KABWEI

NSTI
TUTEOFTECHNOLOGY

1.0I NTRODUCTI ONTOELECTRONI CS

1.1Whati select
roni cs
Electroni
csi sthest udyoft hef lowofelectri
ccur r
entinsemiconduct orsorav acuum or
i
ngases.i tcanal sobedef i
nedast hebranchofphy si
cswhi chdeal swithdesigningof
circuit
susi ngsemi conductorcomponent ssuchast ransi
stors,diodes,resi
storsand
mi crochi
ps. Moder nelectronicsconcent r
atesmor eonsemi conductorsthanv acuum
oper ateddev i
ces.Fort hisr eason,ourst udywi l
lbei ncli
nedt othesemi conductor
mat erial
thananyot herelectricalmateri
als.
Inor dertounder standel ectronicseffect
ively,i
tisimportanttot akeintoconsiderat
ion
theat omicst r
uctureofmat terandthesemi conductorchemistr
y .

2.
0INTRODUCTI
ONTOELECTRONI
CBASI
CCOMPONENTSFOR(
PBC)

Ther
ear
ediff
erentf
ormsofelect
roniccomponent
sandt hef
oll
owi
ngar
esomeoft
he
fewmaj
orcomponentsusedi
nsimpleelect
roni
cci
rcui
ts.

2.
1Resi
stor
s

AResist
orisanelectr
oniccomponentwhosef uncti
oni storest
ri
ctoropposetheflow
ofel
ectr
onsinacircui
t.I
tconver
tsel
ectr
icalenergyintoheatener
gy.Resi
stor
scomei n
manydiff
erentt
ypes,shapesandsi
zes.Thedi agram bel
owshowsCar bonresi
storand
i
tssymbol.

2.
2Di
odes

Asdiscussedearl
ier
,diodesall
owanel ectr
iccurr
enttofl
owthr
oughthem i
nonl yone
dir
ecti
on.Theyarealsoknownasr ecti
fier
s.Diodescanbeusedtochangealt
ernati
ng
curr
entintodi
rectcurr
ents.Thedi
agram belowshowstheact
ualdi
odeandit
ssy mbol

Ot
herseveralt
ypesofdiodeswi
del
yusedi
nel
ect
roni
csci
rcui
tsar
easf
oll
ows:
,
 Zenerdiode
 Photodiode
 Lightemitt
ingdi
odeorLED
 Varactordi
ode

Page1of1
2.
3Induct
or

Ani nductorisapassi veel ectroniccomponentt hatstoresenergyinthef orm ofa

magnet icfi
eld.I
ni t
ssi mplestf orm,ani nductorconsi
stsofawi relooporcoi l.The
i
nduct anceisdir
ectlyproportionaltot henumberoft ur
nsi nthecoil
.Inductancealso
dependsont heradi
usoft hecoi landont hetypeofmat eri
alar
oundwhi cht hecoili
s
wound.Ther earedi ff
erentt y
pesofi nductor
s.Thef ol
l
owi ngarethediagramsofan
i
nduct or

2.4Capaci tors
Acapaci torisacomponentusedt ostor
echar ge.Theserelati
velysimplecomponents
consistoftwopi ecesofconductingmat eri
al(
suchasmet al)separatedbyanon-
conducting( i
nsulat
ing)mater
ialcall
edadi el
ectri
c.Theyareof t
enusedast i
ming
devices.Inar adi
o,oneofthemosti mpor t
antjobs,tuni
ngintot hestati
onyouwantto
l
istento,isdonebyacapaci tor.Thediagram belowshowsanel ectrol
yti
ccapaci
torand
i
tsgener al
symbol

2.
5Tr
ansi
stor
s

Atr
ansist
ori
sacomponentwhichisusedi
nel
ectr
onicsasadevi
ceforswit
chi
ngand
ampl
if
yingsi
gnal
s.Thepi
ctur
ebel
owshowsaty
picalexampl
eofatr
ansi
stor
.

Page2of2
Twomaj
orcat
egor
iesoft
ransi
stor
sar
e:

 Bi
pol
arj
unct
iont
ransi
stor(
BJTs)

BJTsar
eoft
wot
ypesandt
hesear
eNPNandPNPTr
ansi
stor
s

 Fi
eldEf
fectTr
ansi
stor
s(FETs)

Bel
owi
stheFami
l
ytr
eeofFETs

Page3of3
2.
6Int
egr
atedCi
rcui
ts

Ani nt
egrat
edcircui
t(IC),someti
mescal ledachi pormi cr
ochip,isasemi conductor
waferonwhi chthousandsormi l
li
onsoft inyresistors,capacitors,andtransistorsare
fabr
icat
ed.AnI C canf uncti
onasanampl ifi
er,osci ll
ator,ti
mer ,counter,comput er
memor y,ormicropr
ocessor.Aparticul
arICi scat egorizedasei therli
near( analog)or
digi
tal
,dependi
ngoni t
sintendedappli
cati
on.Thedi agram belowshowsexampl esofan
I
Cs

2.7Opto-coupler(photocoupl er
)
Iti
saf ourt er
mi nalelectr
oniccomponentthattr
ansf
ersel
ectr
icalsignalbetweent wo
i
solatedcircui
tsbyusi ngli
ght.Opto coupl
ersareusedforswi tchi
nghi ghv ol
tage
i
solatedcircui
tby usi ngl i
ghtemi t
tedbyadi odefr
om anotherci r
cuit
.Basical
lyit
compr i
sesal ightemi tti
ngdiodeandaphot o-di
odeorphoto-
transist
or.Thediagram
belowshowsi t’sgraphicalsymbol.

Page4of4
3.
0ATOMI
CSTRUCTUREOFMATTER

Matt
eri
sanysubstancewhi
chhasmassandvolume.Itexi
stsinform ofasol
idor
l
iqui
dorgas.Al
lfor
msofmatt
erar
emadeoff
undamentalorbasi
cunit
scall
edat
oms.

Atomsar ethesmal
lestorf
undamentalpar
ticl
esofmat terthattakepar
tinchemi
cal
react
ionandaremadeofpar
ti
clescal
l
edprotons,neut
rons,andelectr
ons.

3.
1Pr
otons:

Thesear eposi
ti
vel
ychar
gedpar
ti
clesfoundinthenucleusofanatom.Aprotoni
s
about1840timeheavi
ert
hananelect
ron.Eachpr
otonhasaposit
ivechar
ge+1.
602X
10-19C.

3.
2Neut
rons

Thesear epart
icl
esfoundinthenucleusofanatom anddonotcar
ryanyel
ect
ri
cal
charge.Neut
ronsandprot
onshavethesameweight
.

3.
3El
ect
rons

Thesear
enegati
v el
ychar
gedpart
icl
est
hator
bitar
oundt
henucl
eusofanat
om.Each
-19 -31
at
om hasnegat
ivechar
geof-1.
602X10 Candmassof9.1X10 Kg.

I
tisimportantt
onot
et hat
,theprot
onsandneut
ronsclustert
ogetheri
nthecentr
alpart
oftheatom,call
edt
henucleus,andtheel
ect
rons'or
bit't
henucleus.Apart
icul
aratom
wil
lhavethesamenumberofpr otonsandel
ectr
onsandmostat omshaveatleastas
manyneutronsaspr
otons.

3.
4Val enceElectr
ons
Thesear eelectr
onsf oundintheoutermostshel
lofanat
om.Theydet
ermi
net
he
el
ectr
icalandchemi calchar
act
eri
sti
csofanat
om

3.5Freeel
ectr
ons
Thesearetheelect
ronsthatarecomplet
elydetachedfrom themotheratom andpl
aya
rol
einconduct
ingel
ectri
ccurrentofamateri
alwhent hepotenti
aldi
ff
erencei
sappli
ed.

3.
5AtomicNumber
I
tist
henumberofpr
otonsconst
it
utedbyanat
om

3.
6At
omi
cMass

Page5of5
I
tist
hesum ofpr
otonsandneut
ronsofanat
om

3.
7Ioni
sat
ion

i
tist heprocessofl osi
ngandgai ni
ngel ectronsbyanat om.Whenanat om loses
el
ectronsoranelect
ronitbecomesposi t
ivelychar
ged,hencei
tbecomesaposit
iveion
anditiscal
l
edacat i
on.
Whenanat om gainselectr
onsoranel ectronitbecomesnegati
vel
ychar
ged,henceit
becomesanegativeionanditiscal
l
edanani on.

