickedbytheresearcherei
therbecausetheyar etypi
calofthe
phenomenonofi nt
erestorbecausetheyar eknowledgeabl
eaboutt heissuesunder
i
nvesti
gati
ons.Of
tenusedwhent her
esearcherdesi
resasampl eofexpert
s.

3)Snowbal
l/
net
wor
king

Part
ici
pant
sal r
eadyinthest udyareasked to pr
ovider ef
erral
sto pot
ent
ialst
udy
subj
ects.I
nit
ialst
udysubject
sar esel
ect
edusi ngpur posi
vesampli
ngmet hod.Few
i
dentif
iedt
hennameotherswhohav et
herequi
redcharacteri
sti
cs.

4)Quot
asampl
ing

Thisissimil
artostratif
iedr andom sampli
ng.Ther esearcheri
dent
if
iesthest
rat
aofthe
populati
on and t hen i dentif
ies the number of el ementsi n each str
atum to
proport
ionat
elyrepresentt hepopulati
on.Actualselecti
onofthesubjectsi
sthendone
throughconveni
ence, purposiveorsnowball
ing.

Usefulwhenthepopul
ati
ont hatpossesst
hechar
act
eri
sti
csunder
studyi
snotwel
l
knownandtherei
sneedtofi
ndsubjects.

39|
Page
Adv
ant
agesofnonpr
obabi
li
tysampl
ing

 Usef
ulwhensampl
i
ngf
rame/
par
amet
ersoft
hepopul
ati
oni
snotknown

 Doesn’
trequi
reanyexper
ti
se

 Usef
ulwheni
n-dept
hinf
ormat
ioni
srequi
red

 Responser
atei
shi
gh

 Sav
est
imeandcost
s

Di
sadv
ant
agesofnonpr
obabi
li
tysampl
ing

 Thef
indi
ngscannotbegener
ali
zed

 Dat
aobt
ainedcannotbeusedt
otesthy
pot
hesi
s

 Hi
ghsampl
i
ngbi
asandsampl
i
nger
ror
.

SAMPLESI
ZEDETERMI
NATI
ON

Oncetheresear
cherhasdeci
dedonwhot osampl eandhowtosample,thenadecisi
on
i
smadeont hesamplesi
ze.Samplesi
zerefer
st othenumberofsubj
ectsinasampl e.
Quest
ionofsamplesizei
scruci
alwhentheobject
iveist
heabi
li
tytogeneral
izef
indi
ngs
t
othepopulati
on.

Thel
argert
hesampl
ethesmal
l
eri
sthesampl
i
nger
ror
.

Fact
orst
oconsi
deri
ndet
ermi
ningt
hesampl
esi
ze

I
nquant
it
ati
vest
udi
es,
thef
act
orst
hatshoul
dbeconsi
der
edi
ncl
ude:

1.Popul
ati
onf
act
ors

 Homogenei
tyoft
hepopul
ati
on
40|
Page
  Expect
edrateofthephenomenon,ev
entoroutcomebeingmeasured.I
fthe
phenomenonoccur
sfr
equent
ly,
asmall
ersampl
esizei
sneededandvi
cever
sa

 Expect
edat
tri
ti
onr
ate.I
nl ongit
udi
nalst
udi
esat
tr
it
ionr
atesar
eexpect
edt
obe
hi
ghhencet
heneedforalargersampl
e.

2.Desi
gnf
act
ors

 Ty
peofst
udy

 Numberofv
ari
abl
es.Asv
ari
abl
esi
ncr
easet
hesampl
esi
zeal
soi
ncr
eases

 Sampl
ingstr
ategy.St
rati
fi
edandquot
asampl
i
ngr equi
ressmal l
ersamplesthan
si
mpleorconveni
ence becausesomeoft
herepr
esentat
ivenessisal
readybuil
t
i
ntot
hestrat
if
icat
ionprocess

3.Measur
ementf
act
ors

 Sensit
ivi
tyoftheresear
chinst
rumentandtheeff
ectthepr
ocesshasont
he
outcomet hegreat
erthepreci
sionoft
heinst
rument
,thesmall
ert
hesampl
e
si
ncemeasur ementer
rori
slow.

4.Pr
act
ical
fact
ors

 Cost

 Conv
eni
ence

Met
hodsf
ordet
ermi
ningsampl
esi
ze
a)Rul
eof30

Accor
dingtothi
sr ul
et her
eshoul
dbe30subj ect
sforeachgroupor30subject
sfor
eachvari
abl
e.Thisisbasedonthecentr
all
imi
ttheor
em whi
chstatest
hatinr
andomly
gener
atedsamplesof30ormoresubject
s,t
hemeancharact
eri
sti
cwil
lappr
oxi
matethe
popul
ati
onmean

b)Poweranal
ysi
s

41|
Page
Thisisastat
ist
icalcalcul
ati
onoft
henumberofsubj
ect
sneededi
nor
dert
oaccur
atel
y
rej
ectthenul
lhypothesis.

Sampl
esi
zecanbecal
cul
atedusi
ngt
hef
oll
owi
ngCochr
an’
sfor
mul
a

no=Z2pq

e2
Wher
e:

noi
sthedesi
redsampl
esi
ze(
fort
argetpopul
ati
ongr
eat
ert
han10,
000)

zi
sthest
andar
dnor
mal
Dev
iat
eatt
her
equi
redconf
idencei
nter
val
setat95%(1.
96)

pi
stheest
imat
edpr
opor
ti
onoft
het
argetpopul
ati
ont
hathast
hechar
act
eri
sti
csbei
ng
measur
ed

qi
sthepr
opor
ti
onoft
het
argetpopul
ati
onest
imat
ednott
ohav
ethechar
act
eri
sti
c
bei
ngmeasur
ed(
q=1-
p)

ei
sthel
evel
ofpr
eci
si
onsetat5%(
0.05)

Whent
her
eisnoest
imat
eav
ail
abl
eoft
hepr
opor
ti
onoft
het
argetpopul
ati
onwhohas
t
hechar
act
eri
sti
csunder
study
,50%wi
l
lisusedasp.

Whenthest
udypopul
ati
oni
slesst
han10,000sampl
esi
zei
sadj
ust
edusi
ngt
he
f
ormul
a:

n=nO/
1+{
(n0-
1)/
N}
Wher
e:

ni
sthedesi
redsampl
esi
zewhenpopul
ati
oni
s<10,
000

noi
sthedesi
redsampl
esi
zewhent
hepopul
ati
oni
s>10,
000

Ni
stheest
imat
eoft
hepopul
ati
onsi
ze

42|
Page
I
nqual
it
ati
vest
udi
es,

Rel
ativ
elysmal
lnonr andom samplesar
eempl oy
edbecauset heaim ofqual
itat
ive
st
udiesist
odescr
ibeandanalyzet
hemeaningandexper
iencesofpar
ti
cul
ari
ndiv
iduals
orgr
oups.

Samplesi zeshoul
dbedeterminedaccor
dingtot
heneedf orsuf
fi
cienti
nfor
mationto
answert he resear
ch quest
ion based on t
he pr
inci
ples ofdata sat
urat
ion and
redundancy.

Part
ici
pants cont
inue t
o be enrol
l
ed unt
ilno new i
nfor
mati
on is being uncovered
(sat
urat
ion).Int hi
s case r
edundancy occur
si n al
lsubsequentdat a coll
ection
encounter
s.Thismaybeachiev edwit
hli
mitednumberofpar
ti
cipant
si fthesampl eis
homogenous

DATACOLLECTI
ONMETHODSANDTOOLS
Datacoll
ect
ionneedstobeobjecti
veandsystemat
ict
oensur
egener
ali
zabi
l
ityoft
he
resul
ti
ngout
comest ot
hebroaderpopul
ati
on.

I
tisi
mpor
tantt
ospeci
fy:

 Whatdat awil
lbecol l
ect
ed-thetypeofdatatobecoll
ect
edwil
lalsogovernthe
otherconsi
derat
ions.Thetypeofdataneededtoanswert
heresearchquest
ions
ort otesttheresearchhypothesi
sshouldbet hemainconsider
ati
onindat a
coll
ecti
on.

 Howwil
ldat
abecol
lect
ed-
somet
ypeofr
esear
chi
nst
rumenti
sneededt
ogat
her
dat
a.

 Whowi l
lcoll
ectthedat
a-t
heresear
chermaywanttouseotherpeopleoutside
theresearchteam.Someti
methesepeopl
earepai
dfort
hei
rservi
ces.Trai
ningis
neededt oensuredatauni
for
mityandchecksmadetoensurerel
iabi
li
tyoft he
coll
ecteddata.

 Wheredat awillbecol l
ect
ed-opti
mum condi
ti
onsfordatacollect
ionmustbe
sought.Thi
sincludesthecondit
ionsi
nwhichthequest
ionnai
reswillbef
il
ledor
i
nterv
iewsconduct ed.

 Whenwi
lldat
abecol
lect
ed-
thedet
ermi
nat
ionwi
l
lneedt
obemadeoft
hemont
h,

43|
Page
 day
,and someti
mesevent hehourf
ordatacoll
ect
ion.Al
so how l
ong dat
a
col
l
ect
ionsessi
onwi
l
ltakeneedt
obedeter
mined.

Sour
cesofdat
a
1)Ent
ir
epopul
ati
on

Thi
siswherethesubj
ect
sear
markedforst
udyar
einter
vieweddir
ectl
y.Dat
afrom t
his
popul
ati
oni
srefer
redt
oaspri
mar
y/new/novel
dat
a.Iti
smor eaccur
ateandrel
i
able.

2)Exi
sti
ngr
ecor
ds

Thisincl
udesoffi
cerecordssuchasheal thinsti
tutionsmedi calrecor
ds,regi
ster
sof
bi
rthsanddeaths,CBS,gover
nmentandnongov ernmentr egi
stersetc.Dat
af r
om thi
s
sourceisref
err
edtoassecondary/exi
sti
ng/accessi
bl edata.Thereli
abil
i
tyofsecondar
y
datadependsenti
rel
yontheori
ginalpersonwhocol lectedit
.

Dat
acol
lect
ionmet
hods
Thi
sref
erst
othemechani
sm f
ormeasur
ingt
hev
ari
abl
e(s)ofi
nter
est
.

Dat
acol
l
ect
ionmet
hodsel
ect
eddependson:

 Ther
esear
chquest
ionsorhy
pot
hesi
s

 Desi
gnoft
hest
udy

 At
tr
ibut
esoft
hesubj
ect
s

 Amountofknowl
edgeav
ail
abl
eaboutt
hev
ari
abl
eofi
nter
est

 Expect
edr
esul
tsandout
comes

Char
act
eri
sti
csofdat
acol
lect
ionmet
hods
1)Str
ucture-r
esear
ch dat
aareusual
l
ycollect
ed i
n ahighl
ystructur
ed manneri
.e.
exact
lyt hesameinfor
mat
ioni
scoll
ect
edf r
om al
lthesubj
ect
si ncomparabl
epr
e-
speci
fiedway

2)Quant
if
iabi
l
ity
-datathatwil
lbesubj
ectedtostat
ist
icalanal
ysismustbegat
heredi
n
suchawayt hattheycanbequant ifi
ed.Bothquant i
tat
iveand qual
i
tat
ivedat
a
str
uct
uredandunstruct
uredcanbequanti
fi
ed

3)Obt
rusi
veness-dat
acol
l
ect
ionmet
hodsdi
ff
eri
nter
msoft
hedegr
eet
o whi
ch

44|
Page
 subj
ect
sar
eawar
eoft
hei
rsubj
ectst
atus.

4)Obj
ect
ivi
ty–dat
acol
l
ect
ionmet
hodsst
ri
vef
orobj
ect
ivi
tyr
athert
hansubj
ect
ivi
ty

Dat
acol
lect
iont
ool
s/i
nst
rument
s
Thisrefer
stot hedev i
cesthatar eusedt ocollectinf
ormati
onaboutt hev ari
abl
e(s)
underinvest
igati
on.Itfacil
i
tatest heobser vati
onandmeasur ementofv ari
abl
esof
i
nterestanddependsont hedatacol lecti
onmet hod(s)sel
ect
ed.Ifphysiologi
caldata
aresoughtsomet y
peofphy si
ologicalinstr
umenti sneeded.Ifobser
vationaldatais
soughtanobservati
onalscheduleorcheckl i
stisused.

Cr
it
eri
aforsel
ect
ingadat
acol
lect
ioni
nst
rument

1)Pr
act
icabi
li
ty

Thisconcernsitscostandappr opri
atenessforthestudypopul
ati
onint er
msoft he
l
engthoft imer equir
edt oadminist
ert hetool
,physi
cal/
mentalstaminarequir
edt o
completethetool,
specialmotor
/physi
calski
ll
srequi
redofthesubj
ects,
specialt
rai
ning
requi
redtoadministerorscor
etheinstr
umentetc.

2)Rel
iabi
li
ty

Thi
sr ef
erstotheconsi st
ency,
stabil
i
tyandrepeat
abil
i
tyofadatacoll
ect
ioni nst
rument.
Areli
ableinst
rumentdoesnotr espondtochancefact
orsorenv
ironment
al condit
ions;
it
wil
lhaveconsistentresul
tsifr
epeatedoverti
meont hesameper sonorifusedbyt wo
di
ffer
entinvesti
gator
sont hesamesubject.

I
ngener
al,
themor
eit
emst
hei
nst
rumenthast
hegr
eat
eri
sther
eli
abi
l
ity
.

