Basi

cel
ect
roni
ccomponent
s
El
ectroniccomponentsarethebasicbui
ldi
ngblocksofanel
ectroni
ccircui
torel
ect
roni
csyst
em
orelectr
onicdev
ice.Theycontr
olthefl
owofelectronsi
nanelectr
onicsyst
em orel
ectr
oni
c
ci
rcuit.

El
ectr
oniccomponent
sarever
ysmall
.Hence,
iti
seasyt
ocarrythem f
rom oneplacetoanot
her
pl
ace.Thecostofel
ect
roni
ccomponent
sisal
solow.El
ect
roni
ccomponent sconsistoft
woor
moreter
minals.

Whenagr oupofel
ect
roni
ccomponentsi
sconnectedtoget
herinanelectr
onicboardsuchas
pr
intedcir
cui
tboar
d(PCB),ausef
ulel
ect
roni
cci
rcuiti
sformed.Eachelect
roniccomponenti
na
ci
rcuitper
for
msaparti
cul
artask.

Ty
pesofel
ect
roni
ccomponent
s

Theel
ect
roni
ccomponent
sar
egener
all
ycl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
wot
ypes:

Passi
vecomponent
s

Act
ivecomponent
s

Passi
vecomponent

Theel
ectroni
ccomponent,whi
chconsumesenergyi
nthefor
m ofv
olt
agefrom t
hesour
ce,
but
doesnotproduceorsuppl
yener
gyiscal
ledpassi
veel
ect
roni
ccomponent
.

1. Passivecomponentscannotcont r
oltheflowofelectronsorelectr
iccurrentthr
ougha
ci
rcuit
,butt
heyli
mi ttheflowofelectr
onsorelectri
ccur r
ent.
2. Passivecomponentscannotampl if
yorincreasethepowerofanel ect
ri
cal si
gnal.
3. Passivecomponentst emporari
l
ystoretheelectr
icalenergyi
nt heform ofstati
celect
ri
c
fi
eldormagneti
cfield.
4. Passivecomponent sdonotdependont heexter
nal sourceofenergyorv olt
ageto
perfor
m aspeci
fi
coper at
ion.

Di
ff
erentt
ypesofpassi
vecomponent
s

Thedi
ff
erentt
ypesofpassi
vecomponent
sincl
uder
esi
stor
s,capaci
tor
s,andi
nduct
ors.

Resi
stor
s

Resistorsar
ethecommonl yusedcomponentsi
ntheelectr
oni
ccircuit
s.Aresi
stori
san
el
ectroniccomponentthatl
imit
stheel
ect
riccur
rentorfl
owofelectronst
ocertainl
evel
.It
consistsoftwoter
minals.

Howmuchel ect
riccurr
entdoesaresistorreduceorli
mitsisdependsontheresi
stanceval
ueof
aresi
stor
.Theresist
orswit
hmor eresistanceval
uewi l
lreducelar
geamountofelectr
iccur
rent
whereasther
esistor
swithl
essresi
stancev al
uewil
lreducelessamountofel
ectr
iccurrent
.

1
Theelect
ri
ccur
rentreducedorrestri
ctedbytheresi
stori
smeasur
edi
nohmsandi
tis
repr
esent
edbyasy mbol Ω.Thesizeofresi
stor
sisverysmal
l.

Capaci
tor
s

Capaci
tor
sarethemostwidelyusedel
ect
roni
ccomponentsaft
erther esi
stor
s.Capaci
tor
s
tempor
ari
lyst
oretheel
ect
ricalener
gyi
nthefor
m ofst
ati
celect
ri
cf i
eld.

Capaci
torsconsi
stoftwopar
all
elelectr
ical
conduct
orssepar
atedbyanon-
conduct
iveor
i
nsulat
ingmateri
alcal
l
eddiel
ect
ric.Diel
ectr
icmater
ial
sdonotall
owtheel
ectr
ici
tyt
oflow
thr
oughthem.