4.
0ELECTRI
CALANDELECTRONI
CSMATERI
AL

Al
lel
ect
ricalandelect
roni
cmat
eri
alsar
ecat
egor
isedas:
I. Conduct ors
I
I. Insulator
s

I
II
. Semi
conduct
ors

4.
1Conduct
ors

AConduct orisamat eri

alwhichhaspropert
ytoconductelect
ri
cit
yandheateffecti
vel
y.
Someexampl esofconductorsincl
udesi
lver
,copperandal
uminum.Allconductor
shave
l
owr esist
ivi
tyrangi
ngbetween10-7 t o10–8 Ωm.Accor di
ngtoenergybandt heor
y,
thevalenceandconductionbandsov erl
apeachot her
.Hencetherei
snof or
biddengap
betweenconduct i
onandv alencebandinconductors.

Pr
oper
ti
esofconductors
 Theyhaveposit
ivetemperaturecoef f
icientofr esist
ance
 Theyaregoodconductorsofel ectr
iccur r
ent
 Theyaregoodconductorsofheat
 Theyareduct
il
eandmal l
eablewhenheat ed
 Atomsofgoodconduct orshaveel ectronsl essthanf our
 Theatomsaremet all
i
call
ybonded
 Theyhavelar
genumberoff reeel ectr
onsi ntheirstr
ucturel
att
ice
 Conducti
onandv al
encebandov erl
apeachot her

4.
2Insul
ator
s

Ani nsulatorisamat eri

alwhichisav erypoorconduct orofelectri
cit
yandheat .Itis
simpl ya mat eri
alwhich does notconductel ectri
cit
yand heat .I nsul
ators have
4 14
resistiv
ityrangingbetween10- t
o10- Ωm.Ex amplesofi nsul
atorsincludet he
plastic,paper,rubber
,porcel
ain,mica,cotton,gl
ass,asbestos,pvcetc.Accor di
ngt o
ener gybandt heory,t
heforbiddengapbet weenconduct ionandv al
encebandi svery
l
ar ge.

Page6of6
Pr
oper
ti
esofinsul
ators
 Theyhavenegativet
emper at
urecoeff
ici
entofr
esist
ance
 Theyarepoorconductorsofheat
 Theyarepoorconductorsofelect
ri
cit
y
 Atomsarecov al
entl
ybonded
 Thefor
biddengapbet weenconducti
onandv al
encebandisv
eryl
arge

4.
3Semi
conduct
ors

Semi conductors are materi

als whose electri
calproperti
es li
e between those ofa
conductorand ani nsul
atorandar efoundi ngroupf ouroftheperiodictabl
e.Thetwo
mostusedsemi conduct
ormat eri
alsi
nelect r
onicsaresil
iconandger manium whichar
e
bot htetr
avalentat omsi .
e.theyhav ef ourv alenceelectr
ons.Semi conductor
shave
-
3 -
3
resist
ivi
tyrangingbet ween10 t o3X10 Ωm.Thedi agramsbelow show t heatomi
c
structur
esofsi l
iconandger manium at
oms

4.
4PROPERTI
ESOFSEMI
CONDUCTORS

 Theyhav enegati
vetemper at
urecoef
fi
cientofr esi
stance
 Theatomsofsemi conductori
scoval
entbonded
 Semiconductoratomshav efourval
enceelectronseach
 Atabsolutezero(0kor- 273oc)t
hematerialbehavesl ikeinsul
ator
 Atroom t emperat
ureorabov e,t
hemat eri
albehav esal ikeconduct
or

5.
0CHEMI
STRYOFSEMI
CONDUCTORMATERI
ALS

Thet
womaj
ort
ypesofsemi
conduct
orsar
e:

 I
ntr
insi
csemi
conduct
ors

Page7of7
  Ext
ri
nsi
csemi
conduct
ors

5.
1I nt
ri
nsi
csemiconduct
ors:
Theseareext
remel
ypuresemiconduct
orse.
gsi
l
iconandger
mani
um el
ement
s.

5.2Extri
nsi csemiconductor
s:
Thesearei mpuresemiconduct
orsdopedwi t
himpuri
ti
essoast oincreaseconducti
vi
ty.
Theaddi tionofimpuriti
esisknownasdopi ng.Theimpuri
tiesaddedar eknownasa
dopantsordopi ngagents.
Theusual dopi
ngagentsordopantsare;
Pentavalentat oms hav i
ng fi
vevalence el
ect
rons e.
g.bismuth,ar senic,ant
imony,
phosphor usetc.
Tri
valentat om havi
ngthreeval
enceelect
ronse.
g.gal
li
um,i
ndi um.aluminium,bor
onetc.

5.
2.1Ty
pesofExt
ri
nsi
cSemi
conduct
ors

Thet
wot
ypesofext
ri
nsi
csemi
conduct
orsar
e:

 P-t
ypeextr
insicsemiconductor
 N–typeext
rinsicsemiconductor

5.2.1.1P-t ypesemiconduct or
Itisat ypeofextri
nsicsemi conduct orwhichi sformedbydopi ngatetr
av al
entelement
suchas, si
l
iconorgermanium wi that ri
val
entat om.Thet hreeval
enceelectr
onf r
om t he
tri
valentatom formscov al
entbondswi t
ht hef ourelect
ronsfr
om thetetraval
entat om,
butonebondi sleftincompl eteandi tproducesahol ewhichi spositi
vei nnatur e.
Ther ef
orei nP-typesemi conduct ors,conduct i
oni sbyt hemovementofhol esint he
valenceband.Hol esformt hemaj ori
tycar r
iersandel ectr
onsconsti
tutethemi nority
carrier
s.Sincetheconcentrationofhol esismor ethantheconcentr
ati
onofel ectr
onsi n
theconduct ionband,conduct i
onisbymeansofhol esasshownbel ow

Tr
ival
entat
om +t
etr
aval
entel
ement=P–t
ypemat
eri
al.

5.
2.1.
2N–Ty
peSemi
conduct
or
Page8of8
AnN–t ypeext ri
nsicsemiconductori sat ypeofextri
nsicsemiconductor
mat erialf ormedbydopi ngat etravalentelementwi thapent avalentatom.Thef i
ve
pent avalentel ect
ronsform covalentbondswi thfourt
etraval
entatoms, butoneelect
ron
remai nswi t
houtmaki nganybondt husf orminganN–t ypemat eri
al(Negati
ve).InN–
typemat er i
alsthereisanexcessoff reeelect
r onsandyetiti
selectr
ical
lyneutr
al.
I
nN – t y pemat er
ialel
ectronsar et hemaj orit
ychargecarri
erswhi leholesar ethe
mi noritycar r
iersasshownbel ow.

Pent
aval
entat
om +t
etr
aval
entel
ement=N–t
ypesemi
conduct
ormat
eri
al

6.
0HOW APN-
DIODEI
SCONSTRUCTED

A p-njunctiondiodeisanelectroni
ccomponentwhi challowselect
riccur r
enttofl
owi n
onedirectiononly.It
smai nf uncti
onistoconv ertal
ternati
ngcurrent( ac)int
odirect
cur
rent(dc) .Iti
smanufacturedorconstructedbyspecialall
oyi
ngt ogetherofn–t ype
semiconduct orandp-typesemi conduct
or.Theplanedividi
ngthetwor egionsisknown
asajunction.

Whent
heNandPt
ypemat
eri
alar
ebr
oughtt
oget
hert
hef
oll
owi
nghappens

Page9of9
Athindepleti
onl ay
erorregion(alsocal
ledspacechar
geregi
onortr
ansit
ionregi
on)is
establ
ishedonbot hsi
desoft hejunct
ionandissocall
edbecausei
tisdeplet
edoffree
chargecarri
ers.I
tsthi
cknessisabout10-6m

Abar
rierpot
ent
ialorjunct
ionpotent
ial
i
sdev
elopedacr
osst hejunct
ion.
6.
1For
war
dBi
asi
ngP-
NJunct
ionDi
ode

Biasingist heconnect i
onofapot entialacr ossaPN j unction.For wardbi asi
ngist he
connect i
onofadcv ol
tageacr ossadi odesucht hatitconduct selectr
iccur r
ent.In
forwardbiasing,t heposi t
iveoft hesour ceorbatteryisconnect edt otheanode( ptype
mat eri
al)andt henegat iveoft hesour cei sconnectedtot hecat hode( n-
typemat eri
al).
Whenadi odei sfor wardbiasedt hefollowi nghappensatt hejunct i
on
 depl etionlay erdecreases.
 bar ri
erpot ent i
aldecreases.
 f orwardr esistancedecr eases.
Whent hesour cev olt
ageexceedst hejunct i
onvolt
age,0.3Vf orager manium diodeand
0.7Vf orasi l
i
condi ode.Thedi odebegi nst oconductelectri
ccur rentbecausemaj orit
y
carri
ersareabl et ocrosst hejunction,elect r
onsmov efrom thent othepsi deandhol es
i
nt heopposi tedi recti
on.Thej uncti
oni ssai dtobef orwar dbiasedandt her esi
stance
offeredisveryl ow.Adi odeonl yconduct swhenf orwardbiased.