Ty
pesofr
eli
abi
li
ty

i
) St
abi
l
ityr
eli
abi
l
ity

Thi
sref
erst
oconsi
stencyofani
nst
rumentov
ert
ime

i
i
) Equi
val
encer
eli
abi
l
ity

Concernsthedegr
eetowhichtwodif
fer
entformsofani nstr
umentobt
ainthesame
resul
tsort
woormor eobser
ver
susi
ngasingl
einst
rumentobtai
nthesameresul
ts

i
i
i) I
nter
nal
consi
stencyr
eli
abi
l
ity
/scal
ehomogenei
ty

Ext
entt
owhi
chal
li
temsonani
nst
rumentmeasur
ethesamev
ari
abl
e

3)Val
i
dit
y

45|
Page
Thisreferstotheabili
tyofthetoolt ogatherdatat hatitisint
endedt ogather.The
contentofthetoolisofpri
mei mportanceinvali
dit
yt est
ing.Thegreatert
hev al
idi
tyof
aninstrument,t
hemor econfi
dencey oucanhav ethatthet oolwi
llobt
aindatathatwil
l
answert her
esearchquest
ionsortesttheresear
chhy potheses.

Met
hodsofest
abl
ishi
ngv
ali
dit
y:

i
) Cont
entv
ali
dit
y

Thisi
sconcernedwit
htherangeorscopeofi
temsusedtomeasurethevari
able.i
.e.ar
e
thenumberandtypeofi
temsadequatetomeasur
etheconceptorconst
ructofint
erest.

i
i
) Cr
it
eri
onv
ali
dit
y

Thisassessestheabi l
i
tyofani nstrumenttodet erminesubj
ect
s’responsesatthe
presentt
imeorpr edictsubj
ects’responsesint hefutur
ee.gisasui ci
dalpotent
ial
assessmenttool
usefulinpr
edict
ingactualsui
cidalbehavi
ori
nthefut
ure?

i
i
i) Const
ructv
ali
dit
y

Thisreferst
ot hedegreetowhichani nstr
umentmeasurestheconstr
uctt
hatitis
supposed to measure.Constr
uctv al
idi
tyisconcerned wi
th measur
ementofa
vari
ablethatisnotdi rect
lyobserv
ablebutr atheri
saconst r
uctorabstract
ion
deri
vedf r
om behav
iore.gasser
ti
veness,anxi
ety

Asr
esear
chercandeci
det
ouseanexi
sti
ngi
nst
rumentordev
elophi
sown.

Dat
acol
l
ect
ionmet
hodsi
ncl
ude

a)Useofquest
ionnai
res
Aquesti
onnai
rei
sapaper-
and-penci
lsel
frepor
tinst
rumentcont
aini
ngquest
ionst
hat
r
espondent
sareaskedt
oansweri
nwr i
ti
ng

Quest
ionnair
escanbeusedt omeasureknowl
edgelevel
s,opi
nions,att
it
udes,bel
ief
s,
i
deas,feeli
ngs and per
cept
ions as wel
las to gat
herfactualinfor
mation about
r
espondents.

Aquest
ionnai
recanbeadmi
nist
ered

 i
nper
son

 Bymai
l

46|
Page
  I
nter
net
.

Pr
inci
plesi
ndev
elopmentofaquest
ionnai
re

1)Ensur
et hatt
ooladdr
esses t
he r
esear
ch pur
poses,obj
ect
ives,goal
s and/
or
quest
ions

2)Consi
dert
het
argetpopul
ati
ont
ouset
hequest
ionnai
resot
hatadmi
nist
rat
ioni
s
easy

3)Usesi
mpl
efami
l
iarl
anguagewi
thoutj
argonandwi
thcor
rectgr
ammar

4)Consi
dersequencingofquest
ionsf
rom i
mper
sonalt
oper
sonal
.lesssensi
ti
vet
o
moresensi
ti
ve,broadtospeci
fi
c

5)Eachst
atementshoul
dbeshor
tandspeci
fi
candaddr
essi
ngasi
ngl
etopi
conl
y

6)Useneut
ral
wor
dst
oav
oidl
eadi
ngorembar
rassi
ngt
hepar
ti
cipant
s

7)Gr
oupt
hequest
ionsbyt
opi
candbegi
nwi
thquest
ionst
hatst
imul
atei
nter
est
.

8)I
nwor
dingoft
hequest
ions

 St
atequest
ionsi
ntheaf
fi
rmat
iver
athert
hananegat
ivemanner

 Av
oid ambi
guous quest
ions-t
hese contai
n words wi
th mor
ethan one
meani
ngorcanbei
nterpr
eteddi
ff
erent
lybyvari
ouspeopl
e

 Av
oiddoubl
enegat
ivequest
ions-don’
tyoudi
sagr
ee

 Av
oiddoubl
ebar
rel
edquest
ions-askt
woquest
ionsi
none

Ty
pesofquest
ions

 Demogr
aphi
c questi
ons gather dat
a on char
act
eri
sti
cs of t
he subj
ect
-
demogr
aphi
cvar
iabl
e/at
tri
but
es

 Unst
ruct
ured/Openendedquest
ions-quest
ionst
hatr
equi
ret
her
espondent
sto
complet
equesti
onsi
nthei
rownwor ds

 Str
uctur
ed/ Cl
osed ended quest
ions-
most struct
ured t
ype of quest
ions.
Respondent
sar
easkedtochoosefr
om givenal
ter
nati
ves.

Theresponsecategor
iesmustbeexhaust
ive(
all
possi
bleanswer
sar
egi
ven)and
mutuall
yexcl
usiv
e( noover
lappi
ng)
.

47|
Page
  Cont
ingencyquest
ions-i
temst
hatar
erel
evantf
orsomer
espondent
sandnot
ot
hers

Thedeterminat
ionofwhetherr
espondentsshoul
danswercer
tai
nquest
ionsi
s
dependentonthei
ranswer
stootherquest
ions.

 Matri
xquesti
ons-quest
ionst hatshar
ethesamesetofr
esponsecat
egor
ies.
Theyarecommonwhenev erscalesar
eused.

 Fil
lerquesti
ons-questi
onsthatt
heresear
cherhasnoint
erestbutareincl
udedin
thequestionnai
retoreduceemphasi
sonspecifi
cpur
poseofot herquest
ions.

Acov
erl
ett
ershoul
daccompanyaquest
ionnai
re.

Infor
mat i
ononhow t ocompletethequest
ionnai
reshouldbepr ov
idedandshoul dbe
clearandconcise.I
fal
lquest
ionsareansweredusingthesameformat,inst
ruct
ionsare
providedatthet opofthequesti
onnair
eotherwiseinstr
uct
ionswillneedt oprecede
eacht ypeofquesti
on.

Qual
it
iesofanef
fect
ivequest
ionnai
re

 I
tissi
mpl
etounder
stand

 I
nst
ruct
ionsar
ecl
ear
lygi
ven

 Quest
ionsar
efocusedandl
i
mit
edt
oasi
ngl
eidea

 Eachi
tem i
ncl
udedhasaspeci
fi
cresponseandcont
ri
but
est
othest
udy

 Ther
ear
enol
eadi
ng,
ambi
guousorembar
rassi
ngquest
ions

 Ther
eisabal
anceofquest
ionspert
opi
c

Adv
ant
ages

 Qui
ckandgener
all
yinexpensi
vemeansofobt
aini
ngdat
a

 Oneoft
heEasi
estt
otestf
orr
eli
abi
l
ityandv
ali
dit
y

 Admi
nist
rat
ioni
slesst
imeconsumi
ngt
hani
nter
viewsorobser
vat
ional
met
hods

 Dat
acanbeobt
ainedf
rom r
espondent
sfr
om wi
despr
eadgeogr
aphi
cal
areas

 Respondent
scanr
emai
nanony
mous

 I
fanony
mit
yisassur
edr
espondent
sar
eli
kel
ytogi
vemor
ehonestanswer
s

48|
Page
Di
sadv
ant
ages

 Mai
l
ingmaybecost
ly

 Responser
atemaybel
ow

 Respondent
smaypr
ovi
desoci
all
yaccept
abl
eanswer
s

 Respondent
smayf
ail
toanswersomeoft
hei
tems

 Therei s no oppor
tuni
tyt
o cl
ari
fyi
tems t
hatmay be mi
sunder
stood by
respondents

 Respondent
smustbel
i
ter
ate

 Respondent
smaynotber
epr
esent
ati
veoft
hepopul
ati
on

b)I
nter
views
Thisi
sadatacoll
ecti
onmet hodthatinvolvesor
alquesti
oningofr
espondent
seit
her
i
ndivi
dual
l
yorasagr oup.Thei nter
v i
ewerobtainsresponsesfr
om asubjecti
na
face-
to–f
aceencounterort
hroughat elephonecall
.

An int
erv
iew scheduleisaf or
m wi th pr
edesigned questi
ons to be asked bythe
i
ntervi
ewerandasheget sanswers,hef i
ll
sthem inorcompl etes.Thesour ceofthe
i
nformati
onisrefer
redtoast
heinterv
ieweeandt hedatacoll
ectorisaninter
viewer
.The
for
emostv ar
iat
ionwit
hthequest
ionnair
emet hodisthepresenceoftheinter
viewer
.

Quest
ionsintheinter
view schedulear
egenerall
yopen ended and r
esponsesar
e
document
edinthor
oughanddet ai
lednot
esort
ranscri
pti
on

Ty
pesofi
nter
view

1)Unst
ruct
ured

Theint
ervi
ewerisgi
venagreatdealoffreedom t
odi r
ectt
hecourseoft
heinter
view.
Theyar
econductedl
ikeanormalconver
sationandtopi
csarepur
suedatt
hediscr
etion
ofthei
nter
viewer
.

These ar e appropri
atef
orexplor
ator
y orquali
tat
iver
esear
ch studi
es wher
et he
researcherdoesn’thaveenoughknowledgeaboutthet
opicto st
ruct
urequesti
ons
beforedatacollect
ion.

Unst
ruct
uredi
nter
viewspr
oducemor
ein-
dept
hinf
ormat
iononsubj
ect
s’bel
i
efsand

49|
Page
at
ti
tudest
hananyot
herdat
agat
her
ingmet
hod.

2)St
ruct
ured

Thisinvol
vesaski
ngasetofquest
ionsi
nthesameor
derandi
nthesamemannert
oal
l
therespondent
sinast
udy

Themai npurposeoft
hismet
hodi
stopr
oducedat
athatcanbecompar
edacr
oss
respondent
s

3)Semist
ruct
ured

Ani nt
ervi
ewerisrequiredtoaskacer tai
nnumberofspecifi
cquesti
ons,butaddit
ional
probesareallowedorev enencouraged.Openandclosedendedquest
ionsareincl
uded
i
nasemist ruct
uredinterv
iew.Inthi
sinter
viewdat
acol l
ect
edcanbecompar edacr oss
al
lrespondents.Addi
tionall
yindi
vi
duali
zeddatamaybegat her
edthatwil
lprovi
dedept h
andr i
chness.

Probesareaddit
ionalpr
omptingquest
ionst
hatencour
aget
her
espondentt
oel
abor
ate
onthetopi
cbeingdiscussed.

Respondent
s’answersmaybeent
ereddi
rect
lyont
hei
nter
viewschedul
eorr
ecor
dedon
audi
otapesorvi
deotapes.

Taper
ecor
dingi
sadv
ant
ageousbecause:

 Ey
econt
actcanbeest
abl
i
shedbet
weent
hei
nter
viewerandi
nter
viewee

 Tot
alpr
ocesscanbecapt
ured

Di
sadv
ant
agesoft
aper
ecor
dingsi
ncl
ude

 Theent
ir
etapehast
obepl
ayedandt
ranscr
ibeddur
ingdat
aanal
ysi
s

 Respondent
smayber
eluct
antt
ogi
veper
missi
ont
obet
aped

 Writ
tenpermi
ssi
onwillber
equi
redandper
missi
onform shoul
dindi
cat
ehowt
he
i
nformati
onwil
lbeusedandhowconfi
dent
ial
i
tywil
lbemaintai
ned.

I
nter
viewsi
ncl
ude:

a)Keyi
nfor
manti
nter
view

Thi
sinv
olv
esani
nter
view bet
weent
hei
nter
viewerandaper
sonwhoi
sconsi
der
ed

50|
Page
moreknowledgeabl
einanar
eaofst
udy
.Ther
efor
e,i
trel
i
esonopi
nionsofani
ndi
vi
dual
subj
ectorr
espondent.

Keyi
nfor
mant
sshoul
dbei
nter
viewedi
ndi
vi
dual
l
yandnotasagr
oup.

I
nfor
mat i
oncol
lectedfr
om keyi nf
ormantsisusedtov al
idatedat
athathasbeen
gat
heredusi
ngothermethodssuchasfocusedgr
oupdi
scussions.

b)Focusedgr
oupdi
scussi
on

Thi
srepresentscoor
dinat
ionofani
nter
viewwi
th6-
12homogenousi
ndi
vi
dual
swhoar
e
l
edinthediscussi
onofaselect
edtopi
c

Eachsessi
ont endstolast1-
3hours.Tofaci
l
itat
ecoll
ect
ionofdata,eachsessi
oni
s
vi
deot
aped oraudi otaped f
oranaly
sisatal atert
ime.Theresearcheractsasa
moderat
or.Theroleoft
hemoderat
orincl
udes:

 Encour
agi
ngal
lpar
ti
cipant
stopar
ti
cipat
eint
hedi
scussi
on

 St
imul
atedi
scussi
onbet
weenpar
ti
cipant
s

 Gui
det
hegr
oupf
rom onedi
scussi
ont
opi
ctoanot
her

 Remai
nneut
ral
andr
efr
ainf
rom expr
essi
ngper
sonal
opi
niononasubj
ect

 Ret
aincont
rol
overt
hedi
scussi
on.