I
nduct
ors

Ani nduct
orisapassivetwot erminalel
ect
roniccomponentt
hattemporar
il
ystorestheelectr
ical
energyinthef or
m ofamagnet icfi
eld.I
tconsist
sofcoi
lofcopperwi
resorelect
ricalconduct
ive
wires.Whent heelect
ri
ccurrentispassedthrought
hecoil
,amagneti
cfiel
disproducedand
storedinthecoilofcopperwires.

Act
ivecomponent

Theelectr
oni
ccomponent
,whi
chconsumesenergyi
ntheform ofvol
tageorcurr
entand
producesorsuppl
i
esener
gyi
nthefor
m ofel
ectr
iccur
rentorvol
tagei
scalledact
ivecomponent
.

1. Anactivecomponentnotonl
ycontrol
sthefl
owofel ect
ronsorelect
ri
ccurrent
,butal
so
ampli
fiesori
ncreasest
hepowerofelectr
onicsi
gnal.
2. Activ
ecomponent sdependontheexter
nalsour
ceofener gyorvolt
agetoperfor
ma
speci
fi
coperati
on.
3. Whent heact
ivecomponentsconsumeenoughv ol
tage,theyst
artoper
ati
ng.

Di
ff
erentt
ypesofact
ivecomponent
s

Thedi
ff
erentt
ypesofact
ivecomponent
sincl
udedi
odes,
transi
stor
s,andi
ntegr
atedci
rcui
ts(
IC)
.

Di
ode

Adiodeisasemiconductorcomponentthatal
lowsmostoft heelectr
iccur r
entorfl
owsof
el
ectr
onsinonedirecti
on(for
warddir
ecti
on)whi l
ebl ocksmostoft heelectri
ccurr
enti
nopposit
e
dir
ect
ion(r
eversedir
ecti
on).I
tconsi
stsoftwot er
mi nalsorel
ectrodes:cathodeandanode.Thep
-t
ypemateri
alofadiodeactsasanodeandt hen-typemat eri
alactsascat hode.

2
Whenthevolt
ageisappli
edt
othediodeinsuchawaythatposi
ti
vet
erminali
sconnect
edtothe
anodeandnegat
iveter
minal
isconnect
edtothecat
hode,thedi
odeal
lowstheel
ectr
iccur
rent
.

Whenthevol
tagei
sappliedt
othediodei
nsuchawaythatposit
iveter
minali
sconnect
edtothe
cat
hodeandthenegat
iveter
minal
isconnect
edt
otheanode,thediodebl
ockstheel
ectr
iccur
rent
.

Tr
ansi
stor

Atransi
stori
sasemi conductorcomponentthatamplif
iesorincr
easestheelect
ronicsi
gnals.
Thr
eescienti
stsnamedWal terBratt
ain,Wil
li
am Shockl
ey,andJ.Bardeeninvent
edthetransist
or
i
n1947att heBellLabor
atori
es.Transist
orsaremadefrom semiconductormateri
alssuchas
si
li
conandger manium.

I
ntegr
atedci
rcui
t

Anintegrat
edcircuitisasmallsemi
conductorchiponwhi chmill
ionsofelect
roni
ccomponents
suchascapacitors,resi
stor
s,andtr
ansist
orsarefabri
cated.ThecostofIntegrat
edci
rcui
tisl
ow
compar edtot
hedi scret
ecomponent sbecauseinint
egratedcir
cuital
lthecomponentsare
fabr
icatedonasi nglechi
p.

3
I
tcanfuncti
onasami cr
opr
ocessor
,ampl
i
fier
,andcount
er.Thei
nvent
ionofI
Cshadchangedt
he
worl
dofelectr
oni
cs.

Resi
stor
s
Whati
sresi
stance?

Rest
ri
cti
ngt
hef
lowofel
ect
ronsorel
ect
ri
ccur
rentt
oacer
tai
nlev
eli
scal
l
edr
esi
stanceandt
he

dev
iceorcomponentusedt
orest
ri
ctt
heel
ect
ri
ccur
renti
scal
l
edr
esi
stor
.

Theamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentr
est
ri
ctedbyt
her
esi
stori
sdet
ermi
nedbyusi
ngt
heohm’
slaw

equat
ion.