6.2ReverseBi asi
ngADi ode
Reversebiasingofadi odeist heconnect i
onofadcv olt
ageacr ossadi odesuchthatit
doesnotconductel ectri
ccurrent.Inreversebiasi
ng,thedcvolatgeconnectedsucht hat
theposit
iveoft hesourceisconnect edtot hecathode(n-t
ypemat eri
al)andthenegative
ofthesourcei sconnectedtotheanode( p-typemateri
al.
)
Whenadi odei srever
sebi asedt hefol
lowinghappensatt hejuncti
on:
 electronsandhol esarer epel
ledfurtherfr
om thejunct
ion

Page10of10
  depl
etionl
ayerincreases.
 barr
ierpot
enti
al i
ncreases.
 Reverseresi
stanceincreases

Henceadi
odedoesnotconductwhenr
ever
sebi
ased.

7.
0BASI
CRECTI
FIERCI
RCUI
TS

7.
1Rect i
fi
ers
Arect
if
ierisacir
cuitwhichusesoneormor ediodest oconvertact
odcv ol
tage.Ther
e
ar
ebasicall
ytwomaj ortypesofsinglephaserecti
fi
ercircui
tsnamel
y:
 hal fwaverecti
fier
 f ul
lwav er
ectifi
ersTheful
lwav erect
ifi
ersar
ef urt
herdivi
dedi
nto:
 Centretappedful
lwav erect
if
ierand
 ful
l
-wav ebridger
ect
ifi
er

7.1.1Hal
fWaveRecti
fi
er
A Halfwaver
ecti
fi
erisaci
rcui
twhi
chusesonl
yonedi
odet
oconv
ertanacv
olt
ageto
pulsat
ing dc vol
tage.

7.
1.1.
1Itsoper
ati
on
Dur
ingtheposi
ti
vehal
fcy
cleoft
hei
nputv
olt
aget
hepol
ari
tyoft
hev
olt
ageacr
osst
he

Page11of11
secondarywindingsf orwardbiasest hediode.Asar esul
tacurrentILfl
owst hroughthe
l
oadr esi
stor,RL.Thust hepulsati
ngdcv olt
ageappear sacrosstheloadresist
or.
Duringthenegat i
vehal fcycl
eoft hei nputvol
taget hepolari
tyofthesecondar yvol
tage
getsreversed.Asar esult
,thedi odei sreversebi ased.Practi
cal
lynocur rentflows
thr
ought hecircuitandalmostnov oltageisdev el
opedacr osstheresi
stor.Theref
orein
halfwaverectif
icati
ononl yhalfcycleisuti
li
sed.

7.
1.1.
2Adv ant
agesOfHalfWav erecti
fi
er
 I ti
seconomical
sinceonlyonediodeisused
 I ti
ssimplei
nconstruct
ionasitdoesnotrequi
reacent
ret
appedt
ransf
ormer
.

7.
1.1.
3di sadvant
ageofhal fwaverect
if
ier
 I thaslowout putbecauseonl
yhalfposit
iveal
ter
nat
evol
tageisrect
ifi
ed
 I thashighrippl
es
 Thedi odecaneasilybedestr
oyedsinceiti
stheonl
yonerect
if
yingthevol
tage

7.1.
1.4PeakInver
seVol
tage(PIV)ofhal
fwav
e
ThePI Vist
hemaxi mum r
eversevolt
ageadi
odei
sabl
etowi
thst
andwi
thouti
tbei
ng
destr
oyed.I
tisgiv
enas

Vm =Vs/
0.707=Vs2 wher
e,Vm =maximum orpeakvol
tage
Vs=secondar
yrmsv ol
tage

7.
1.1.
5Thedcv
olt
ageorav
eragev
olt
ageofout
putl
oadofhal
fwav
e

Vm
∴ Vdc= =0.
318Vmax
π

7.
1.2FullWaveRectif
ier
s
I
tisacircui
twhichusestwoorf
ourdi
odest
oconv
ertacv
olt
aget
odcv
olt
age.Thef
ull
waverecti
fi
ersare:

1.Centr
etappedf
ullwaverect
if
ierand
2.ful
l
-wavebri
dgerect
if
ier

7.
1.2.
1Cent
reTappedFul
lWav
eRect
if
ier

Incentretappedfullwaverecti
fier
,thecir
cuitusesonlytwodi odes( D1andD2)whi ch
areconnectedtot hecentre–t appedsecondarywi ndi
ngoft hetransformer
.Theinput
vol
tagei sappli
edt otheprimarywi ndi
ngoft hetransf
ormer .Thecent r
e–t apont he
secondarywindingofat r
ansformeristakenast hegr oundorzer ov olt
agerefer
ence
point
.Asshowni nthediagram below,i
tisnotedthatvoltagebetweent hecentr
e–t ap
oneitherendofthesecondar ywindingi
shalfofthesecondaryv ol
tage.

Page12of12
7.1.
2. 1.1.Oper ati
on
Whent hei nputa. csupplyisappl iedatt hepr imarythest eppeddownorupv olt
age
appear sbet weenM andNoft hesecondar yt r
ansformer.Duri
ngt heposi t
ivehalfcycleG
i
satzer opot ent
ial.Hence,beingf orwardbi aseddiodeD1conduct s.Howev erdiodeD2
i
sr ev ersebi asedanddoesnotconduct .Ther ef
orecurr
entf l
owst hroughdiodeD1and
l
oadr esistorRL.Asar esul
t,positi
v ehalfcycleofthevoltageappear sacrossRL
During t henegat ivehalfcy cle,when t erminalN becomesposi t
ive,then diodeD2
conduct s(butnotD1)andcur r
entf l
owst hroughdiodeD2andl oadr esist
orRr.
Ther efore,theal ternati
onprocessdur ingnegat i
veandposi t
ivehal fcyclesresultint
o
currentkeptonf lowi ngthr
oughl oadr esist
or,RL,inthesamedi recti
on.Ther ebot hhalf
cyclesoft hei nputa. csupplyar eutil
izedasshownabov e

7.1.
2.1.
2.Adv antageofcentretappedF. W.R
-Out putd. cvoltageandcurrentaretwicebiggert
hanthatofhal
fwaverecti
fi
er
-Ripplef actorismuchl ess(0.482) thanthatofH.W.R1.21
-Effi
ci encyist wice(
81.2%)biggerthanthatofH.W.R(40.6%)
.
1.2.1.
3Di sadv antages
Theoutputv oltageishalfofthesecondaryv ol
tage
I
ti s expensi vet omanuf actur
eacent r
e–t appedt r
ansfor
merwhichproduceequal
volt
age

7.
1.2.
1.4Thepeaki
nver
sev
olt
ageofCent
reTapF.
Wrect
if
ier

ThePI
V=Vs 2 wher
eVs=t
otal
secondar
yrmsv
olt
age

7.
1.2.
1.5.TheDcVol
tageOrAv erageVol
tageOfCentr
eTapFul
lWav
e
Theaverageort
hedcvol
tageacrossthel
oadisgi
venby
Vdc =0. 636Vmax

7.
1.3.Ful
lWav
eBr
idgeRect
if
ier

Iti
sar ecti
fi
ercir
cui
tusi
ngf ouri
ndivi
dualdiodes.i
tisalsoavai
lableinspecialpackages
contai
ningthefourdi
odesrequir
edinoneuni t.I
tiscal
ledafull
-wav erect
if
ierbecauseit
usestheentir
eACwav efor
m( bothposit
iveandnegati
vehalfcycles)

Page13of13
Br
idger ect
ifi
ersar
eratedbythemaxi
mum curr
entt
heycanal
l
ow topassandt he
maximum r ever
sevol
tagetheycanwi
thst
andRMSvolt
agesothatt
herect
if
iercan
wi
thstandthepeakvol
tages.

7.1.
3.1.Operation
Duri
ngt heposi t
ivehalfcy cl
eofsecondar yvoltage,t
heN oft hesecondar
ywi nding
becomesposi t
iveandendM negat ive.ThismakesD1andD3f orwar
dbiasedwhi l
eD2
andD4r ever
sebi ased.Hence,onlydiodeD1andD3conduct s.
Duri
ngt henegat ivehalfcycleofsecondaryv ol
tage,endPbecomesnegat i
veandendQ
posi
tive.Thismakesdi odeD2andD4f orwardbiasedandconductwhereasdi odesD1
andD3ar ereversedbiased.