Theinvesti
gatorofastudyhast heresponsibi
li
tyoft rai
ningal lt
hei ntervi
ewerswhowill
conducttheinterv
iewstoreducemeasur evari
abili
ty.Training,practi
ceandRehear sal
s
needt obedoneandt heperf
ormancecr i
ti
qued.Thepr ocessofr ecor di
nginf
ormati
on
mustbeexpl i
cit
lycommunicated.Specialatt
enti
onshoul dbegi vent otheuseofprobes.
Trai
ningshouldbecar r
iedouti ngr oupssot hatal lintervi
ewer sr ecei
vethesame
i
nstructi
ons

Roleplayi
ngt hei
nter
viewhelpsthei
nter
viewert
ogainsomeappr
eci
ati
onofwhatt
he
actualint
ervi
ewswi l
llookl
ike.Eachint
ervi
ewershoul
dplayt
heint
ervi
ewerandt
he
respondents’
part
.

Duri
ngi nt
erv
iewst heresearchershoul
dseekasmuchpr iv
acyaspossi bl
ef orthe
i
nter
view.Theinterv
iewerandtherespondent
sshoul
dbeal
one,i
nter
rupt
ionsshoul
dbe
avoi
dedandt el
evisi
onandradioshoul
dbet ur
nedoff
.

I
nter
viewgui
del
ines

Bef
oret
hei
nter
view

51|
Page
  Thei
nter
viewershoul
ddosel
fint
roduct
ion,
expl
aint
hepur
poseoft
hest
udy

 Potent
ialsubj
ect
sshoul
dbet
oldwhyt
heywer
echosenandhowt
hei
nfor
mat
ion
wil
lbeused

 Theper
sonshoul
dbet
oldofhowl
ongt
hei
nter
viewwi
l
ltake

Dur
ingt
hei
nter
view

 Ensur
eacomf
ort
abl
eint
erv
iewat
mospher
e

 Subj
ect
sshoul
dbeseat
edi
nacomf
ort
abl
eposi
ti
onorl
yi
ngdown

 Cont
rol
unnecessar
ynoi
seasmuchaspossi
ble

 Uselanguageeasi
l
yunder
stoodbyt
her
espondent
sandt
alki
naconv
ersat
ion
tone.

 Inf
ormrespondent
sthatther
eisnor
ightorwr
onganswer
sandnopr
essur
e
shoul
dbeappli
edtoanswer.

 Sensi
ti
vequest
ionsshoul
dbeaskedatt
heendoft
hei
nter
view-
rappor
tisf
ull
y
est
abli
shed

Af
tert
hei
nter
view

 Aski
fther
espondent
shav
eanyquest
ions

 Fur
therexpl
anat
ionsoft
hest
udymaybedone

 Thankt
her
espondent
s

 I
ndi
cat
ehowt
her
espondent
smayobt
ainr
esul
tsoft
hest
udy
.

Adv
ant
ages

 Responsescanbeobt
ainedf
rom awi
der
angeofsubj
ect
s

 Responser
atei
shi
gh

 Mostoft
hedat
aobt
ainedi
susabl
e

 I
n-dept
hresponsescanbeobt
ained

 Nonv
erbal
behav
iorandv
erbal
manner
ismscanbeobser
ved

 Dat
acol
l
ect
edi
squant
if
iabl
e
52|
Page
  All
owscoll
ect
ionofdat
awi
thoutt
her
equi
rementt
hatt
her
espondentcanr
ead
andwri
te

Di
sadv
ant
ages

 I
nter
viewsar
eti
meconsumi
ngandexpensi
ve

 Subj
ect
smaypr
ovi
desoci
all
yaccept
abl
eanswer
s

 Subj
ect
smaybei
nfl
uencedbyi
nter
viewer
’schar
act
eri
sti
cs

 I
nter
viewer
smaymi
sint
erpr
etnonv
erbal
behav
ior

 Researchermaymissoutonsomei
mpor
tantpoi
ntst
hatar
enoti
ncl
udedi
nthe
questi
onsformul
ated

 Anal
ysi
sofdat
acol
l
ect
edi
sti
meconsumi
ng

 Subj
ect
smaybeanxi
ousbecauseanswer
sar
ebei
ngr
ecor
ded.

c)Obser
vat
ionmet
hod
Thi
sis a method ofcol
lect
ing descri
pti
ve,behav
ior
aldat
a.I
tis concer
ned wi
th
col
l
ect
ionofdatat
hroughv
isualobservat
ion.

Ther
esear
chquest
ionorhy
pot
hesi
sshoul
ddet
ermi
net
hebehav
iort
obeobser
ved

Iti
simpor tanttohavemorethanoneobservert
oincr
easer
eli
abil
it
y.Thetrai
ningofthe
observersispr obabl
ythemostcruci
alphaseoftheobser
vati
onr esear
chtoi ncr
ease
i
nterrat
err eli
abil
it
y-thedegreeto whi
ch two ormoreobserversassign t
hesame
score/r
atingtoanobservat
ion

Ty
pesofobser
vat
ion

1)St
ruct
ured

A predet
erminedobserv
ati
oncheckl i
st/gui
deisprepar
edandtheobserverobser
ves
and recor
ds onlythose behav
iors.Thi sis used when t
he r
esear
cherhas pri
or
knowledgeofthephenomenonofinterest.

2)Unst
ruct
ured

Theobser
verat
temptstodescribet
hebehavior
sastheyoccurwi
thnopreconcei
ved
i
deasofwhatwi
llbeseen.Theobser
verobser
vesev
ery
thi
ngandanyt
hing

53|
Page
 Fr
equent
ly,
acombi
nat
ionofst
ruct
uredandunst
ruct
uredobser
vat
ionsi
sused.

Lev
elsofobser
vat
ion

i
. Compl
etepar
ti
cipant

Theobservertakest
her ol
eofmemberwi thi
nthesampl
e.Thedat
aiscoll
ect
edvia
cover
t/hi
dden/under
coverprocess.Membersofthegr
ouparenotinf
ormedabout
thedat
acollecti
onprocess

i
i. Par
ti
cipant
-as-
obser
ver

Observerconti
nuestowor kfr
om wi
thi
nthegroupbutdoescol
lectthedat
athr
ough
anov er
t/i
nfor
medpr ocess;t
hemembersofthegroupar
eawaret hatt
heobser
veri
s
taki
ngont hedualr
olesofmemberofthegroupandspectat
or

i
ii
. Obser
ver–as-
par
ti
cipant

Theobserverdoesworkf
rom wi
thi
nthegroupbutspendsmoretimeinther
oleof
spect
atori
nsteadofmemberoft
hegroup.Dat
aisobt
ainedt
hroughover
tmanner
.

i
v. Compl
eteobser
ver

Theobser
veristotal
l
yi nt
her
oleofcompl
etespect
ator
.Cov
ertobser
vat
ionsar
e
usedt
ocoll
ectthedata.

Ifcovertmethodofdat acol
lect
ionist obeusedther esear
cherhastojust
if
ywhy
becauseofethi
cali
ssues.Ontheotherhandwhenpart
ici
pantsknowthatt
heyar
ebeing
watched,ther
esear
cherhastomakesur ethatt
hebehavi
orarenotmodifi
edduetot
his
knowledge.

Adv
ant
ages

 Provi
deshi
ghl
ydet
ail
edi
nfor
mat
ionf
rom anext
ernalper
spect
iveofwhatusual
l
y
occur
s

 Canbeusedbyanyi
ndi
vi
dual
regar
dlessofeducat
ional
prepar
ati
on

 Rel
ati
vel
ycheap

 I
mpor
tantt
echni
quef
orhumanbehav
ior
.

54|
Page
  Subj
ect
sar
eusual
l
yav
ail
abl
e

 I
smostopent
ousi
ngr
ecor
dingdev
icessuchasv
ideo

 Obser
vat
ioncanbegi
nandst
opatanyt
ime

 I
nst
rumenti
squi
tesi
mpl
etodev
elopcompar
edwi
tht
hequest
ionnai
re

Di
sadv
ant
ages

 Ti
meconsumi
ng

 Labori
ntensi
ve

 Expensi
ve

 Bi
asmaycompr
omi
set
hei
ntegr
it
yoft
hest
udy

 Pr
esenceofanobser
vercr
eat
esanar
ti
fi
ci
alsi
tuat
ion

 Ext
ensi
vet
rai
ningi
snecessar
yifmor
ethanoneobser
veri
susedt
ocol
l
ectdat
a.

 Ev
ent
sthatoccurr
api
dlyorsuddenl
ymaybemi
ssed.

d)Bi
o-phy
siol
ogi
calmet
hods
Thisi
nvolv
esthecol l
ecti
onofphysicaldataf
rom thesubj
ects.Thesetypesofdat
aar e
gener
all
ymor eobjecti
veandaccuratethanmanyoft heotherdatacoll
ecti
onmethods.
Thismethodnecessitat
estheuseofspeci al
izedequipmentstoestabl
ishthephysi
cal
and/orbi
ologi
calconditi
onoft
hesubj ects

Ty
pesofphy
siol
ogi
calmeasur
es

1)I
nvi
vo

Thi
sr equi
rest
heuseofsomeappar
atust
o ev
aluat
eoneormor
eel
ement
sofa
par
ti
cipant

E.
g.Hei
ght
,wei
ghtBP

2)I
nvi
tr
o

55|
Page
Thi
sr equi
restheext
ract
ionofphy
siol
ogi
calmat
eri
alsf
rom t
hepar
ti
cipant
sfr
equent
ly
vi
alaborat
oryanal
ysi
s.

Thistypeofdatacol
lect
ionpr
ocessi
sfr
equent
lyusedwi
thexper
iment
alandquasi
exper
imental
desi
gns.

Adv
ant
ages

 Ver
yobj
ect
ive

 Pr
eci
seandaccur
ate

Di
sadv
ant
ages

 Maybeexpensi
ve

 Ti
meconsumi
ng

 Lackofwi
l
li
ngnessoft
heaccessi
blepopul
ati
ont
opar
ti
cipat
eint
hest
udy

 Speci
alexper
ti
semaybenecessar
ytousesomeoft
hedev
ices

 Presenceofcer
tai
ndat
acol
l
ect
ioni
nst
rument
smayadv
ersel
yinf
luencet
he
subject
s

e)At
ti
tudescal
es
Theseareselfreportdat
acoll
ect
ioninst
rumentsthatasktherespondentstoreport
thei
rat
ti
tudesorf eel
i
ngsonacont i
nuum.Theyarecomposedofanumberofr elat
ed
i
temsandr espondent
saregi
venascoreaft
erthei
tem r
esponsesaretot
aled.

Commonl
yusedr
ati
ngscal
esar
e:

1)Li
ker
tscal
e(summat
edr
ati
ngscal
e)

Atypeofcompositemeasur
eofat
tri
but
est hati
nvol
vessummati
onofscoresonaset
ofit
ems( st
atements)t
owhi chr
espondentsareaskedtoindi
cat
et hei
rdegreeof
agr
eementordisagr
eement.

Thescal
econsi
stsofsev
eral
decl
arat
ivest
atement
sthatexpr
essav
iewpoi
ntonat
opi
c.

56|
Page
Theper
son’
sat
ti
tudei
sgener
all
yrat
edona5poi
ntscal
ewher
e:

1-
str
ongl
ydi
sagr
ee 2-Di
sagr
ee 3-
undeci
ded 4-
agr
ee 5-
str
ongl
yagr
ee

Hi
ghscor
esi
ndi
cat
eaf
avor
abl
eat
ti
tude

2)Semant
icdi
ff
erent
ial

Thi
sconsi
stsofapar t
icul
arobj
ect
,si
tuati
onorev
entwhi
chpeopl
ethenr
ateonaser
ies
ofbi
pol
aradject
ivessuchasgood-
bad,fast
-sl
ow,
weak-
str
ong.

Theadj
ect
ivesusedar
ethoset
hatr
efl
ect
:

 Ev
aluat
ion–good-
bad,
hel
pful
-unhel
pful
,fl
exi
ble-
inf
lexi
ble.

 Per
cei
vedst
rengt
horpot
ency
-st
rongweak

 Act
ivi
ty-
fast–sl
ow

f
)Pr
eexi
sti
ngdat
a/r
ecor
ds
Thi
sinvol
vestheuseofinformationthathasnotbeencol
lectedforr
esear
chpurposes.
Thi
smayi nv
olveuseofpatientchart
s,recor
dsfr
om agenciessuchashospi
tal
s,l
ett
ers,
di
ari
es,
Fami l
ypict
ureset
c.

Ther esear
cherhast
oexplai
nwhatpi
ecesoft
hepr
imar
ydat
awi
l
lbeusedi
nthe
reassessmentoft
hei
nfor
mati
on

Adv
ant
ages

 Recor
dsarereadi
l
yav
ail
abl
ehencedat
acanbecol
l
ect
edwi
thoutanyi
ntr
usi
on
i
ntopeopl
es’
li
ves

 Sav
est
ime

 Al
l
owsf
orr
eev
aluat
ionofal
ter
nat
iveconcl
usi
ons

 Researchercan i
dent
if
ytr
endsbecauset
heent
ir
etyoft
hei
nci
dentcan be
manipulated

 Lessexpensi
ve

57|
Page
Di
sadv
ant
ages

 Datasour
cei
srest
ri
ctedsi
nceonl
ythedat
athatwasi
nit
ial
l
yamassedcanbe
used

 Pot
ent
ial
fordat
atobeout
dat
ed

 Rest
ri
cti
ononaccessi
ngcer
tai
ndocument
ssuchast
hosecont
rol
l
edt
opr
otect
i
ndiv
idualpr
ivacy

 Ori
ginalsampli
ng,incl
usion and excl
usi
on cr
it
eri
a coul
d negat
ivel
y af
fect
secondar
yassessmentofarchi
veddata

 Lackofopenendedorqual
i
tat
ivedat
arel
atedt
othequest
ion.

CONDUCTI
NGAPRETEST/
PILOTSTUDY

Pil
otstudy
-asmal lv
ersi
onofapr oposedstudyconduct
edtor
efi
nethemethodol
ogy
.It
i
nvolv
esgoi ngt
hroughtheentir
er esear
chpr ocedur
ewit
hasmallsampl
e.Itusesthe
samerespondent
sandset t
ingasthemai nstudy.