Wher
eR=Resi
stance,
V=Vol
tage,
I=El
ect
ri
ccur
rent

Theel
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowi
ngt
hroughar
esi
stori
sinv
ersel
ypr
opor
ti
onal
tot
her
esi
stanceofa

r
esi
storanddi
rect
lypr
opor
ti
onal
tot
hev
olt
ageappl
i
edacr
osst
her
esi
stor
.

I
not
herwor
ds,
theamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowi
ngt
hrought
her
esi
stordecr
easeswi
th

4
i
ncr
easi
ngt
her
esi
stanceofar
esi
stor(
ifv
olt
ageappl
i
edacr
ossr
esi
stori
skeptconst
ant
)and

i
ncr
easeswi
thi
ncr
easi
ngt
hev
olt
ageappl
i
edacr
osst
her
esi
stor(
ifr
esi
stanceofar
esi
stori
s

keptconst
ant
).

Whati
sresi
stor
?

Resi
stor
sar
ethemostcommonl
yusedel
ect
roni
ccomponent
sint
heci
rcui
ts.Ar
esi
stori
san

el
ect
roni
ccomponentt
hatr
educesorr
est
ri
ctst
hef
lowofel
ect
ronsorel
ect
ri
ccur
rentt
ocer
tai
n

l
evel
.

Howmuchel
ect
ri
ccur
rentdoesar
esi
storbl
ocksi
sdependsont
her
esi
stanceofar
esi
stor
.The

r
esi
stor
swi
thmor
eresi
stancewi
l
lbl
ockl
argeamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentandal
l
owsv
erysmal
l

amountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Ther
esi
stor
swi
thl
essr
esi
stancewi
l
lbl
ockv
erysmal
lamountof

el
ect
ri
ccur
rentandal
l
owsl
argeamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Theel
ect
ri
ccur
rentbl
ockedbyt
he

r
esi
stori
swast
edi
nthef
orm ofheat
.

Resi
stor
sar
ethepassi
vecomponent
s.Hence,
theycannotcont
rol
thef
lowofel
ect
ronsor

el
ect
ri
ccur
rentt
hrought
hem.Howev
er,
theycanr
est
ri
ctt
heel
ect
ri
ccur
rentt
ocer
tai
nlev
el.

Resi
storci
rcui
tsy
mbol

Theci
rcui
tsy
mbol
ofr
esi
stori
sshowni
nbel
owf
igur
e.Ther
esi
storconsi
stsoft
wot
ermi
nal
s.

Thet
ermi
nal
soft
her
esi
stor
sar
eusedt
oconnectwi
thot
hercomponent
sthr
oughanel
ect
ri
cal

wi
re.

Uni
tsofr
esi
stor

Theamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentbl
ockedbyt
her
esi
stori
smeasur
edi
nohmsandi
tisr
epr
esent
ed

5
byasy
mbol
Ω.Ohm i
stheamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentbl
ockedbyt
her
esi
storandal
l
owedone

amper
eofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentwhenaappl
i
edv
olt
ageofonev
olti
skeptconst
ant
.

Resi
storbel
ongst
owhi
chcat
egor
y:i
nsul
ator
sorconduct
ors

Weknowt
hatmat
eri
alsar
emai
nlycl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
wot
ypes:
Insul
ator
sandconduct
ors

I
nsul
ator
sbl
ocksl
argeamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentandal
l
owsv
erysmal
lamountofel
ect
ri
c

cur
rentwher
easconduct
orsal
l
owsl
argeamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentandbl
ocksv
erysmal
l

amountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.

Resi
stor
swi
thmor
eresi
stanceactasi
nsul
ator
swher
east
her
esi
stor
swi
thl
essr
esi
stanceact

asconduct
ors.