7.1.
3.2Advantage
Theneedforcent r
e–tappedtransfor
meri seli
minated
Theoutputpoweri shi
gherthanthatofcentretappedtype
Becauseofit
shi ghert
ransf
ormerut i
l
isat
ionfactor(of0.812)t
hancent
ret
apped(
0.693)
andhalfwave(0.287)

7.
1.3.
3.Disadvantage
I
trequi
resfourdiodesfori
tsoper
ati
on.

7.
1.3.
4Thepeakinver
sevol
tageoff
ullwav
ebr
idger
ect
if
ier
PIV=Vm
Maximum v
olt
age(Vm)off.
w.b.
r.

Vm =Vs2

Page14of14
7.
1.3.
5.TheDcVoltageOrAv erageVolt
ageOfF.
W.B.
R.
Theaverageort
hedcv ol
tageacrosst
heloadi
sgi
venby
∴ Vdc =0.636Vm

7.
1.3.
6.TwoImportantTermsUsedInRectifi
erCir
cuit
s
1.PI V(Peaki
nversevolt
age)
PIV(Peakinver
sev ol
tage)Iti
sthemaximum r
ever
se
vol
tagewhi
chadi odecanwit
hstandwit
houtdestroyi
ngit
sjunct
ion.

2.RI PPLEFACTOR
Theoutputofar ecti
fi
ersometi
mesconsistsofa.ccomponentwhi
chi
sv er
y
muchundesirabl
eanditiscal
l
edRippl
evol
tage.
HenceRi ppl
eFact orcanbedefi
nedast her at
ioofa.
ccomponenttothed.c
component

8.0FILTERCIRCUITS
Af i
lt
ercircui
tisacircuitwhichremovespul
sat
ionscalledri
pplespr
esentintheoutput
volt
agesuppli
ed
bytherect
ifi
er.I
tsmainfunct
ioni
storemoveri
ppl
espresentinout
putd.
cvolt
agesuppl
i
er.

Thewi
delyusedfiltersare:
 induct
orf i
l
t er
 Capacitorfilt
er
 Induct
orcapaci t
or(chokei
nput
)
 Capacitorinductorcapacit
orf
il
terorPi
fil
ter

8.1.I
nductorFil
ter
Thef i
gurebelowshowsani nduct
orfi
l
ter
.Whentheoutputoft
her
ecti
fi
erpassest
hrough
an
inductor
,itbl
ockstheaccomponentandall
owsonl
ythedccomponenttor
eachtheload.

Page15of15
8.1.1ItsOperati
on
Thef uncti
onofani nductorfi
lt
ercanbeexpl ai
nedinter
msofr eactance.Thechokeoff
ers
high
reactancetot heac component sbutof fersalmostzeroresi
stancet othedesir
eddc
component .
Thusr ippl
esar eremov edt oal argeextent
.Usuall
ychokecoi lresist
anceRc,ismuch
smal l
erthan
theloadResi st
ance,therefor
e,al mosttheentir
edcv ol
tageisav ai
labl
eacrosstheload
resi
stanceRL.
8.1.2Theoutputdcv olt
agei sgiv
enas:

2Vm
Vdc=
π
8.
1.3.
Ifchokeresi
stancei
sconsi
der
ed

2Vm R
Vdc= ⋅ L
π RLX RC

8.
1.4.Ri
ppl
eVol
tage

RL
Vγr
ms= Vdc
3√2⋅
ω⋅L

Theabov eequat i
onshowst hatr i
pplewi l
ldecreasewheni nductanceLi sincreasedandRL
i
sdecreased.
Thustheinductorf i
l
teri
smor eeffectiv
eonl ywhent heloadcur r
entishigh(i .
esmallRL)
.
Thelargervalueoftheinductorcanr educether i
ppl
eandatt hesamet imet heoutputdc
volt
agewi l
lbel oweredasthei nductorhasahi gherdcresist
ance.Theoper ati
onofthe
i
nductorfil
terdependsoni t
spr opertytoopposeanychangeofcur r
entpassi ngthr
oughit
.
Rippl
ef act
oroft heinductorf i
lt
erf orfrequencyf=50Hz,i nductanceLi nHenry,and

Page16of16
r
esi
stanceRL
i
nohmsi sgivenas:

8.
1.5.Ri
ppl
eFact
or
RL
γ= Wher
e,ω=2πf
3√2⋅
ω⋅L

wher
e,L=i
nduct
ancei
nhenr
y,R=ohms

8.2.CapacitorFil
ter
Acapacitorf i
l
terconnecteddirectl
yacr
osstheloadisshownint hef i
g.bel
ow.Theproperty
ofa capaci torist hatitallows ac componentt o conductt hrough i
tand blocksdc
component .Theoper ati
onoft hecapacit
orfi
lt
eristoshortther ippl
et ogroundbutleav
e
thedctoappearatout putwheni ti
sconnect
edacrosst hepulsati
ngdcv olt
age

8.2.1oper ation
Dur i
ngt heposi t i
vehalfcycle,
thecapacitorchargesupt ot hepeakv al
ueofthetransfor
mer
secondar yv ol t
age,Vm andwi lltrytomai nt
aint hi
sv al
ueast hefullwaveinputdropst o
zero.Capaci torwi l
ldischargethroughRLsl owlyuntilt
het ransformersecondaryvolt
age
againi ncreaset oav al
uegr eaterthant hecapacitorv oltage.Thedi odeconduct sfora
period,whi ch depends on t he capacit
orv ol
tage.The di ode wi l
lconductwhen t he
transformersecondar yv ol
tagebecomesmor ethanthedi odev ol
tage.Thi
siscall
edthecut
i
nv ol
tage.Thedi odestopsconduct i
ng whent het r
ansfor merv olt
agebecomesl essthan
thedi odev oltageorkneev olt
age.Thisi scal l
edcutoutv olt
age.Thef uncti
onoft he
capaci t
orfil
termaybev iewedint ermsofimpedances.Thel argevalue
capaci t
orCof f
ersal owi mpedanceshuntpat htotheaccomponent sorri
pplesbutoffers
high
i
mpedancet ot hedccomponent .Thusr i
pplesgetby passedt hroughcapacit
orCandonl y
dc

Page17of17
componentfl
owsthrought heloadresist
anceRL
Capaci
torf
il
teri
sverypopul arbecauseofit
slowcost
,smal
lsi
ze,
li
ghtwei
ghtandgood
Smootheni
ngcharacter
ist
ics.

8.
2.2.TheOutPutDcVol
tageI
sGi
venAs:

Vdc= (
4FCRL)xVmax
(
1+4FCRL)

Theri
pplevol
tagemaybedecr
easedbyi
ncr
easi
ngCorRL(
bot
h)wi
thar
esul
ti
ngi
ncr
ease
i
nthedc
out
putvolt
age.

8.
2.3r
ippl
efact
or
1
γ=
4√3FCR

Wher
eF=Frequence
C=capacit
ancei
nfarads
R=r
esist
anceinohm

8.
3.I
nduct
orcapaci
torf
il
terorL-
CFi
lt
erorChokeI
nputf
il
ter

Iti
saci rcui
twhichconsi
stsofaninductorL connect
edi
nseri
eswithther
ect
if
ierout
put
anda
Fil
tercapaci
torCacrosst
heloadresi
stanceRLasshowninthefi
g.bel
ow.

8.
3.1.
Operat
ion
Whenther
ectif
ierout
puti
sappl
i
edt
othet
ermi
nal
soft
heLCf
il
ter
,thepul
sat
ing

Page18of18
outputofr ecti
fi
erCont ai
nsacanddccomponent s.Thechokeorani nductorwi l
labsor b
the
accomponentbutal l
owst hedccomponentt opasst hroughi t
.Att er
mi nal3,ther ect
if
ier
output
wil
lstil
lhav esmal lamountofac( ri
pple)whichisby passedbyt helowr eactanceoff il
ter
capacit
orC
butprevent sthedccomponentt oflowthroughit,butinsteaddccomponentr eachesthe
l
oadRl .
.
Therippl
ef actori
sdi r
ectl
yproporti
onaltotheloadresistanceRLi ntheinductorf i
lt
erand
i
nverselypr oport
ionaltoRLi nt hecapaci t
or fil
ter.Ther ef
orei ft heset wof i
l
tersar e
combined
asLCf i
lterorLsect i
onfil
terasshowninf i
gurether i
pplefactorwill
bei ndependentofRL.