Pur
pose

i
) Todet
ermi
newhet
hert
hepr
oposedst
udyi
sfeasi
ble

i
i
) I
dent
if
yanypr
obl
emswi
tht
her
esear
chdesi
gn

i
i
i) Toensur
ethati
temsi
nthedatacoll
ecti
oninst
rumentar
est
atedcl
ear
lyandhav
e
thesamemeani
ngtoal
lresear
chrespondent
s.

i
v) Toassesst
het
imet
akent
oadmi
nist
ert
her
esear
chi
nst
rument

v
) Todet
ermi
newhet
hert
hesampl
eisar
epr
esent
ati
veoft
hepopul
ati
on

v
i) Todet
ermi
net
heef
fect
ivenessoft
hesampl
i
ngt
echni
queused

v
ii
) Togi
ver
esear
chert
her
eal
exper
iencei
nthef
iel
d

v
ii
i) Todet
ermi
net
hehumanandf
inanci
alr
esour
cesr
equi
redf
ort
hest
udy
.

i
x) Todet
ermi
net
heef
fect
ivenessoft
het
rai
ningt
oresear
chassi
stant
swher
e

58|
Page
 necessar
y

x) Toev
aluat
ethepr
ocedur
efordat
apr
ocessi
ngandanal
ysi
s.

I
deal
l
yapr et
estshoul
dbedonebef
oret
hef
ullscal
est
udyi
sdonei
.e.bef
oref
inal
i
zing
t
heproposal
.

Pr
ocedur
eforconduct
ingapr
etest
:

i
. Askcoll
eaguestorev
iewt
hequesti
onscr i
ti
call
y-t
oident
if
yift
hequest
ionsar
e
cl
earandwhethert
heymeetst
udyobject
ives.

i
i
. Pr
etestt
hequest
ionnai
reonpeopl
ewhoar
ever
ysi
mil
art
oyourt
argetgr
oup

i
i
i. Simul
atetheact
ualdat
acol
lect
ionpr
ocedur
e.I
fyouwi
l
luseassi
stant
s,t
hey
shoul
dalsobei
nvol
vedi
npr
etest
ing

i
v. Obt
ainf
eedbackaboutt
hef
orm andcont
entoft
hequest
ionnai
re

v
. Checki
fquest
ionspr
oducet
hei
nfor
mat
ionneeded.

v
i. Tr
youtt abul
ati
onsandanalysi
spr
ocedur
etodet
ermi
nei
fthequest
ionnai
re
yi
eldsdat
athatcanbeanal
yzed

v
ii
. Rev
iset
het
ool
s.

DATACOLLECTI
ONPROCESS
Datacoll
ect
ionrefer
st ot
heprocessofgat
her
inginf
ormat
iontoser
veorpr
ovesome
fact
s.Thi
swi l
ldet
erminet
hefi
ndingsoft
heent
irer
esear
chstudy
.

Pur
poseofdat
acol
lect
ion

 Tosti
mulatenewideasbecausedatacol
l
ecti
onhel
psinident
if
yingar
easr
elat
ed
tot
heresearcht
opicthatneedi
mprovementorf
urt
herev
aluat
ion

 Tohi
ghl
i
ghtasi
tuat
ionandt
her
ecr
eat
eawar
enessandi
mpr
ovement

 Toi
nfl
uencel
egi
slat
ivepol
i
ciesorr
egul
ati
ons

 Topr
ovi
dej
ust
if
icat
ionf
oranexi
sti
ngpr
ogr
ammeorneedf
oranewpr
ogr
amme

59|
Page
  Iti
stheonl
yrel
i
abl
ewayt
oev
aluat
ether
esponsi
venessandef
fect
ivenessoft
he
study

I
tpr
omot
esdeci
si
onmaki
ngandr
esour
ceal
l
ocat
iont
hatar
ebasedonsol
i
dev
idence

Dat
acol
lect
ionpl
an
Befor
ebegi
nni
ngdat
acol
l
ect
ionpr
ocess,apl
anshoul
dbedr
awnup.Thi
swi
l
lensur
e
that
:

 Onehasaclearover
view ofwhatt
askshav
etobecar
ri
edout
,whoshoul
d
per
for
mthem andt
hedurat
ionoft
hetasks

 Humanandmater
ialr
esour
cesf
ordat
acol
l
ect
ioncanbeor
gani
zedi
nthemost
ef
fi
cientway

 Pr
obl
emst
hatwi
l
lrequi
remodi
fi
cat
ionst
othepr
oposal
arei
dent
if
ied.

St
epsi
ndev
elopi
ngapl
an:

1)Li
stt
het
askst
hathav
etobecar
ri
edoutandwhowi
l
lbei
nvol
ved

2)Makear
oughest
imat
eoft
het
imeneededf
ordi
ff
erentpar
tsoft
hest
udy
.

3)I
dent
if
ythemostappr
opr
iat
eper
iodi
nwhi
cht
ocar
ryoutt
her
esear
ch

4)Schedul
ethedi
ff
erentact
ivi
ti
est
hathav
etobecar
ri
edouteachweeki
napl
an.

I
ndev
elopi
ngapl
ant
hef
oll
owi
ngf
act
orsshoul
dbeconsi
der
ed:

 Ty
peofdat
atobecol
l
ect
edanddemandsoft
hepr
oject

 Av
ail
abi
l
ityofr
esear
cht
eam member
sandr
esear
chassi
stant
s

 Appr
opr
iat
eseason(
s)t
oconductt
hef
iel
dwor
k

 Accessi
bil
i
tyandav
ail
abi
l
ityoft
hesampl
epopul
ati
on

 Publ
i
chol
i
day
sandv
acat
ionper
iods.

St
agesofdat
acol
lect
ion
1.Per
missi
ont
opr
oceed

Consentmustbegott
enfr
om relev
antaut
hori
ti
es,i
ndi
vidual
sandt hecommuni t
yi n
which t
he st
udy i
sto be car
ri
ed out
.This may i
nvolve or
gani
zing meet
ings at

60|
Page
nat
ional
/Pr
ovi
nci
al/
Dist
ri
ctandatt
hev
il
lagel
evel
.

2.Dat
acol
lect
ion

Whencoll
ect
ingdatai
tisimpor
tantt
oconsi
dert
hel
ogi
sti
cs.I
dent
if
ywhowi
l
lcol
l
ect
what
,whenandwithwhatr
esour
ces.

Whenal
locat
ingt
asksfordat
acollect
ion,i
tisimpor
tantt
hatt
asksshoul
dbel
i
sted,
t
heni
denti
fywhocanbesti
mplementeachtask.

Useofr
esear
chassi
stant
s:

Wher
eresear
chassi
stant
shav
etobeused:

 Theyshoul
dbef
rom t
hesameeducat
ional
lev
el

 Theyshouldbeknowledgeabl
econcer
ningt
het
opi
candl
ocalcondi
ti
onsbutnot
obj
ectofthest
udythemselves

 Theyshoul
dbeadequat
elyt
rai
ned

 Ongoi
ngsuper
visi
onshoul
dbear
rangedespeci
all
yift
hear
eat
obecov
eredi
s
l
arge.

I
tisi
mpor
tantt
odev
isemet
hodst
oensur
edat
aqual
it
yby
:

 Requir
ing i
nter
viewersto check whet
hert
he quest
ionnai
rei
sfi
l
led bef
ore
fi
nishi
ngeachinter
view.

 Aski
ngsupervi
sorstocheckattheendofeachdaywhet
hert
hequest
ionnai
res
ar
efil
ledcompl
etelyandwhet
herrecor
dedi
nfor
mati
onmakessense

 Havi
ngtheresearcher
srevi
ewthedataduri
ngt
hedat
aanal
ysi
sst
aget
ocheck
whet
herdat
aar ecomplet
eandconsi
stent
.

3.Dat
ahandl
ing

Oncedatahasbeencol
lect
ed,acl
earpr
ocedur
eshoul
dbedev
elopedf
orhandl
i
ngand
st
ori
ngthem.Duri
ngthi
sstage:

a)Checkt
hatal
lthedat
aar
euni
for
m,compl
eteandaccur
ate

b)Atsomest
agenumbert
hequest
ionnai
resei
theratt
het
imeofdat
acol
l
ect
ionor
61|
Page
 whenquest
ionnai
resar
est
ored

c)I
dent
if
ytheper
sonr
esponsi
blef
orst
ori
ngdat
aandt
hepl
acewher
eitwi
l
lbest
ored

d)Deci
dehowdat
ashoul
dbest
oredei
ther
:

 Paperst
orage-
wher
ecodeddat
aiswr
it
tenonpaperbef
oreanal
ysi
s

 El
ect
roni
cst
orage-
usi
ngacomput
er.

Sour
cesofer
rori
nDat
aCol
lect
ion

i
) Inst
rumentinadequaci
es.Thi
sisconcer
nedwi t
ht hei
temsusedtocol
lectdat
a
andtheinst
ructi
onstothesubj
ect
sthatarecont
ainedi
nthei
nstr
ument.

i
i
) Inst
rumentadminist
rat
ion bi
ases.Thi
s mayoccuri
fthe i
nst
rumenti
s not
administ
eredi
nthesamefashiontoal
lsubj
ect
s.

i
i
i) Env
ironment
alv
ari
ati
onsdur
ingdat
acol
l
ect
ion

i
v) Temporar
ychar act
eri
sti
csoft
hesubjectsduri
ngdat
acol
l
ect
ionsuchasl
evel
sof
anxi
ety
,ti
redness,i
nfl
uenci
ngresponsesetc.

ETHI
CALPRI
NCI
PLESI
NDATACOLLECTI
ON

Therear
ethr
eepr
inci
plest
hatgui
der
esear
cher
seachwi
thr
ight
sthatneedt
obe
obser
ved

1)Pr
inci
pleofbenef
icence

Thi
sisafundamentalpri
nci
plethatseekstoprot
ectsubj
ect
sfr
om har
m,expl
oit
ati
on
andmaxi
mizebenef
its.Thi
spri
ncipl
eincl
udes:

i
) Freedom fr
om harm-exposi
ngsubj
ect
stoexper
iencest
hatr
esul
tinser
iousor
permanenthar
mi sunaccept
abl
e.

 Onl
y sci
ent
if
ical
l
y quali
fi
ed per
sons should conductresear
ch especi
all
yif
pot
ent
ial
l
ydangerousequi
pmentorspeci
ali
zedprocedur
eareused.

 Avoi
di nf
li
cti
ngpsychol
ogi
calharm byphr
asi
ngquest
ionscar
eful
l
y,debr
ief
ing
andprovi
dingther
esear
cher
’scont
act.

i
i
) Freedom f
rom exploi
tat
ion-Subject
sshoul
dnotbeplacedatdi
sadv
ant
agesor
exposedtosi
tuat
ionsforwhichtheyhav
enotbeenexpl
ici
tl
ypr
epar
ed.

62|
Page
  Ther
efor
e,subj
ect
s shoul
d be expl
ained t
hatthei
r part
ici
pat
ion or
i
nfor
mationt
heymi
ghtprov
idewoul
dnotbeusedagai
nstthem i
nanyway

 Thesubject
senteri
ntoaspeci
alrel
ati
onshipwiththeresear
cher
.Thi
s
rel
ati
onshi
pshoul
dnotbeov
ert
lyormali
ciousl
yexpl
oit
ed.

i
i
i) Risk/benefi
trat
io-Resear
chersareexpectedt
ocar ef
ull
yassesstherisksand
benefit
sthatwouldbeincurr
edinconductofastudybefor
eit
sincept
ionbothto
theresearcherandthesubject
s.

Research shoul
d notbe undert
aken when per
cei
ved r
isks out
wei
ghs t
he
anti
cipat
edbenefi
tsoft
her
esearch.

2)Pr
inci
pleofr
espectf
orhumandi
gni
ty

i
) Ri
ghtt
osel
fdet
ermi
nat
ion

 Prospect
ivesubj
ectshavetherightto deci
dev ol
unt
ari
l
ywhetherornotto
part
ici
pateinastudywit
houttheriskofincur
ri
nganypenal
ti
esorprej
udi
ced
tr
eatment.

 Subject
shavetheri
ghttodecideatanypoi
nttotermi
natethei
rpart
ici
pat
ion,t
o
ref
usetogiv
einfor
mationortoaskforcl
ari
fi
cat
ionsorspeci
fi
cquesti
ons

 Humansshoul
dbet reat
edasaut
onomousagent
scapabl
eofcont
rol
l
ingt
hei
r
ownact
ivi
ti
esanddesti
nies

 Fr
eedom f
rom coer
cionofanyt
ype.

i
i) Righttof ul
ldi
sclosur
e-Ther esear
chershouldfull
ydescri
bethenatureofthe
study,thesubject’
sri
ghttorefusepart
ici
pat
ion,theresear
cher’
sresponsi
bil
it
y
andl i
kelyri
sksandbenef i
tssothatthesubj
ectscanmakei nf
ormedv ol
unt
ary
decisi
onaboutt hei
rpart
ici
pati
oninastudy.

i
ii
) I
nfor
medconsent

El
ement
sofi
nfor
medconsent
:

 Thesubj
ect
shavetobeadequatel
yinf
ormedr
egar
dingt
her
esear
chi
.e.t
het
ype
ofi
nfor
mati
ontobeobt
ainedfr
om them

63|
Page
  Degr
eeofunder
standi
ngoft
hesubj
ect
stobecapabl
eofcompr
ehendi
ngt
he
i
nfor
mat
ion

 Thefactthatthesubjecthavet
hepoweroffr
eechoi
ceenabl
i
ngt
hem t
oconsent
vol
untar
il
yt opart
ici
pateinther
esear
chornot.

Pr
econdi
ti
onsf
ori
nfor
medconsent
:

 Compet
encet
ounder
standanddeci
de

 Vol
unt
arywi
l
li
ngnessi
ndeci
dingwi
thoutcoer
cion.

I
nfor
medconsenti
sbasedont
her
ightt
oful
ldi
scl
osur
eandr
ightt
osel
fdet
ermi
nat
ion.

Consentf
orm document
stheconsentpr
ocess

Vul
ner
abl
esubj
ect
s

Thesear
especialsubj
ect
swhoneedaddit
ionalpr
oceduressi
ncetheycannotgi
vef
ull
y
i
nformedconsentormaybeatahi gherri
skofunintendedsideeff
ectsduetothei
r
ci
rcumst
ances.Thesei
nclude:

 Ment
all
yoremot
ional
l
ydi
sabl
edpeopl
e

 Phy
sical
l
ydi
sabl
edpeopl
e

 Chi
l
dren

 Pr
egnantwomen

3)Pr
inci
pleofj
ust
ice

i
) Righttofai
rtr
eat
ment-Subj
ectshavether
ightt
of ai
randequi
tabl
etr
eat
ment
before,
duri
ngandaf
terthei
rpart
ici
pat
ioni
nthestudy.

i
i) Ri
ghttopri
vacy-Subj
ect
s’pr
ivacyshoul
dbemai
ntai
nedt
hroughoutt
hest
udy
.
Toensur
ethis:

 St
ri
ctconf
ident
ial
i
tyofal
ldat
acol
l
ect
edshoul
dbeensur
ed

 Anony
mit
yshoul
dal
sobemai
ntai
ned

64|
Page
  Apromiseofconf
ident
ial
i
tyi
sguarant
eedtosubj
ect
sthati
nfor
mationwi
ll
notbemadepublicoraccessi
bletopar
ti
esothert
hanthoseinv
olvedi
n
thest
udy.

I
mpor
tanceofet
hicsi
nresear
ch:

 Toensur
ethathumansubj
ect
sar
enothar
med

 Toensur
ethathumansubj
ect
sar
enotwr
ongedbybei
ngt
reat
edasmer
emeans
orobj
ect
s

 Accesstoresear
chmaypr
ovi
debenef
it
sto par
ti
cipant
sthatar
eot
her
wise
unavai
l
abl
e

 Heal
thbenef
it
stosoci
etyr
esul
tsf
rom r
esear
ch.

DATAANALYSI
SANDPRESENTATI
ON
Dat
aanal
ysi
s

Thi
sistheprocessofex
aminingwhathasbeencol
l
ect
edi
nasur
veyorexper
imentand
makingdeduct
ionsandi
nfer
ences.

Dat
apr
ocessi
ng

Thi
sref
erstot
hetr
ansf
erofquant
if
ieddat
aoncomput
erst
oraget
ofaci
l
itat
eel
ect
roni
c
comput
ati
onofdat
a.

Oncedat
ahasbeenent
ered,
thechoi
ceofst
ati
sti
cal
procedur
ewi
l
ldependon:

 Proposedhypothesisandobjecti
ves-f
orexplorat
orystudy,
descri
pti
veanal
ysi
sis
adequate.I
fhypothesi
swill
bet ested,
inf
erenti
alstat
ist
icswil
lbeused.

 Researchdesign-exper
iment
aldesi
gnwhi
chcompr
isesofv
ari
ousgr
oupscal
l
s
foranaly
sisofvari
ance

 Ty
peofmeasur
ementscal
eused

Weshouldt
hinkaboutdat
aanal
ysi
supf r
ontr
athert
hanwaiti
ngunti
lal
lthedat
ahas
beencol
l
ect
ed.Thi
swill
enabl
euscol
lectt
heri
ghtdat
aforanal
ysi
s.

Ty
pesofanal
ysi
s

65|
Page
a)Quant
it
ati
veanal
ysi
s

St
eps

i
) Dat
aor
gani
zat
ion

Thi
sisdonei
mmedi
atel
ythet
ool
shav
ebeenr
ecei
vedf
rom t
hef
iel
d.

Al
lthet
oolsarecheckedf
oraccuracy,completenessanduniformit
y.Thoset
hatare
i
ncompl
eteordonotmakesensear
el ef
tout.Arecordofthedecisi
onshoul
dbekept
.

Auni
quei
dent
if
iersuchasaser
ial
numberi
sassi
gnedt
other
emai
ningquest
ionnai
res.

Thedat
aist
henent
eredmanual
l
yorbycomput
er.

i
i
) Codi
ng

Thisist he pr
ocessofassigning numer
alsorot hersymbolst o answersso t
hat
responsescanbeputi ntoali
mitednumberofcat egor
iesorcl asses.Thecl
asses
shouldbeappropri
atetother
esear
chprobl
em underconsi
derat
ion.Thecodingpr
ocess
start
swiththeprepar
ati
onofacodebook.

i
i
i) Cl
assi
fi
cat
ion/
cat
egor
izat
ion

Thisis groupi
ng ofr
elat
ed f
act
sint
o cl
asses accor
ding t
o some pr
edet
ermi
ned
char
acteri
sti
cs.

Dat
acl
assi
fi
cat
ioni
simpor
tantbecause:

 I
tfaci
l
itat
escompar
ison

 I
tgivespr ominencetopt
hei
mpor
tanti
nfor
mat
iongat
her
edwhi
l
edr
oppi
ngout
unnecessaryelement
s

 I
tenabl
esst
ati
sti
cal
treat
mentofmat
eri
alscol
l
ect
ed

 I
tpi
npoi
ntst
hemostsi
gni
fi
cantf
eat
uresofdat
aatagl
ance

i
v) Tabul
ati
on

Thi
sist
hepr
ocessofsummar
izi
ngr
awdat
aanddi
spl
ayi
ngt
hesamei
ncompactf
orm

Tabul
ati
oni
sessent
ial
because:

 I
tconser
ves space and r
educes expl
anat
oryand descr
ipt
ive st
atement
sto

66|
Page
 mi
nimum

 I
tfaci
l
itat
espr
ocessofcompar
ison

 I
tfaci
l
itat
est
hesummat
ionofi
temsandt
hedet
ect
ionofer
ror
sandomi
ssi
ons

 I
tpr
ovi
desabasi
sforv
ari
ousst
ati
sti
cal
compar
isons.

I
tinv
olv
escal
cul
ati
onofmean,
medi
anmodeet
c

Thet
ypeofcal
cul
ati
onst
ousedependsuponwhaty
ouwantt
oknow.

Doy
ouwantt
oknowhowmanyi
ndi
vi
dual
scheckedeachanswer
? Fr
equency

Doy
ouwantt
hepr
opor
ti
onofpeopl
ewhoanswer
edi
nacer
tai
nway
? Per
cent
age

Doy
ouwantt
heav
eragenumberorav
eragescor
e? Mean

Doy
ouwantt
hemi
ddl
eval
uei
nar
angeofv
aluesorscor
es? Medi
an

Doy
ouwantt
oshowt
her
angei
nanswer
sorscor
es? Range

Doy
ouwantt
ocompar
eonegr
oupt
oanot
her
? Cr
osst
ab

Doy
ouwantt
orepor
tchangesf
rom pr
etopost
? Changescor
e

Doyouwantt
oshowt
hedegr
eet
owhi
char
esponsev
ari
esf
rom t
he St
andar
ddev
iat
ion
mean?

v
) I
nter
pret
ati
on

Thisist hepr
ocessofat t
achi
ngmeani ngtodata.Iti
sherethatinf
erent
ial
deducti
onsaremadef rom thedatafrom whichitwoul
dhel
pi ntest
ingthe
hypothesi
sandthussol
vi
ngtheresear
chprobl
em

I
tisdonewi
thi
nthef
rameofr
efer
enceoft
her
esear
chpr
obl
em andhy
pot
hesi
s.

I
nter
pret
ati
onrequi
rescar
efulj
udgment
sbecauseof
tent
hesamedat
acanbe
i
nter
pret
edindi
ffer
entway
s.

Someoft
het
echni
quesf
ori
nter
pret
ingdat
aincl
ude:

 Ext
endi
ngt
heanal
ysi
sbyr
aisi
ngquest
ions

67|
Page
  Connectf
indi
ngst
oper
sonal
exper
iences

 Seekt
headv
iceofcr
it
ical
fri
ends,
col
l
eagues

 Cont
ext
ual
i
zef
indi
ngsi
nther
esear
ch

 Tur
ntot
heor
y

Commoner
ror
sinquant
it
ati
veanal
ysi
s

 Useofi
ncor
rectdenomi
nat
orwhencal
cul
ati
ngt
heper
cent
ages

 Av
eragi
ngper
cent
ages

 usi
ngasi
ngl
eav
eraget
hatdi
stor
tsmi
srepr
esent
sther
angeofi
nfor
mat
ion

b)Qual
it
ati
veanal
ysi
s

Qual
i
tat
ivedat
aconsi
stsofwor
dsandobser
vat
ionsr
athert
hannumber
s.

Anal
ysi
sandi
nter
pret
ati
onofnar
rat
ivedat
aisof
tenr
efer
redt
oascont
entanal
ysi
s.

Sour
cesofnar
rat
ivedat
aforanal
ysi
s:

– Openendedquest
ionsandwr
it
tencomment
sonquest
ionnai
res

– Test
imoni
als maygiv
er eact
ions t
o a pr
ogram inaf ew wor
ds orl
engt
hy
commentseit
heri
npersonori
nwr i
tt
encorr
espondence.

– I
ndi
vi
dualinterv
iewscanproducedataintheform ofnot
es,summar
yoft
he
i
ndi
vi
dual
’sinter
vieworwor
d-0f
or-
wordtr
anscr
ipt
s

– Discussiongr
oupsorfocusgr oupint
erv
iewsof
teni
nvol
vef
ullt
ranscr
ipt
sand
notesfrom amoder
atororobserver
.

– Logs,jour
nal
sanddiar
iesmi
ghtpr
ovi
dest
ruct
uredent
ri
esorf
reef
lowi
ngt
ext
thaty
ouorother
spr
oduce

– Observat
ionsmightber
ecordedi
nyourf
il
lednot
esordescr
ipt
iveaccount
sasa
r
esultofwatchi
ngandli
steni
ng

68|
Page
 – Document
s,r eport
sandnewsar
ti
clesoranypubl
i
shedwr
it
tenmat
eri
almay
ser
veaseval
uationdat
a

– St
ori
esmayprovi
dedataf
rom per
sonalaccount
sofexper
iencesandr
esul
tsof
pr
ogramsi
npeopl
e’sownwor
ds

– Casest
udi
est
ypi
cal
l
yincl
udesev
eral
oft
heabov
e.

St
eps

1)Gett
oknowy
ourdat
a

Thismeansyoureadandre-
readthet
ext.I
fyouhav
etaper ecor
ds,y
ouli
stent
othem
sever
alti
mesandt r
anscr
ibedata.Wr
itedownanyimpressionsyouhav
easy ougo
thr
oughthedat
a.

Checkthequali
tyoft
hedata.Isitcomplet
eandunder st
andabl
e? I
sitl
i
kel
ytoadd
meaningandval
ue?Wasitcol
lect
edinanunbiasedway
?

2)Focust
heanal
ysi
s

Rev
iewt
hepur
poseoft
heev
aluat
ionandwhaty
ouwant
edt
ofi
ndout
.

Basedony our‘
gett
ingtoknow y
ourdat a,t
hinkaboutaf
ew quest
ionst
haty
ouwant
youranal
ysi
stoanswerandwri
tethem down.

Youmi
ghtf
ocusy
ouranal
ysi
sby
:

i
) Quest
ion,
topi
c,t
ime,
per
iodorev
ent
.

I
nthisappr
oachyoul
ookathowall
indi
vi
dual
sorgroupsr espondedtoeachquesti
onor
t
opicorforagiv
enperi
odorevent
.Youor gani
zedatabyquest i
ontolookacrossal
l
r
espondent
sandthei
ranswer
sinor
dertoi
denti
fyconsi
stenciesanddif
ferences

i
i
) Casei
ndi
vi
dual
orgr
oup

Youmaywantanov
eral
lpi
ctur
eof
:

 Onecasesuchasonef
ami
l
y,oroneagency

 Onei
ndi
vi
dual
suchasat
eenpar
ti
cipanti
nthepr
ogr
am

69|
Page
  Onegr
oupsuchasal
lteens13-
19y
rs.

Ratherthangroupi
ng theserespondent
s’answersbyquesti
onortopi
c,you
organi
zedataf
rom oraboutthecase,i
ndi
vidual
orgr
oupandanal
yzei
taswhol
e.

Youmaywantt ocombinethet
woappr
oachesandanal
yzet
hedat
abybot
hquest
ion
andbycase,
indi
vi
dual
orgroup.

3)Cat
egor
izei
nfor
mat
ion

Thi
sissomet
imesr
efer
redt
ocodi
ngori
ndexi
ngt
hedat
a.

However,cat
egori
zi
ng doesn’
tinv
olv
e assi
gni
ng numer
icalcodes as y
ou do i
n
quant
it
ati
veanal
ysi
s.

Tobr
ingmeani
ngt
othewor
ds:

i
) Ident
if
ythemesorpat
ter
ns-i
deasconcept
s,behav
ior
s,i
nter
act
ionsphr
asesused
etc

i
i
) Organizethem i
ntocoherentcat
egori
esthatsummarizeandbri
ngmeani ngto
thetext.Thisi
nvol
vesreadingandre-r
eadi
ngthetextandident
if
yingcoher
ent
categori
es.

Youmaywantt oassi
gnabbr
eviat
edcodesofaf
ewl
ett
ers,
wor
dsorsy
mbol
sandpl
ace
them nextt
othet
hemesandideasyoufi
nd

Exampl
e:

70|
Page
Prov
ideadescr
ipt
ivelabel(
name)foreachcategor
yyoucr
eat
eandbecl
earonwhat
y
ouincl
udei
nthecategoryandwhattoexcl
ude.