I
ftheval
ueofinductanceisincreasedi
twi l
li
ncr
easethet
imeofconduct
ion.Atsome
cri
ti
calv
alueofinductance,onediode,ei
therD1orD2wil
lal
waysconduct.
8.3.
2Thedcout putvoltageisgivenas,

8.
3.3.I
fchoker
esi
stancei
sconsi
der
ed

2Vm R
Vdc= ⋅ L wher
eVm =peaksecondar
yvol
tage
π RLX RC
RL=l
oadresist
ance
Rc=chokeresi
stance

8.
3.4.Ri
ppl
eFactorI
sExpr
essedAs:
1.195
∴ γ= wher
eC=i nmi
crof
arads,
L=i
nhenr
yfor50Hzsuppl
y.
L⋅C

8.4.CapacitorInputFil
ter(Capaci
tor–Inductor–Capacit
or)OrΠFil
ter
Iti
saf il
tercir
cuitwhichconsist
sofaf i
ltercapaci
torC1connect
edacrosst
herecti
fi
er
output,achokeLi nseriesandanothercapaci t
orC2connectedacrosstheloadRLas
shown
inthedi agram bel
ow

Page19of19
8.4.1.Oper ation
Whent her ect ifi
erdcout putisfedtothefil
tercircuit
Thecapaci torC1of fer
sl ow react
ancet oaccomponentofr ect
if
ierout
putwhil
eitoff
ers
i
nf i
nit
e
React ancet odc.Hencecapaci torC1by passesanappr eci
ableamountofaccomponent
whiledc
Componentcont i
nuest ochokeL.
ThechokeL, furtheroffershighoppositi
on( reactance)totheescapedacbutoffer
salmost
zero
Opposi tion( resistance)todccomponentandf l
owst hr
oughit.
Thef ilt
ercapaci t
orC2by passes(shor tcircuits)theaccomponentwhi cht
hechokehas
fail
edt o
Block, t
her efor e,onlydccomponentappear sacr osstheloadRL.
Thoughi tgi veshi gherv oltageout,thisfiltercircui
thasi nfer
iorvolt
ageregul
ati
onas
compar edt ot heLCf i
lt
ercircuit

8.
4.1Thedcoutputvol
tagei
sgivenas,
2Vm
Vdc=
π
8.4.
2.dcout
putvolt
agewithwi
thchoker esist
ance
2Vm RL
Vdc= X
π RL+RC
8.
4.3Andr
ippl
efact
oras:
1
γ= 3 ⋅
4 2.
ω C1⋅
C2⋅RL
L⋅

wher
eC1,
C2=f
arads,
L=i
nhenr
y,R=ohms

or

Page20of20
 5700
=
C1⋅
C2⋅L⋅
RL

wher
eC1,
C2=i
nmi
crof
arads,
L=i
nhenr
y,R=ohms

9.0VOLTAGEREGULATOR
I
tisaci r
cuitordevi
cethatmaint
ainsterminalv
olt
ageofthed.csuppl
yconstantevenwhen:
I
nputv ol
taget othetr
ansfor
merv ar
iesort he l
oadvar
ies.Zenerdi
odesandt ransi
storsare
usedas
volt
ager egulat
ors.Thediagram below showsat ypi
calzenerdiodecir
cuitasav ol
tage
regul
ator.

anode ,
k=cat
hode

9.
1. Funct
ion of a Vol
tageRegul
ator

Thefuncti
onofthevol
tager
egul
atori
stomai
ntai
nter
minalv
olt
ageofd.
csuppl
yconst
ant
regar
dless
ofvari
ati
onsi
nloadori
nputv
olt
age

Page21of21
9.
2.ZenerDi
odeI
-VChar
act
eri
sti
cs

9.
3ZenerDi
odeRegul
atorci
rcui
t

Ther esist
or,RS i
sconnect edinser i
eswi ththezenerdiodetolimi
tthecur r
entfl
owt hrough
the
diodewi t
ht hevoltagesource,VS bei ngconnectedacrossthecombi nati
on.Thestabili
sed
outputv ol
tageVouti stakenf r
om acr ossthezenerdiode.Thezenerdiodeisconnectedwith
i
tscat hodet er
mi nalconnectedtot heposi t
ivesideoftheDCsuppl ysoi ti
sreversebiased
andwi llbeoper ati
ngi nitsbreakdowncondi t
ion.Resi
storRs i
sselectedsoast olimitthe
maximum cur r
entflowinginthecircuit.
Withoutal oadconnect edtot hecircuit
,theloadcur r
entwil
lbezer o,(IL=0),andal lthe

Page22of22
cir
cuitcur rentpassest hrought hezenerdi odewhi chinturndi ssi
patesitsmaximum power.
Alsoasmal lv alueoft heseriesr esist
orRSwi l
lresul tinagreaterdiodecurrentwhentheload
resi
stanceRLi sconnect ed
andl argeast hiswi l
lincreaset hepowerdi ssipationr equi
rementoft hediodesocaremust
betaken
whensel ectingt heappropriatev alueofseriesr esistancesot hatthezenersmaximum power
rati
ngi snotexceededundert hisno- l
oadorhi gh-impedancecondi ti
on.
Thel oadi sconnect edi npar allelwi t
ht hezenerdi ode,sot hat thev olt
ageacrossRLi s
alway sthesameast hezenerv oltage,(VR=VZ) .
.
Exampl e
A5. 0Vst abilisedpowersuppl yi sr equir
edtobepr oducedf rom a12VDCpowersuppl yinput
source.Themaxi mum powerr at i
ngPZoft hezenerdi odeis2W.Usi ngthezenerregul
ator
cir
cuitabov ecal culate:

a)Themaxi
mum cur
rentf
lowi
ngt
hrought
hezenerdi
ode.

b)Themi
nimum v
alueoft
heser
iesr
esi
stor
,RS

c)Thel
oadcur
rentI
Lifal
oadr
esi
storof1kΩi
sconnect
edacr
osst
heZenerdi
ode.

d)Thet
otal
suppl
ycur
rentI
Satf
ull
load.

Thef
oll
owi
ngar
eimpor
tantf
ormul
aconcer
ningZenerci
rcui
tcal
cul
ati
ons

I
Z=I
s-I
L

Page23of23
Rs=Vs-
Vz,
, i
floadr
esi
storRLi
sincl
uded
Is

Rs=Vs-Vz,
, i
floadr
esi
storRLi
snoti
ncl
uded
IZ

Vs=Vz+VR

Where: Iz=zenercur
rent
,Is=suppl
ycur
rent
,IL=Loadcur
rent
,Rs=l
i
mit
ingr
esi
stor
,Vz=
zenerv
olt
age,
Vs=supplyvolt
age

9.4.ZenerBi
asing
Forproperworkingofazenerdiodei nanycircui
t,i
tisessenti
alt
hatitmust,
 ber ev
ersebi ased
 Hav eav olt
ageacrossitgreaterthant
hez enerbreakdownvoltage
 bei nacircui
twher et
hecur r
entislessthanthemaxi mum zenercurr
ent
 alwaysbeconnect edacrosst heloadresi
stor
 supplyvoltagemustbegr eaterthanzenervolt
age

9.5appli
cationofZenerDi odes
Zenerdiodesf indnumer ousappl i
cati
onsintransi
storci
rcui
tr
y.Someoft hei
rcommon
usesare;
 asv oltager egul
ators
 asaf ixedr efer
encev olt
ageinanet workforbiasi
ngandcomparisonpurposes
andf orcalibrati
ngv oltmeters.
 aspeakcl i
pper sorv oltageli
miter
s
 formet erpr otect
ion agai nstdamagef r
om accident
alappl
icat
ion ofexcess
voltage
 forreshapi ngawav eform.

10.
0TRANSI
STORS
I
ntr
oduct
iont
otr
ansi
stor
s
Thetwomajortypesoftransi
stor
sar
ethebi
pol
arj
unct
iont
ransi
stor(
BJT)andt
he
Fi
eldEf
fectt
ransi
stor(
FET).
Bipol
arj
uncti
ont ransi
stor(BJT)isacur
rentcontr
oll
edsemi
conduct
ordev
ice.The
basecur
rent(
IB)contr
olstheemit
tert
ocol
l
ectorcur
r I
ent( .
C)

WhereastheFiel
dEffectTransi
stor( sav
FET)i ol
tagecontrol
l
edsemi
conduct
ordev
ice.
Thegate-
sourcevol
tage(VGS)contr
olsthedrai
ncurrent(
I .
D)

10.
1Bi
pol
arJunct
ionTr
ansi
stor

Page24of24
 The Bi polarJuncti
on Tr ansi
stor(BJT)isat hr
ee layersemiconduct
ordevice
constructedfrom t
woj uncti
ondiodesjoi
nedbacktoback.Therearetwomainty
pes
ofbipolarjuncti
ont
ransist
ors,t
heNPNandt hePNPt r
ansist
orasshownbelow.