Asyoucategor
izedatayoumi ghti
denti
fyothert
hemest hatserv
eassubcategor
ies.
Cont
inuet
ocategor
izeunti
lyouhaveident
if
iedandlabel
edallr
elev
antt
hemes.

Way
sofcat
egor
izi
ngnar
rat
ivedat
a:

i
) Usi
ngpr
esetcat
egor
ies

Youstartwit
hal
i
stoft
hemesorcat
egor
iesi
nadv
anceandt
hensear
cht
hedat
afor
theset
opics

Theset
hemespr
ovi
dedi
rect
ionf
orwhaty
oul
ookf
ori
nthedat
a.

Youident
ifyt
hethemesbef
orey
oucat
egor
izet
hedat
aandsear
chf
ordat
afort
extt
hat
matchesthethemes.

i
i
) Emer
gentcat
egor
ies

Your
eadt
hrought
het
extandf
indt
het
hemesori
ssuest
hatr
ecuri
nthedat
a.These

71|
Page
becomey
ourcat
egor
ies.Theymaybei
deasorconcept
syouhadnott
houghtabout
.

Someti
mesy oumaycombinet
hesetwoapproachesbyst
art
ingwi
thsomepr
eset
cat
egor
iesandaddi
ngot
her
sast
heybecomeapparent
.

Youri
nit
ial
li
stofcat
egor
iesMaychangeasy
ouwor
kwi
tht
hedat
a.

Somet
imessomesect i
onsofdat
afi
tint
otwocat
egor
ies.Ther
efor
eyouneedt
ocr
eat
e
awaytocr
ossindex.

4) I
dent
if
ypat
ter
ns

Oncey
ouhav
eident
if
iedt
hecat
egor
ies,
youmi
ght
:

 Sortandassemblealldatabytheme.Iti
simpor
tanttocapturet
hesi
mil
ari
ti
esand
dif
ferencesi
npeoples’r
esponseswit
hinacat
egory
.Iti
shelpfult
owri
teasummary
foreachcategor
ythatdescr
ibest
hesepoi
nts.

 Sor
tandassembledataint
olar
gercategor
ies-y
oumaywantt ocreat
elar
gersuper
cat
egor
iesthatcombineseveralcat
egori
es.You can wor
kf r
om mor especif
ic
cat
egor
iest
olargeri
deasandconcept
sthenseehowthepart
srel
atetothewhole

 Countthenumberoftimescertai
nthemesar
iset
oshow r
elat
ivei
mpor
tance(
not
sui
tabl
eforst
ati
sti
cal
analy
sis)

 Show rel
ati
onshi
psamongcat egori
es.Youmayal sodiscov
ert hatt
woormor e
themesoccurtoget
herconsist
entl
yinthedata.Wheneveryoufindone,youf
indthe
other
.Youmaydeci dethatsomeoft heseconnect
ionssuggestacauseandef f
ect
rel
ati
onshi
porcreat
easequencet hroughti
me

5) I
nter
pret
ati
on

Useyourthemesand connect
ionst
o expl
ainy
ourf
indi
ngs-
att
achi
ng meani
ng and
si
gni
fi
cancetot
heanal
ysi
s.

Startbydevel
opi
ngali
stofkeypointori
mpor
tantf
indi
ngsy
oudi
scov
eredasar
esul
tof
categori
zi
ngandsor
ti
ngy ourdat
a.

72|
Page
Ty
picaler
ror
sinqual
it
ati
vedat
aanal
ysi
s

 Li
sti
ngal
lnar
rat
ivecomment
swi
thoutdoi
nganyanal
ysi
s

 I
ncl
udi
ngi
nfor
mat
iont
hatmakesi
tpossi
blet
oident
if
yther
espondent
s

 General
izi
ngf
rom commentstothewholegroup.Quali
tat
ivei
nfor
mat i
onseeks
t
opr ovi
deuni
quei
nsight
sunder
standi
ngandexplanat
ionnotgenar
ali
zati
ons.

 Usingquotestoprovi
deposi
ti
vespi
n.Consi
dery
ourpur
poseofi
ncl
udi
ngt
he
quotes.I
fyouusequot
es:

– Speci
fywhyy
ouchoset
hesel
ect
edquot
es

– I
ncl
ude enough ofthe t
extto al
l
ow t
he r
eadert
o deci
de whatt
he
r
espondenti
str
yingt
oconvey

– Conf
ident
ial
i
tyandanony
mit
yshoul
dbeensur
ed

– Getpeopl
esper
missi
ont
ouset
hei
rwor
ds

– Checkwithot
her
saboutt
hev
alueandusef
ulnessoft
hequot
esy
ousel
ect
toi
nclude.

St
ati
sti
csusedi
ndat
aAnal
ysi
s

St
ati
sti
csar
eusedbyt
her
esear
chert
o:

 Summar
izeandor
gani
zedat
a

 Ev
aluat
eandi
nter
pretdat
a

 Communi
cat
enumer
ical
inf
ormat
ion

St
ati
sti
csusedi
ncl
ude:

a)Descr
ipt
ive

These ar
e st
ati
sti
cs t
hator
gani
ze and summar
ize numer
icaldat
a gat
her
ed f
rom
samples.

Theyal
sohel
pt her
esear
chert
oexami
net
hechar
act
eri
sti
cs,
behav
ior
sandexper
iences
ofst
udypar
ti
cipant
s.

Thesear
ecat
egor
izedi
nto:

73|
Page
1)Measur
est
ocondensedat
a

Thesear
est
ati
sti
cst
hatar
eusedt
osummar
izeandcondensedat
a.

i
) Measur
esofcent
ralt
endency

Thesearestat
ist
icst
hatdescr
ibet
heav
erage,t
ypi
calormostcommonv
aluef
ora
groupofdat
a.

Cent
ral
-mi
ddl
eorav
eragev
alue

Tendency
-thi
sist
hegener
alt
rendoft
henumber
stocl
ust
eri
nacer
tai
nway
.

Measur
esofcent
ral
tendencyi
ncl
ude:

1)Mean

Thisr ef
erstoaver
agesum ofasetofvalues.I
tisappr
opri
ateforint
ervaland
rati
odat a.I
tisconsi
deredt
hemoststabl
emeasur eofcentr
altendencyifthe
dist
ributi
oni
dnormal.Howev
eri
tisi
nfl
uencedbyextr
emev al
ues.

2)Mode

Thisref
erst othecategor
yorval
uethatoccur
smostofteni
nasetofdataunder
consi
derat
ion.Thati
sthemostr
epr
esent
ati
vecat
egor
yorv
aluei
nthegr
oup.

I
tist
heonl
ymeasur
eofcent
ral
tendencyappr
opr
iat
efornomi
nal
dat
a.

Cat
egor
ywi
tht
hegr
eat
estf
requencyi
scal
l
edt
hemodal
class.

I
tispossi
blet
ohav
enomode.

Dat
acanal
sohav
eoneormor
emodes.

– Uni
modal
-asetofdat
awi
thonev
aluemostf
requent
.

– Bi
modal
-asetofdat
awi
tht
wov
alues/
cat
egor
ieswi
tht
hesamehi
ghf
requency

– Mult
imodal-asetofdat
awi
thmor
ethant
wov
alues/
cat
egor
ieswi
thsamehi
gh
f
requency
.

3)Medi
an

Thisr
efer
stothemiddl
escoreorvalue(50thpercent
il
e)inagr
oupofdatawhendatais
arr
angedinascendi
ngorder
.Wit
hi nter
valorr ati
odata,medi
andi
videsthefr
equency

74|
Page
di
str
ibut
ionofdat
ainhal
f.

I
tisappr
opr
iat
eforor
dinal
,rat
io,
aswel
lasi
nter
val
dat
a.

Medi
ani
snoti
nfl
uencedbyext
remev
ari
abl
es.

i
i) Measur
esofv
ari
abi
li
ty

Thesedescr
ibehowval
uesdif
feramongthemsel
vesinadi
str
ibut
ionofv
aluesi
.e.t
he
di
stri
but
ionofscor
esaroundaparti
cul
arcent
ralval
ueorscoreandinthi
scasethe
mean.

Theyi
ncl
ude:

1)Range

Thisisthedi
ff
erencebet
weent
hehi
ghestandt
hel
owestv
aluei
nagr
oupofv
aluesor
scores

I
tisameasur
ethatcanbeusedt
ogai
naqui
ckpi
ctur
eoft
hedi
sper
sionoft
hedat
a.

I
tisi
nfl
uencedbyext
remev
alues.

Tocor
rectt
hisi
nfl
uence,
int
er-
quar
ti
ler
angemayber
epor
ted.

2)Per
cent
il
e

Thisisadat um poi
ntbel
ow whi
chli
etheval
uesinafrequencydi
str
ibut
i g.80th
on.E.
percent
il
eofascor emeans80% ofthesubj
ect
srecei
vedlowerscor
eor20% oft he
subject
shigherscor
e.

3)St
andar
ddev
iat
ion

Thisdescr
ibeshow t
hev al
uesrangefrom t
hemeanoft hedistr
ibut
ion.I
tinv
olv
es
subtr
act
ingthemeanf r
om eachscoretoobtai
nthedev
iati
on.Iti
smostcommonl y
usedwheninter
val
orrat
iodat
aisobtai
ned.

4)Var
iance

Thi
sSt
andar
ddev
iat
ionsquar
ed.

i
ii
) Measur
esofr
elat
ionshi
p

Theseareconcernedwit
hthecorr
elat
ionsbetweenv
ari
abl
esi
.e.how v
aluesofone
var
iabl
earer
elat
edt ot
heval
uesofanot
hervar
iabl
e.

75|
Page
Rel
ati
onshi
pisexami
nedt
hrough:

1)Cor
rel
ati
onalcoef
fi
cient
s

Thisdet
ermi nesthemagnitudeanddir
ect
ionoft
herel
ati
onshi
pbet
weent
wov ar
iabl
es.
General
l
y,cor rel
ati
onalcoeffi
cient
sarecal
cul
atedonmeasurement
sobtai
nedf r
om
eachsubjectontwov ari
abl
es

2)Scat
terpl
ots/
scat
terdi
agr
ams/
scat
tergr
am

Thi
si saGr aphi
crepr
esentati
onofther el
ati
onshi
pbetweentwo var
iabl
es.TheX
var
iableisplott
edontheX- axi
sandtheYv ari
abl
eontheY-axi
s.Dotsareusedt o
i
ndicatewhereXandYi nter
sect.Theconcentr
ati
onoft
hedotsinthegraphindi
cat
es
posit
ive/
negati
vecor
rel
ati
on.

3)Cont
ingencyt
abl
es

Ifdat aarenomi nalorcategor i

cal
,r el
ati
onshi
pcannotbedepi ct
edonascat t
erpl
ot
sincenoact ualr esult
sareav ail
able.Itisonl
yt hefr
equenciesofoccur
renceofthe
valuesarepresent ed.Cont
ingencytable/cr
osstabul
ati
ontableisameansofdispl
ayi
ng
ther el
ati
onshipsbet weensetsofnomi naldat
a.E.g.r
elat
ionshipbet
weengenderand
l
ev elofmotivati
on

b)I
nfer
ent
ialst
ati
sti
cs

Thesearest
ati
sti
cst
hatar
eusedt
omakedeci
sionsori
nfer
encesapopul
ati
on.They
areusedt
o:

i
) Est
imat
et hepopul
ati
onparameter
sfr
om t
hesampl
est
ati
sti
cs.Thi
sinv
olv
es
det
ermi
ningtheconfi
dencei
nter
val
s.

i
i
) Tot
esthy
pot
heses

Allinf
erenti
alstat
isti
caltest
s are based on the assumpt i
on thatchance i s onl
y
expl
anationfort
her el
ati
onshi
psthatarefoundinresearchstudies.Aresearcherwants
todemonst r
atet
hatchanceisnotthereasonfortherel
ationshi
psf oundinresearch.

Choosi
ngast
ati
sti
calt
est

Ther
ear
etwot
ypesofi
nfer
ent
ial
test
s

 Thosethatsear
chfordi
ff
erencesinsetsofdata.Theseareusedwheny
ouwant
todet
ermineift
her
eisasignif
icantdi
ff
erencebetweengroups

 Thoset
hatsear
chf
orcor
rel
ati
onsbet
weenset
sofdat
a.Thesear
eusedwhen

76|
Page
 youwantt odetermi
nei
fther
eisasi
gni
fi
cantcor
rel
ati
onbet
weenv
ari
abl
es
wit
hinonegroup.

Choi
ceoft
hest
ati
sti
cal
testi
sbasedon:

 Thehy
pot
hesesf
ort
hest
udyort
her
esear
chquest
ions.

 Sampl
esi
ze

 Numberofgr
oupsorset
sofscor
est
obecompar
ed

 Whet
hert
hescor
es/obser
vat
ionsar
edependentori
ndependent

 Whet
hery
ouar
ecompar
inggr
oupsorset
sofscor
esorcor
rel
ati
ngv
ari
abl
es

 Thenumberofobser
vat
ionsav
ail
abl
eforeachgr
oup.

I
nfer
ent
ial
stat
ist
icscanbecl
assi
fi
edas

i
) Par
amet
ri
c

Theseareconcernedwit
hpopul
ati
onpar
ametersandt
husmakeassumpt
ionsabout
thepopul
ati
onfr
om whichasampl
ewasdrawn.

Forapar
amet
ri
ctestt
obeusedi
tisassumedt
hat
:

 Thel
evel
ofmeasur
ementofdat
aisi
nter
val
orr
ati
o

 Dat
aist
akenf
rom popul
ati
ont
hatar
enor
mal
l
ydi
str
ibut
ed

 Dat
aaretakenf
rom popul
ati
ont
hathasequalv
ari
ancesont
hev
ari
abl
ebei
ng
measur
ed

Exampl
es:
t-t
est

i
i
) Nonpar
amet
ri
c

Thesedo notmakeassumpt
ionsaboutt
hepopul
ati
onf
rom whi
chasampl
ewas
sel
ect
ed.