Transistorsar e" CurrentOper ated Devices"where a much smallerBase curr

ent
causesal argerEmittertoCollect
orcurrenttofl
ow.
Thear rowi nat r
ansistorsymbol repr
esentsconventi
onalcur
rentfl
ow.
Themostcommont ransi
storconnectionistheCommon- emit
terconfi
gur
ati
on.
The Base- Emitt
erj uncti
on is alwaysf orward bi
ased whereas t
he Coll
ect
or-Base
j
unctioni salway sreversebiased.

10.
2Thr
eebasi
cfunct
ionsofat
ransi
storar
e:

1.usedasaswitchi
ngdeviceindigi
talel
ectroni
cs
2.usedasanampl i
fi
cat
iondeviceinanalogueelect
roni
cs
3.usedasvol
tageandcurrentregul
atorsinDCpowersuppli
es

10.
3Const
ruct
ionofBi
pol
arTr
ansi
stor

Basical
l
yaBJTcompr i
sesthreeregi
onsnamelyemitter,baseandcollector.Three
connecti
ngter
mi nal
swi
theachter
minalbei
ngobtai
nedfrom eachregi
onarei dent
if
ied
andlabell
edastheEmit
ter(
E),
theBase(B)andtheCol
lector(C)r
espect
ivel
y.

Theemi
tt
er:

Page25of25
i
ti saregi
onwhi chisheavil
ydopedsituatedi
nonesi deofthetransistor
,soast o
suppl
yandi nj
ectalargenumberofchargecarri
ers(
elect
ronsorholes)intothebase
regi
on.Thi
sactionconst
it
utesemi
ttercurr
ent(I
E)

TheBase:
i
tisat hi
n( 10-6m)middleregi
onwhichisli
ght
lydopedandformstwoPNj uncti
onsin
thetr
ansistor.Itpassesmostofthechargecarri
ersabout98%t ot
hecollect
or.The
baseterminalconstit
utesbasecur
rent(
IB)whi
chisabout2%oftheemit
tercurr
ent.

TheCol
lect
or:

i
tisamoder at
elydopedregionwhi chisl
argerthantheemit
terandBase.I
tissi
tuated
attheothersi
deoftransi
stor,opposit
etotheemi tt
er.I
tcol
lect
schargecarr
ier
sfrom
theemit
tervi
athebaseregion.Coll
ectorcurr
entisabout98%ofemitt
ercurr
ent

Thepi
ctur
ebel
owshowsat
ypi
cal
BJTt
ransi
stor

10.
4pr
inci
pleOper
ati
on(
OrAct
ion)OfBi
pol
arTr
ansi
stor

NPNTr
ansi
stor

Page26of26
Thedi agram abov eshowsann- p-nt ransi st
orwi thf orwardbi asedemi tter– base
j
unct i
onandr eversebi asedbase-col lect or.Thef orwardbi ascausest heelectronsi n
then-t ypeemi tterr egiontof l
ow t owar dsthebase.Thi sconst i
tutestheemi t
ter
current(I
E).Ast heseel ectr
onsf l
owt hroughP-t ypeBase, theycombi newithhol es.As
thebasei slightlydopedandv eryt hi
n,t her ef
ore,onl yaf ewelectronsabout2%f rom
theemi t
tercombi newi ththeholesi nt hebaser egionandconst i
tutethebasecur rent
(IB)
.Ther emai nderabout98% cr ossov erandcol lect
edi ntothecol lect
orr egiont o
constit
utethecol lectorcurrent(IC).Inthi swayal mostt heent i
reemi t
tercurrentf l
ows
i
nt hecoll
ectorci rcui
t.Therefore,Emi ttercur renti sthesum ofBaseandcol lector
current

Ther
efor
e I
E=I
B+I
C

Not
ethat
,Forproperoper
ationofat ransi
stor
,emit
ter– basejunct
ionmustbe
f
orwar
dbi
asedandbase-col
lectorj
unct
ionmustberev
ersebi
ased1.

10.
5Bi
pol
arTr
ansi
storConf
igur
ati
ons

Si
nceaBipolarTransi
stori
sat hr
eeterminaldevi
ce,therearebasical
lythreepossi
ble
waysofconnecti
ngitwithi
nanelectr
oniccircui
twithonet erminalbeingcommont o
bot
htheinputandoutput.Eachmethodofconnectionr espondsdif
ferent
lytoit
sinput
si
gnal
.Thefoll
owingarethemethodsofconfigur
ati
onoft heBJT

1.CommonBaseConf
igur
ati
on

2.CommonEmi
tt
erConf
igur
ati
on .

3.CommonCol
lect
orConf
igur
ati
on

Page27of27
10.
5.1TheCommonBase(
CB)Conf
igur
ati
on

Asi t
snamesuggest s,intheCommonBaseorgr oundedbaseconf i
gurati
on,theBase
i
scommont obotht heinputsignalandt heout putsignalwiththei nputsignalbeing
appli
edbet weenthebaseandt heemi tterter minal
s.Wher east heoutputsi gnalis
takenf r
om betweent hebaseandt hecol l
ectort er
minalswi t
ht hebaset er
mi nal
groundedorconnect edt oaf i
xedr ef
erencev ol
tagepoint.Thei nputcurrentf l
owing
i
ntot heemi t
teri
squi t
el ar
geasi tisthesum ofbasecur r
entandcol l
ectorcurrent.
Therefor
e,thecoll
ectorcurr
entoutputislesst hant heemitt
ercurrentinputresult
ingin
acurrentgaintobelessthanlessthanunit .

Thistypeofampli
fi
erconf
igurat
ionisanon-invert
ingvol
tageampli
fiercir
cuit
,int
hat
theinputsi
gnalv
olt
agesVinandVoutarei
n-phase.Thist
ypeoftr
ansistorarr
angement
i
snotv erycommonduetoitsunusuall
yhi
ghv ol
tagegainchar
act
eri
stics.

CommonBaseVol
tageGai
n(AV)i
sgi
venas:

Vout
Av
=
Vi
n

CommonBased.
c.Cur
rentGai
n(α)i
sgi
venas:

I col lectorcur
rent
hFB,α= C =
IE
Emit
tercurr
ent

CommonBasea.
c.Cur
rentGai
n(α)i
sgi
venas:

∆I changeincol
l
ectorcurrent
hfb,α = C =
∆I
B
changei
nbasecurrent

Thecommonbaseci r
cui
tisgenerall
yonlyusedinsingl
estageampli
fi
ercir
cui
tssuch
asmicrophonepre-
ampli
fi
erorradiofrequency(
Rf)ampli
fi
ersduet
oit
sv er
ygoodhigh
fr
equencyresponse.

Page28of28
10.
5.2TheCommonEmi
tt
er(
CE)Conf
igur
ati
on

IntheCommonEmi t
terorgr oundedemi tt
erconf i
gur at
ion,t heinputsignalisappli
ed
betweent hebaseandemi tter,whilet heout putistakenf r
om bet weent hecoll
ector
andt heemi t
terasshownbel ow.Emi tterbeingcommont obot hinputandout put.This
typeofconf igurati
onist hemostcommonl yusedci rcuitfort r
ansistorampl i
fi
ersand
whi chrepresent sthe" normal "met hodofbi polart
ransistorconnect i
on.Thecommon
emi tt
erampl if
ierconfi
gur at
ionpr oducest hehi ghestcur rentandpowergai nofallt
he
threebipol artransist
orconf igurati
ons.Thi sismai nlybecauset hei nputimpedancei s
LOW asi tisconnect edt oaf orward-biasedPN- j
unction,whi letheout putimpedance
i
sHI GHasi tist akenf r
om ar everse-biasedbase–col lectorPN- junctionasshown
below

TheCommonEmi
tt
erconf
igur
ati
onCi
rcui
t

thecur
rentgainoft
hecommonemi ttertr
ansist
orconfigurat
ionisqui
telar
geasiti
s
t
herati
oofI c/
Ibandisgi
venbytheGr eeksymbolofBet a,(
β).Typi
cal
ly
,Betahasa
v
aluebetween20and200formostgeneralpur
posetransistor
s.

Commonemi
tt
erd.
c.cur
rentgai
nisgi
venas:

I col
lect
orcurr
ent
hFB,β=C =
I
B
basecur
rent

accur
rentgaini
sgivenas:
∆I changeincol
l
ectorcurrent
hfb β= C =
∆IB
changei
nbasecurrent

Wher
e:"
Ic"i
sthecurr
entfl
owingint
othecollect
orter
minal
,"I
B"i
sthecur
rentfl
owi
ng
i
ntot
hebaseter
minaland"
IE"i
sthecur
rentf
lowingoutoft
heemit
tert
ermi
nal.

Thent
osummar i
se,TheCommonEmi tt
er(CE)Confi
gur
ati
onhasagr eaterinput
i
mpedance,cur
rentandpowergai
nthant
hatofthecommonbaseconf
igurati
onbut
i
tsvol
tagegainismuchl ower
.Thecommonemi tt
erconfi
gur
ati
oni
sani nvert
ing

Page29of29
amplif
iercir
cuitr
esul
ti
ngi
ntheout
putsi ng180o out
gnalbei -of
-phasewi
tht
hei
nput
vol
tagesignal.

10.
5.3TheCommonCol
lect
or(
CC)Conf
igur
ati
on

IntheCommonCol l
ectororgroundedcoll
ect orconfigur
ati
on,thecoll
ectori smade
commont obot hthei nputandoutput.
.Thei nputsignalisconnecteddirectlytot he
base,whil
et heoutputi stakenf
rom theemitt
erl oadasshownbel ow.Thi sci rcui
ti s
ver
yusef ulf orimpedance mat chi
ng appli
cationsbecauseoft he veryhi gh input
i
mpedance,i nther egi
onofhundr edsofthousandsofOhmswhi lehavingar el
ati
vely
l
owout putimpedance. TheCommonCol lect
orTr ansi
storCir
cuitasshownbel ow.

TheCommonCol
lect
orCur
rentGai
n

Ther
elat
ionshi
pbet
weenAl
pha(
α)andBet
a(β)i
sexpr
essedas:

Page30of30
Exampl
eNo1

AnNPN Tr ansi
storhasaDC curr
entgai
n,(Bet
a)v
alueof200.Cal
cul
atet
hebase
cur
rentI
brequir
edtoswit
char
esisti
vel
oadof4mA.

Ther
efor
e,β=200,
Ic=4mAandI
b=20µA.

Exampl
eNo2

AnNPNTr ansi
storhasaDCbasebi
asvol
tage,
Vbof10vandaninputbaser
esi
stor
,Rb
of100kΩ.Whatwill
bethev
alueoft
hebasecurr
enti
ntot
hetr
ansi
stor.

10.
6BJTTr
ansi
storAmpl
if
ier
,DcLoadLi
neAndQ-Poi
nt.

Anamplifi
eri
sacircui
twhichi
ncreasesthepowerofanacsi
gnal.I
tcanalsobedefi
ned
asadevicewhichproducesal
argerelect
ri
calout
putofsi
mil
archaract
eri
sti
csthant
hat
oft
heinputsi
gnal.

Thedcloadli
neofanampli
fi
errepresent
sall
thepossibl
ecombinat
ionsofI
candVcE.A
DCloadlinei
sshowninFigure5-1.Theendpointsontheloadl
inerepr hei
esentt deal
sat
urat
ionandcut
offchar
acter
ist
icsoftheci
rcuit
.Not
et hat
:

 Thesat
urat
ionpoi
nt,
Ic(sat),
ispl
ott
edassumi
ngav
alueof .I
npr
act
ice,

Page31of31
 hassomev
aluesl
i
ght
lygr
eat
ert
han0Vwhent
het
ransi
stori
ssat
urat
ed.
Thev al
ueof isnormall
ycal
culatedbydi v
idi
ngthetot
alvol
tageacr
osst
he
col
lectorandemi
tt
ercir
cuit
sbythetotalresi
stanceint
hosecir
cui
ts.
 Thecut
offpoi
nt, ,i
spl
ott
edassumi
ngav
alueof .I
npract
ice,
hassomev
aluesl
i
ght
lygr
eat
erthan0Awhenthetr
ansi
stori
sincutof
f.The
valueof i
snor mall
yassumedtoequalthetotalv
oltageappli
edacross
t
hecol l
ectorandemitt
ercir
cui
ts.
 Q-pointofanampl i
fi
erisagraghwhichr
epresent
st hecoll
ectorcur
rentI
cand
t
hecol l
ector-emi
tt
ervolt
ageVcE.

. DCl
oadl
ine

Amplifi
ersaredesignedforspeci
fi
cval
uesof and .Forexample,
thecircui
tbel
ow
i
sshownt ohav evaluesof and .Asl
ongast hereisnosignalappl
i
ed
totheampl i
fier
,thecol l
ectorcurr
entandcol
l
ector-
emi t
tervol
tage(ideal
ly)remain
const
antatthesevalues.

Page32of32
Whennoi nputsignali
sappli
edtoanamplifi
er,t
hecircui
tissaidtobei nisqui
t escent
state.Thepointonthedcloadli
nethatr
epresentst
hequi escentval
uesof and is
referr
edtoast heQ-poi
nt.WhentheQ-poi
ntforanampl if
ierisposit
ionedonthecenter
oft heloadli
ne,thecircui
tissai
dtobemi dpoi
ntbiased.Whenaci r
cui
tismidpoint
biased:

 i
sappr
oxi
mat
elyhal
fthev
alueof .
 i
sappr
oxi
mat
elyhal
fthev
alueof .

Asshownabov
e,mi
dpoi
ntbi
aspr
ovi
desf
oropt
imum acoper
ati
onoft
heci
rcui
t.

10.
6.1Base(
fi
xed)Bi
asampl
if
ier

Thesi mplestt r
ansistorbiasingcircuiti
sr efer
redtoasbasebi as(orfixedbias).The
namest emsf r
om t hef actt hatthecur r
entt hr
ought hebaseci r
cui
t( )r emains
rel
ativel
y.Abasebi ascircuitisshownbel ow (al
ongwithitsprimarymat hematical
rel
ationships)
.Not ethatthel oadli
neequat ionsareusedtoplotthedcloadlineforthe
cir
cuit,whiletheQ- pointequat i
onsar eusedt odetermi
netheQ- poi
ntvaluesof and
.Theloadl neandQ-
i pointcalculati
onsf orabasebiasci
rcuitaredemonst r
atedin
Expressionsbel ow.

Page33of33
Thef
oll
owi
ngar
ethei
mpor
tantex
pressi
onsf
orbase(
orf
ixed)bi
asampl
i
fier

1.Basecur
rentI
B

Vcc-
Vbe
I
B=
RB

2.I
nputr
esi
stancel
ooki
ngdi
rect
lyi
ntot
hebase

25mV
n=βr
Ri e er
wher e=
I
E
3.st
agei
nputr
esi
stance

R(
in-
stg)=RB /
/βre
4.out
putr
esi
stanceoft
heampl
i
fier

Rout=Rc (
wit
houtl
oadr
esi
storRL)

Page34of34
 Or

Rout /
/
=Rc RL (
wit
hloadr
esi
storRL)

5.Cur
rentgai
n

Ic
β=
IB
6Vol
tagegai
nAv

Rout
Av
=
re
7Powergai
nAp

Ap=βxAv

Gp=10l
og10Ap(
dB)
..
..
..
..
..
..
powergai
nindB

8Col
l
ect
oremi
tt
erv
olt
age

Vce=Vcc-I
cRc

10.
6.2Vol
tage-
Div
iderAmpl
if
ierBi
as

Voltage-di
viderbias( whichissomet i
mesr eferr
edt oasuniversalbias)i
sthemost
commonl yusedt ransi
stor-
biasingscheme.Theci rcui
tcanbei denti
fi
edbythevolt
age
divi
derint hetransist
orbaseci r
cuit
.Av ol
tage-di
vi
derbiascir
cuitisshown(al
ongwi t
h
i
tspr imarymat hemat i
calrel
ationshi
ps)inFigure5-4.Theresi
stancesR1andR2f orms
thev ol
tagedivi
der.