Thesear
eused

 Wi
thnomi
nal
oror
dinal
dat
a.

 Whensampl
esi
zesar
esmal
l

Exampl
es:
wil
coxons

77|
Page
DATAPRESENTATI
ON
a)Nar
rat
ivepr
esent
ati
onoff
indi
ngs

Thef
indi
ngsofast
udyshoul
dbecl
ear
lyandconci
sel
ypr
esent
edi
nthet
ext

Cert
aininfor
mat
ionshoul
dal
way
sbei
ncl
udedi
nthet
extwhendi
scussi
ngt
hest
udy
hypot
hesis:

 St
ati
sti
cal
testt
hatwasused

 Testr
esul
ts

 Degr
eesoff
reedom (
df)

 Pr
obabi
l
ityv
alue(
p-v
alue)

In quali
tati
ver esear
ch studi
es,hypotheses arer ar
elyt ested.Theref
oreinfer
enti
al
stati
sti
csar enotincl
udedinthesereport
s.Narrati
vepresent ati
onfr
equentl
ycontai
nsa
l
otofdi rectquotesmadebyt hesubject
s.Thent heresearchermaypr esentasummar y
ofthefindingsbydiscussi
ngpatter
nsandt hemesf oundint hedata.

b)Tabl
es

Thesear emeansofor
gani
zi
ngdat
asot
heymaybemor
eeasi
l
yunder
stoodand
i
nterpr
eted.

Gui
del
inesconcer
ningt
abl
es

 Tabl
esshouldappearassoonassoonaspossi
blei
nther
epor
taf
tert
heyhav
e
beenref
err
edinthetext

 I
nfor
mati
onpr
esent
edi
ntabl
esshoul
dal
sobedi
scussedi
nthenar
rat
iveoft
he
r
eport

 Tit
lesshoul
dbeclear
,conciseandcontai
nthevar
iabl
esthatar
epr
esent
edi
nthe
data.Thenameofthestat
isti
calt
estshoul
dnotbeused

 Alldat
aentr
iesshoul
dber
oundedt
othesamenumberofdeci
malpl
aces(
1-2
commonlyused)

78|
Page
  Deci
mal
poi
ntsi
fpr
esentshoul
dbel
i
nedundereachot
heri
nthedat
acol
umns

 I
fdataar enotav ai
l
ableforasecti
onoft
het able,adash(-)shoul
dbeent ered
rat
herthanleavi
ngabl ankspace,
tomakeitclearthatnodatahaveacci
dentall
y
beenleftof
fthetable

Exampl
esoft
abl
es

1)Fr
equencydi
str
ibut
iont
abl
es

Frequencydist
ribut
ioni
sappr
opr
iat
eforr
eport
ingal
llevel
sofdata.Al
lval
uesorscores
areli
stedandt henumberoft
imeseachoneappear
si srecor
ded.Val
uesmaybel i
sted
fr
om thehighesttothel
owest
.

Thi
sisdepi
ctedusi
ngaf
requencydi
str
ibut
iont
abl
e.

Fr
equencydi
str
ibut
iont
abl
ecanbe:

i
) Si
mpl
etabl
e

A singleli
neofcharact
ersexpl
aininasingl
ecolumnofi nf
ormat
ion.Itshowst he
dist
ribut
ionofscoresinasamplef oraspeci
fi
edv ar
iabl
e.Si
zeoft hefrequenci
es
shouldalwaysbeequalt
othesamplesi
ze“
n”

i
i) Compoundt
abl
e

A si
ngl
eline ofchar
act
ers has been descr
ibed by t
wo ormor
e compounds of
i
nfor
mati
on

Gr
oupedf
requenci
es

Whentherangeofscor
esislarge,i
tmaybehelpfult
ogroupthescoresintosmal
ler
bef
orecount
ingt
hefr
equenci
es.Otheri
nst
anceswhendat
aisgr
oupedincludewhen:

 Thescor
esar
edi
str
ibut
edi
nsuchawayt
hatcer
tai
nscor
esar
enotobt
ainedby

79|
Page
 anysubj
ect

 Thesampl
eisv
erybi
gsi
ncet
hef
requencywoul
dbet
ool
ong

 Inf
ormationsoughti
ssensit
ivesuchasannualincome,ageandt
her
esponse
categor
iesint
hequesti
onnai
rear
egiveni
nint
erval
s

Cl
assi
nter
val
snor
mal
l
yst
artwi
tht
hel
owestscor
easamul
ti
pleoft
hei
nter
val
widt
h.

Int
erv
alwidt
href
erstothesizeoftheclassi
nter
val
.Classint
erv
aldependsont
he
samplesi
zeandr
angeofscor
esbutshoul
dbebetween10-
15innumber
.

Pr
inci
plesgov
erni
ngconv
ersi
onofr
awscor
esi
ntogr
oupscor
e:

 Al
li
nter
val
sshoul
dbet
hesamewi
dth

 Int
erval
sshouldbecont inuousthroughoutoutthedi
str
ibut
ioni.
e.evenifther
e
arenoscoresinaparti
cularclassint
erval
,thecl
assi
nter
valmustberetai
nedand
afrequencyofzer
oindicatedagainsti
t.

 Toofewinter
val
sleadtolossofaccuracyandt
oomanycl
assi
nter
val
sresul
tin
i
nconveni
encesandrangebetween10-
15

 I
nter
val
smustbeexhaust
iveandmut
ual
l
yexcl
usi
ve.

c)Fi
gur
es

Ter
m usedt
oindi
cat
eanyt
ypeofv
isual
present
ati
onot
hert
hanat
abl
e.

Fi
guresmayhel
penli
venanarr
ativ
epresent
ati
onsincetheyhav
eav i
sualappealand
shoul
dbeconsi
der
edasaval
uablemeansofdispl
ayi
ngresear
chresul
ts

Fi
gur
esi
ncl
ude:

1)Gr
aphs

Graphi
calr epr
esent
ati
on ofa frequencydist
ri
buti
on isav aluabl
e suppl
ementt
o
stat
ist
icalanal
ysi
s.Thegraphenablesther
eadertoseethetr
endofdi st
ri
buti
onmor
e
easi
lythanispossi
blebyl
ookingatnumbersi
naf r
equencydi
str
ibuti
on.

80|
Page
Ty
pesofgr
aphscommonl
yusedt
opr
esentdat
aincl
ude:

i
) Bargr
aph

Fi
gureusedtor
epr
esentf
requencydi
str
ibut
ionofnomi
naldat
aandsomet
ypeof
or
dinal
data

Itisespecial
l
yusef ulwhent hecat egori
esofv ar
iablesarequal
it
ati
veratherthan
numerical
.Thelengthofthebarrepr
esentsf r
equencyofoccurr
enceofthecategor
y.To
show thatdat
abei ngpresent
edar esepar at
ecategories,t
hebarsdonott oucheach
other
.Dataarepresent
edononl yonev ar
iablei
nabargr aph

i
i) Hi
stogr
am

Gr
apht hatusebarstorepr
esentf
requencydi
str
ibut
ionofav
ari
abl
emeasur
edatt
he
or
dinal
,int
erv
alandrat
io.

Dat
aar
epr
esent
edononev
ari
abl
einahi
stogr
am

Bar
sareofequalwi
dthandt
oucheachot
hert
oindi
cat
ethatdat
aar
ebei
ngpr
esent
ed
i
naconti
nuum

Wi
dthoft
hebarr
epr
esent
sthesi
zeoft
hecl
assi
nter
val

Thehei
ghtoft
hebarr
epr
esent
sthef
requencyofoccur
renceofeachcl
assi
nter
val

2)Li
nedr
awi
ngs

i
) Fr
equencypol
ygon

Thisi
sagr aphthati
sobtai
nedbyjoi
ningt
hemidpoint
sofclassint
erval
.Themi dpoi
nt
i
sest abli
shedbysummi ngupthelowerandupperclassli
mitsofeachcl assint
erv
al
anddividi
ngby2.Adoti spl
acedabovethemi
dpointofeachclassi
nterv
al.Thesedots
areconnected.

Iti
susedforgr
oupeddat
a.I
trepr
esent
sthef
requencydi
str
ibut
ionofor
dinal
,i
nter
val
or
r
ati
odata.

3)Char
ts

Fi
gur
eusedt
opr
esentdat
abutdat
ahast
obeconv
ert
ed.Themost
lycommonl
yusedi
s

81|
Page
t
hepi
e-char
t.

4)Phot
ogr
aphs

d)Per
cent
ages

Thisisast at
ist
icthatrepr
esent
sthepropor
ti
onofasubgr
oupt
oat
otalgr
oup
expressedasapercent
agerangi
ngfr
om 0-
100

Mi
nimum numberf
orcomput
ati
onshoul
dbeatl
east20

ASSUMPTI
ONSANDLI
MITATI
ONS
ASSUMPTI
ON

Thi
sref
erst
oanyf
actt
hatar
esear
chert
akest
obet
ruewi
thoutact
ual
l
yver
if
yingi
t.

Exampl
e:

 Thestudyassumest
hattheinf
ormat
iont
hatwi
l
lbepr
ovi
dedbyt
her
espondent
s
wil
lbeaccurat
eandr
eli
able

 Theheal
th ser
viceprovi
der
shav ekeptpr
operr
ecor
dst
hatwi
l
lpr
ovi
det
he
i
nfor
mati
onrequiredi
nthi
sstudy
.

Assumptionsprov
idether eaderwithv
itali
nfor
mat
ionwhi
chi
nfl
uencest
hewayt
he
resul
tsofthest
udyareint
erpreted.

LI
MITATI
ONS

Thisreferstoanyaspectofthest udythatmayinf
luencether
esul
tsoft
hest
udy
negat
ivelybutov
erwhi
chtheresear
cherhasnocont
rolover.

Commonl
i
mit
ati
onsi
ncl
ude:

 Scopeoft
hest
udywhi
chmaynotal
l
owgener
ali
zat
ions

 Sampl
esi
ze

 Respondent
swi
thhol
dingsomei
nfor
mat
ionespeci
all
ywi
thsensi
ti
vei
ssues.

Theresearchershoul
dnoti
ncl
udef
act
orst
hatcanbecont
rol
l
edunl
essagoodr
ati
onal
e
i
sprovided.

82|
Page
DISCUSSI
ON OF FINDI
NGS, CONCLUSI
ON, I
MPLI
CATI
ONS AND
RECOMMENDATI
ONS
DI
SCUSSI
ONOFFI
NDI
NGS

Thi
sist
hemor
esubj
ect
ivesect
ionoft
her
esear
chr
epor
t.

I
tal
l
owst heresear
chertomakeint
erpr
etati
onsoffi
ndings.Fi
ndi
ngsar
eint
erpr
etedi
n
t
hel
ightoft
hetheoret
ical
framewor
kandlit
erat
urer
eview.

Indi
scussingt
hefi
ndings,t
heresearcherdiscussestheaspectsofther
esult
sthatare
i
nagr eementandthatarenoti nagr eementwi t
hpr ev
iousresear
chandt heoret
ical
expl
anati
on.Howev
ernonewl i
terat
ureshoul dbeint
roducedthati
snotal
readycit
ed.

Theinfer
enti
alst
ati
sti
csusedtotesthypothesesshouldalsobepresented.Whetherthe
nul
lhypothesesi
sreject
ed,r
eject
edandr esearchhypothesi
ssupportedorrej
ectedand
theresul
tsareintheoppositedirect
ionfrom thepr edi
cti
onofr esearchhypotheses
shoul
dalsobediscussed.

CONCLUSI
ON

Thest
udyconcl
usi
onsaret
heresearcher
’sat
temptst
oshowwhatknowl
edgehasbeen
gai
nedbyt
hestudyandal
soanattempttogeneral
i
zethef
indi
ngs.

Concl
usi
oniswr
it
teni
nvi
ewoft
hest
udypr
obl
em,
pur
pose,
hypot
hesesandt
heor
eti
cal
fr
amework.

I
ndr
awi
ngconcl
usi
onst
her
esear
chershoul
dtakei
ntoconsi
der
ati
on

 Thesampl
esi
ze,

 Popul
ati
onf
rom whi
cht
hesampl
ewasdr
awn

 Thest
udydesi
gn.

Concl
usionsaremoreabstr
actandusegeneralt
ermsasopposedtof
indi
ngsofthe
st
udythatareconcr
eteandt
iedt
ospeci
fi
cdata.Concl
usi
onsgobey
ondt
hefindi
ngs

Concl
usi
onsar
eal
sot
ent
ati
vehencet
heuseoft
hewor
d“appear
s”si
ncewecannot
pr
ove.

83|
Page
I
MPLI
CATI
ONS

I
mpl
i
cat
ionsect
iondeal
swi
thwhatchangesar
esuggest
edbasedont
heconcl
usi
ons.

Thei
mpl
i
cat
ionsshoul
dcont
aint
he“
shoul
d”t
hatr
esul
tfr
om t
hest
udy
.

Ast
udyi
mpl
i
cat
ionmi
ghtbe

 Nochangei
sneeded

 Mor
eresear
chi
scal
l
edf
ort
ofur
therv
eri
fyt
hest
udyr
esul
ts

 Thatchangesneedt
obemadebasedonst
udyconcl
usi
ons

I
mpli
cat
ionsmaybeaddr
essedt
othecl
i
nici
ans,
educat
ors,
resear
cher
s,admi
nist
rat
ors,
t
heor
ist
s.

RECOMMENDATI
ONS

Thisist he l
ast secti
on of the r
esear
ch repor
t.This sect
ion shoul
d cont
ain
recommendat
ionsf
orf ur
therr
esear
ch.Thi
ssect
ionshoul
dpropose:

Repl
i
cat
ionoft
her
esear
chst
udy

1)Thi
sinvolv
escar r
yingoutast
udysi
mi l
artoonethathaspr
evi
ousl
ybeendone.Onl
y
minorchangesaremadef rom t
heprevi
ousstudysuchasusi
ngadiffer
entt
ypeof
sampleorsett
ing.

Part
ialr
epl
i
cat
ioni
smor
ecommonwher
eani
nst
rumenti
schangedoranewt
ooli
s
added.

2)Anewst
udyi
nwhi
cht
hepr
esentst
udyl
i
mit
ati
onsar
econsi
der
ed.Thi
smayi
nvol
ve:

 Al
ter
ati
oni
nthesampl
ee.
g.di
ff
erentagegr
ouporeducat
ional
lev
el

 Al
ter
ati
on i
nthe i
nst
rumente.
g.change an exi
sti
ng t
ooloruse anot
her
i
nstr
ument
)

 Contr
olofvar
iabl
ese.g.taki
ng onl
ya cer
tai
n age gr
oup i
nt he sampl
e or
sel
ecti
ngar
andom sampl
einst
eadofusi
ngaconveni
encesample)

84|
Page
3)Changei
nmet
hodol
ogy(
usi
ngst
ruct
uredobser
vat
ioni
nst
eadofsel
frepor
tmet
hods)

Ext
ensi
onoft
her
esear
chst
udy

WRI
TINGARESEARCHREPORT

Aresearchreportisaquestionansweri
ngorpr obl
em sol
vingdocument
.Ar esearch
r
eportinfor
mst hereaderoftheprobl
em theresear
cheri
nit
ial
l
ysetouttoinv
estigate,
t
hemet hodofinvest
igat
ionusedandtheresear
cher’
sfi
ndi
ngs.

Ther eportshouldpr esentdataf ul

l
yandadequat el
yandi tshoul
dincl
udeaccur
ate
i
nterpretat
ionsoftheanal y
sesofsuchdat aandshouldrelat
ef i
ndi
ngsbacktothe
object
ives,hypot
hesesorr esearchquest
ions.I
tshoul
dther
eforebefor
mal,pr
eci
seand
economi cal,
consi
stent.Orderl
yetc

Awel
lwr
it
tenr
epor
tcompr
ises:

1.Ti
tl
e

At
it
leshoul
dbesi
mpl
eyeti
nfor
mat
ive.

Funct
ionsoft
it
le

 I
tgivesthereadersomei ni
ti
ali
nfor
mati
onaboutt
heareaofresear
chr
epor
t
hascoveredandtheref
oreapoint
ertot
hecont
entoft
herepor
t.

 I
tisusedforindexi
ngoncet
hedocumentbecomesoff
ici
al.Peopl
einter
ested
i
nt hedocumentmayuset het
it
letosearchforthereportinal i
brar
yor
documentcentre.

At
it
lepageshoul
dhav
e:

 Ti
tl
eoft
hepr
oject

85|
Page
  I
nvest
igat
ors/
fi
nanci
ers/
super
visor
s

 Addr
esses.

2.Dedi
cat
ion

Someaut horsofresearchrepor
tsdedi
cat
ethei
rwor
ktoaper
sonorper
sonswhom
theydeem speci
alintheirl
i
ves.

3.Abst
ract

Thisisar esearchreportthatispl
acedbeforetheful
lreportandbri
eflysummar i
zes
orhighli
ghtst hemaj orpoints.I
tcontainsthemeatoft her esear
chr epor
t.Iti
sa
ref
lecti
onoft hesalientfi
ndingsoftheresearchst
udy.Itshouldbeplacedinfr
ontof
thereportpreferabl
yafterthededi
cati
onbutonasepar atepage.

Agoodabst
ractshoul
dpr
esentt
her
eaderwi
th:

 I
ntr
oduct
ionoft
het
opi
c

 Pur
pose/r
ati
onal
eoft
hest
udy

 St
udyobj
ect
ives

 St
udymet
hodol
ogy

 Maj
orr
esul
tsandconcl
usi
onsoft
hest
udy
.

Anabst
ractmayormaynotbest
ruct
ured.I
tisusual
l
ywr
it
tenatt
heendandshoul
d
beappr
oximat
ely300wor
ds

4.Tabl
eofcont
ent
s

Thisi
sli
keamapt
hatgui
dest
her
eader
sinl
ocat
ingv
ari
oussect
ionsoft
her
esear
ch
repor
t.

I
tcontai
nsthechapterheadi
ngs,mainheadi
ngs,subheadi
ngsandcor
respondi
ng
pagenumberofeachint
hebodyofthedocument.

I
thel
pst
her
eadert
olocat
ethedesi
redsect
ionsqui
ckl
yandeasi
l
y.

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5.Li
stoft
abl
es

Ar esearcherusestablestosummarizei
nfor
mati
oni
nalogi
calf
ormatorsequence.
Thenumberandt itl
eofeacht ableappear
ingi
nthebodyoftherepor
tislist
ed
togetherwiththecorrespondi
ngpagenumber

6.Li
stoff
igur
es

Afigurei
sanypict
ori
alrepresent
ati
onusedt
oclar
if
yspeci
fi
cpoi
ntsi
nadi
scussi
on.
Theyincl
udegr
aphs,charts,di
agr
amsandphotogr
aphs.

Gi
vet
henumberandt
it
leoft
hef
igur
eandt
hepagenumber
.

7.Li
stofabbr
evi
ati
onsandacr
ony
ms

Abbr
evi
ati
oni
sashor
tfor
m ofwor
de.
g.Dr
.Pr
of.

Acr
ony
misacont
ract
ionf
ormedbyt
aki
ngt
hef
ir
stl
ett
erofsev
eralwor
dse.
g.WHO,
MOH

Whenusi
ngacr
ony
msandabbr
evi
ati
ons:

 Wr
it
einf
ull
thef
ir
stt
imet
hatt
heacr
ony
misused.

 Donotabbr
evi
atemi
l
itar
y,r
eli
giousorpol
i
tical
tit
les.

 Abbr
evi
ateuni
tsofmeasur
ement
sonl
ywhent
heyar
eusedof
teni
nar
epor
t.

 Useonl
yabbr
evi
ati
onst
haty
ouraudi
encewi
l
lunder
stand

 Donotabbr
evi
ateday
soft
heweekormont
hs

 Abbrevi
ateti
me desi
gnat
ions onl
ywhen t
heyar
e used wi
th act
ualt
ime
e.
g.4.30p.
m.

8.Oper
ati
onaldef
ini
ti
ons.

Thi
sref
erst
odef
ini
ti
ons/
meani
ngsofwor
dst
hatar
eusedi
nthest
udy
.

UseWHOdef
ini
ti
ons

87|
Page
9.I
ntr
oduct
ion

Thi
shassev
eral
component
s

 Backgr
oundoft
hest
udy

 Thepr
obl
em st
atement

 St
udyobj
ect
ives

 Hy
pot
hesesand/
orr
esear
chquest
ions

 Assumpt
ionsoft
hest
udy

 Li
mit
ati
onsoft
hest
udy

Themajorr
oleoft
heintroducti
onsecti
onist
ooutl
i
nethegaporgapst
hatexi
sti
n
thear
eaofst
udyandpresenttherat
ional
eoft
hest
udy.

Thi
sl eadst
othestat
ementoftheprobl
em.Ther esearchershouldquot
eexist
ing
st
udiesandtheor
iest
osuppor
ttheprobl
em st
atement .Lit
erat
urecit
edinthi
spart
oft
hedocumentshoul
dbeli
mitedtot
hemostrelev
antandcur r
ent.

10.
Lit
erat
urer
evi
ew

Thi
sisar
esear
cher
’scr
it
iqueoff
indi
ngsf
rom ot
herst
udi
esdonei
nar
elat
edar
ea.

Thecr i
ti
queshouldincl
udeanassessmentofmet hodol
ogi
esusedinthesest
udies,
theoret
icalorconcept
ualf
rameworksandtherelati
onshi
psordif
fer
encesbetween
theresearcher
’sst
udyandthest
udiesrev
iewed.

11.
Met
hodol
ogy

Thi
sgi
vesdet
ail
sregar
dingt
hepr
ocedur
esi
nconduct
ingt
hest
udy
:

I
tincl
udes

88|
Page
  Resear
chdesi
gn

 Resear
chsi
te

 St
udypopul
ati
oni
ncl
udi
ngi
ncl
usi
onandexcl
usi
oncr
it
eri
a

 Sampl
esi
zedet
ermi
nat
ion

 Sampl
i
ngt
echni
ques

 A descri
pti
on ofmethods and i
nst
ruments/
tool
s used t
o col
l
ectdat
a.
Pr
etesti
ngofthet
ool
shouldalsobedi
scussed.

 Dat
acol
l
ect
ionpr
ocessi
ncl
udi
ngt
rai
ningofAssi
stant
s.

 Qual
i
tyassur
ancepr
ocedur
es-
cal
i
brat
ion,
timi
nget
c.

 Themeasurementsofvari
ablesandtechni
questobeusedi
ndat
aanal
ysi
s
i
ncl
udi
ngstati
sti
calpr
oceduresthatwi
l
lbeused.

 Li
mit
ati
onsandassumpt
ions

 Et
hical
consi
der
ati
ons,

12.
Resul
tsanddi
scussi
ons

Thepurposeoft
hispartistopr esentt
heresul
tsofthedat
ainasy st
emat
icway
.If
thestudyisempi
ricalinnature,theresear
cherusesstat
ist
icst
osummar i
zethe
resul
tsandmakegeneral
izat
ionsont hepopul
ati
on

Basicpri
nci
pleinpresent
ing r
esult
sisto gi
veal
ltheev
idencer
elev
antt
othe
resear
chobj
ecti
vesandquesti
onsifany
.

When wri
ti
ng theresult
sand di
scussi
ons,i
tisadvi
sabl
eto star
twi
thashor
t
i
ntr
oduct
ionthatdescr
ibest
hegener
alpr
ocedur
esf
oll
owedinanal
yzi
ngt
hedat
a

Poi
nter
sinwr
it
ingt
hissect
ioni
ncl
ude:

 Presentthedescri
pti
ver esul
tsofyouranal
ysisfir
st.Descri
pti
vestat
ist
icsi
ncl
ude:
fr
equencies,per
centages,means,modes,correl
ations.Thesestat
ist
icsshoul
dbe
present
edintabl
estomaket hedocumentuserfr
iendly.

89|
Page
 Itmaynotbepossibletor eportever
yr esul
tofanalysi
s.Theresear
cherther
efore
select
sthemosti mportantfindi
ngsforr epor
ti
ng.Thisshouldbegui dedbyt he
study’
sobj
ect
ivesorhypothesesasstatedinint
roduct
ionpart

 Noteveryresultortablegeneratedinthecourseoft
heanal y
sisort
abl
egenerat
edi
n
thecourseofanal ysi
si spresentedinthereport
.Object
ivesandhypot
hesi
sshoul
d
guidet
her esearcher.

 Al
ltabl
esusedshoul
dbenumber
edsy
stemat
ical
l
yandgi
venappr
opr
iat
eti
tl
es

 Di
scussionbasedontheinfor
mati
oncont
ainedi
nat
abl
eshoul
dbepl
acedei
ther
i
mmedi atel
ybef
oreoraf
tert
hetabl
e

 Gr
aphs,chart
sandot hervi
sualpresent
ati
onsshouldbeincl
udedi
nt heresul
tsand
di
scussi
onsectioniftheyaddv aluetothecontent.Someti
mestablesandother
gr
aphicr
epresentat
ionoft
hedataar epl
acedint
heappendices

13.
Summar
y,concl
usi
onsandr
ecommendat
ions

Summar
izet
hest
udyunder
taken,
concl
udeandmaker
ecommendat
ions

14.
Ref
erences

UsetheHar v
ardr
efer
enci
ngsy
stem.Ther
efer
encemaybedonenumer
ical
l
yor
al
phabet
ical
l
y.

15.
Acknowl
edgement

Itisamat terofcour t
esyforther esearchert
oacknowledgeallthei ndi
vi
dual
s,
i
nstit
uti
onand/ ororganizat
ionsthathelpedinthecourseofresearch.Helpmay
i
nclude:ti
me,resources,inf
ormati
on.Ment iononl
yaf ew i
ndi
vidual
sbynamet o
keeptheacknowledgementsecti
onasshor taspossi
ble

16.
Appendi
ces

Thiscont
ainsinfor
mationthattheresear
cherdoesn’
tdeem necessar
ytoi
ncl
udei
n
thebodyofthereport
.Thisincl
udes:

90|
Page
  I
nst
rument
susedi
nthest
udy

 Consentf
orms

 Correspondencesr
elat
edt
othest
udysuchasl
ett
ersofappr
ovalt
oconductt
he
research

 Copyoft
her
esear
chper
mitandt
ermsofr
efer
encei
fany

 St
ati
sti
cal
tabl
esusedf
ordat
aanal
ysi
s.

DI
SSEMI
NATI
ONOFSTUDYFI
NDI
NGS

Oncetheresear
chhasbeenconduct
ed,t
hef
indi
ngsshoul
dbedi
ssemi
nat
edaswi
del
y
aspossi
ble.

Way
sofdi
ssemi
nat
ion

i
) Pr
esent
ati
onoff
indi
ngst
opr
ofessi
onal
s

Thi
si nvol
ves paperpresent
ati
ons i
n semi
nar
s,conf
erences,di
scussi
on f
orums,
workshopsandmeeti
ngs.

i
i
) Pr
esent
ati
ont
othewor
ldcommuni
tyt
hrough:

 Medi
a

 Wor
kshops

 Communi
tydi
scussi
ons

i
i
i) Presentat
iont
ospeci
fi
cst
akehol
der
sli
keGov
ernmentdepar
tment
s,NGOsand
Researchcommuni
ty

…………………f
inet
o

THEEND

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