Page35of35
Thef
oll
owi
ngar
etheot
heri
mpor
tantexpr
essi
onsf
ort
hev
olt
agedi
vi
derCEampl
i
fier

1.Basecur
rentI
B

VB-VBE R2
I
B= ,whereVB=Vccx=
RB+(1+β)
RE R1+R2

R1R2
andRB=
R1+R2

VB-
VBE
I
B= wi
thaswampr
esi
stor(
Re)
RB+(
1+β)RE+Re

2.I
nputr
esi
stancel
ooki
ngdi
rect
lyi
ntot
hebase

25mV
n=βr
Ri e er
wher e=
I
E

Page36of36
 3. st
agei
nputr
esi
stance

R(
in-
st /
//
g)=R1 R2 /βre’
R(
in-
stg)=R1 R2/
///βre’+Re (wi
thaswampr
esi
storRe)

4.out
putr
esi
stanceoft
heampl
i
fier

Rout=Rc (
wit
houtl
oadr
esi
storRL)

Or

Rout /
/
=Rc RL (
wit
hloadr
esi
storRL)

5.Cur
rentgai
n

Ic
β=
IB
6.Vol
tagegai
nAv

Rout
Av
= .
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
wit
haswampr
esi
storRe)
re

Rout
Av
= …………… (
wit
haswampr
esi
storRe)
r
e+Re

7.Powergai
n

Page37of37
 Ap=βxAv

Gp=10l
og10Ap(
dB)
..
..
..
..
..
..
powergai
nindB

8.Col
l
ect
oremi
tt
erv
olt
age

Vce=Vcc-(
IcRc+I
ERE)

9.Col
l
ect
orv
olt
age

Vc=Vcc-I
cRc

Theconnect
ionoft
hebaseci
rcui
ttot
het
ransi
storcol
l
ect
or,i
ndi
cat
ingt
hat i
sa
funct
ionof .

 Thepr
esenceof i
nthebasecur
rentequat
ionshowni
nthef
igur
e.

Thefol
lowi
ngaresomeoft
hei
mpor
tantexpr
essi
onsandpar
amet
ersofbasebi
as
wit
hfeedbackr
esi
stor

1.Basecur
rentI
B

Vcc-
VBE
I
B=
RB+(
1+β)
Rc

2.I
nputr
esi
stancel
ooki
ngdi
rect
lyi
ntot
hebase

Page38of38
 25mV
n=βr
Ri e er
wher e=
I
E
3. st
agei
nputr
esi
stance

R(
in-
stg)=RB /
/βre
4.out
putr
esi
stanceoft
heampl
i
fier

Rout=Rc (
wit
houtl
oadr
esi
storRL)

Or

Rout /
/
=Rc RL (
wit
hloadr
esi
storRL)

5.Cur
rentgai
n

Ic
β=
IB

6.Vol
tagegai
nAv

Rout
Av
=
re

7.Powergai
n

Page39of39
 Ap=βxAv

Gp=10l
og10Ap(
dB)
..
..
..
..
..
..
powergai
nindB

8.Col
l
ect
oremi
tt
erv
olt
age

Vce=Vcc-(
IcRc)

10.
6.3Basebi
aswi
thEmi
tt
er-
feedbackbi
as

Iti
sanampl i
fi
ercircui
tdesi
gnedsothatt
heemi
tt
erv
olt
age( )affectstheval
ueof .
Anemi tt
er-
feedbackbiascircui
tisshownbel
ow. Theemi
tter
-t
o- basefeedbacki
s
evi
dencedby:

 Theaddi
ti
onofanemi
tt
err
esi
stor( )
,pr
oducesanemi
tt
erv
olt
age( )t
hat
af
fect
sthev
aluesof and .

Page40of40
Thef
oll
owi
ngar
ethei
mpor
tantexpr
essi
onsofabasebi
aswi
themi
tt
erf
eedback

1.Basecur
rentI
B

Vcc-
VBE
I
B= ,
RB+(
1+β)
RE

2.I
nputr
esi
stancel
ooki
ngdi
rect
lyi
ntot
hebase

25mV
n=βr
Ri e er
wher e=
I
E
3. st
agei
nputr
esi
stance

R(
in-
stg)=RB /
/βre
R(
in-
stg)=RB /
/βre+Re (wi
thaswampr
esi
storRe)

4.out
putr
esi
stanceoft
heampl
i
fier

Rout=Rc (
wit
houtl
oadr
esi
storRL)

Or

Rout /
/
=Rc RL (
wit
hloadr
esi
storRL)

5.Cur
rentgai
n

Page41of41
 Ic
β=
IB
6.Vol
tagegai
nAv

Rout
Av
=
re

7.Powergai
n

Ap=βxAv

Gp=10l
og10Ap(
dB)
..
..
..
..
..
..
powergai
nindB

8.Col
l
ect
oremi
tt
erv
olt
age

Vce=Vcc-(
IcRc+I
ERE)

9.Col
l
ect
orv
olt
age

Vc=Vcc–I
cRc

Page42of42
10.
6.4COMMONBASEAMPLI
FIER

Iti
sat
ypeofanampl if
ierwherei
nputsi
gnalisappli
edbetweentheemi
tt
erandthebasewher
eas
i
tsout
putisobtainedf r
om theter
minalsbetweent hecol
lect
orandthebase.Hencebaseis
commontobot
hi nputandoutput
.Thediagr
am belowshowsacommonbaseampl if
ier

Thef
oll
owi
ngar
ethei
mpor
tantpar
amet
ersoft
heemi
tt
erbaseampl
i
fier

1Emi
tt
ercur
rentI
E

VEE-
VBE
I
E= ,
RE

Hencecol
l
ect
orcur
rnenti
sgi
venas

I
c= αIE=IE

2.I
nputr
esi
stancel
ooki
ngdi
rect
lyi
ntot
hebase

25mV
n=r
Ri e er
wher e=
I
E

Page43of43
3. st
agei
nputr
esi
stance

R(
in-
stg)= r
e

4.out
putr
esi
stanceoft
heampl
i
fier

Rout=Rc (
wit
houtl
oadr
esi
storRL)

Or

Rout /
/
=Rc RL (
wit
hloadr
esi
storRL)

5.Cur
rentgai
n

Ic
α=
IE
6.Vol
tagegai
nAv

Rout
Av
=
re

7.Powergai
nAp

Ap=αxAv

Gp=10l
og10Ap(
dB)
..
..
..
..
..
..
powergai
nindB

8.Col
l
ect
orbasev
olt
ageVCB

Page44of44
 VCB=Vcc-I
cRc

11.
0Fi
eldEf
fectTr
ansi
stor
s

i
ntr
oduct
ion
 Fi
eldEf
fectTr
ansi
stor
s,orFET'
sar
e"Vol
tageOper
atedDev
ices"andcanbedi
vi
ded
i
ntotwomaintypes:Junct
ion- sa
FET' nd I
nsul
ated- ed
gat ev
icescal
l
ed I so
GFET´ rmor
e
commonl
yknownasMOSFETs.
 I
nsul
ated- ed
gat ev
icescanal
sobesub-
div
idedi
ntoEnhancementt
ypesandDepl
etont
i ypes.
Al
lfor
msar
eav
ail
abl
einbot
hN-
channel
andP-
channel
ver
sions.
 FET'
shav
ever
yhi
ghi
nputr
esi
stancessov
eryl
i
ttl
eornocur
rent(
MOSFETt
ypes)
f
lowsi
ntot
hei
nputt
ermi
nal
maki
ngt
hem i
deal
foruseasel
ect
roni
cswi
tches.
 Thei
nputi
mpedanceoft
heMOSFETi
sev
enhi
ghert
hant
hatoft
heJFETduet
othe
i
nsulat
ingoxi
delayerandt
heref
orest
ati
celect
ri
cit
ycaneasi
l
ydamageMOSFET
dev
icessocar
eneedstobet
akenwhenhandl
i
ngthem.

Di
ff
erencesbet
weenaFETandaBi
pol
arTr
ansi
stor

Fiel
dEf f
ectTransi
stor
scanbeusedtorepl
acenormalBi
pol
arJunct
ionTransi
stor
sin
electr
onicci
rcui
tsandasimpl
ecompari
sonbetweenFET'
sandtr
ansi
stor
sstati
ngboth
theiradv
antagesandthei
rdi
sadv
ant
agesisgiv
enbelow.

Fi
eldEffectTr ansistor(
FET) Bipol
arJunct ionTransi
stor(BJT)
1 Lowv oltagegain Highvoltagegai n
2 Highcur rentgain Lowcur rentgai n
3 Veryhighi nputimpedance Lowinputi mpedance
4 Highout putimpedance Lowout putimpedance
5 Lownoi segener ation Medium noi segenerati
on
6 Fastswi tchi
ngt i
me Medium swi tchingti
me
7 Easil
ydamagedbyst at
ic Robust
8 Somer equireani nputtotur
nitRequir
eszer oinputt
oturnit"OFF"

Page45of45
 "OFF"
9 Volt
agecont rol
leddevice Curr
entcont
rol
l
eddev
ice
Exhibit
s t he pr oper
ties of a
10
Resistor
11 Moreexpensi vethanbipolar Cheap
12 Dif
ficultt
obias Easytobi
as

Page46of46