Resi
stanceofar
esi
stori
smai
nlydependsont
wof
act
ors:
lengt
handcr
osssect
ional
area

Lengt
hofr
esi
stor

Ther
esi
stanceofar
esi
stori
sdi
rect
lypr
opor
ti
onal
tot
hel
engt
hofar
esi
stor
.Thel
ongl
engt
h

r
esi
stor
sof
ferhi
ghr
esi
stancebecauset
hef
reeel
ect
ronshav
etot
rav
ell
argedi
stance.Hence,
a

l
argenumberoff
reeel
ect
ronscol
l
idewi
tht
heat
oms.Ther
efor
e,l
argeamountofener
gyor

el
ect
ri
ccur
rentwi
l
lbewast
edi
nthef
orm ofheat
.

Theshor
tlengt
hresi
stor
sof
ferl
owr
esi
stancebecauset
hef
reeel
ect
ronshav
etot
rav
elonl
ya

shor
tdi
stance.Hence,
asmal
lnumberoff
reeel
ect
ronscol
l
idest
heat
oms.Ther
efor
e,onl
ya

smal
lamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
renti
swast
edi
nthef
orm ofheat
.

Cr
osssect
ional
areaofr
esi
stor

Ther
esi
stanceofar
esi
stori
sinv
ersel
ypr
opor
ti
onal
tot
hecr
osssect
ional
areaofr
esi
stor
.The

r
esi
stor
swi
thl
argecr
osssect
ional
areapr
ovi
demor
espacef
ort
hef
reeel
ect
ronst
omov
efr
eel
y.

Hence,
thecol
l
isi
onoff
reeel
ect
ronswi
tht
heat
omsi
sless.Ther
efor
e,v
erysmal
lamountof

6
el
ect
ri
ccur
renti
swast
ed.

Ther
esi
stor
swi
thsmal
lcr
osssect
ional
areapr
ovi
dev
erysmal
lspacef
ort
hef
reeel
ect
rons.

Hence,
thecol
l
isi
onoff
reeel
ect
ronswi
tht
heat
omsi
smor
e.Ther
efor
e,l
argeamountofel
ect
ri
c

cur
renti
swast
ed.

Adv
ant
agesanddi
sadv
ant
agesofr
esi
stor
s

Adv
ant
agesofr
esi
stor
s

Resi
stor
sar
ever
ysmal
l
.Hence,
iti
sver
yeasyt
ocar
ryt
hem f
rom onepl
acet
oanot
herpl
ace.

Resi
stor
sar
ever
ycheap.Hence,
iti
seasyt
orepl
acet
hem.

Resi
stor
sdonotdependont
heext
ernal
sour
ceofv
olt
age.Hence,
ext
ernal
vol
tageorener
gyi
s

notneededf
oroper
ati
ngt
her
esi
stor
s.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofr
esi
stor
s

Resi
stor
swi
thhi
ghr
esi
stancewi
l
lopposel
argeamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Hence,
lar
geamount

ofener
gyi
swast
edi
nthef
orm ofheat
.

Typesofresi
stor
sbasedon
resi
stance
Reduci
ngt
hef
lowofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentorf
lowofel
ect
ronst
oacer
tai
nlev
eli
scal
l
edr
esi
stanceand

t
hedev
iceusedt
oreducet
hef
lowofel
ect
ri
ccur
renti
scal
l
edr
esi
stor
.

Resi
stori
sasmal
lel
ect
roni
ccomponentt
hatr
est
ri
ctst
hef
lowofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentt
ocer
tai
nlev
el

andbey
ondt
hat
,itdoesnotal
l
owt
heel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.

7
Theamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowi
ngt
hroughar
esi
stori
smai
nlydependsont
her
esi
stanceof

ar
esi
stor
.Ther
esi
stor
swi
thhi
ghr
esi
stancewi
l
lopposeorbl
ockl
argeamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rent

andal
l
owssmal
lamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Ther
esi
stor
swi
thl
essr
esi
stancewi
l
lopposesmal
l

amountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentandal
l
owsl
argeamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.

Resi
stor
sar
emai
nlycl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
wot
ypes:

Fi
xedr
esi
stor
s

Var
iabl
eresi
stor
s

Fi
xedr
esi
stor
s

Fi
xedr
esi
stor
sar
ethemostcommonl
yusedr
esi
stor
sint
heel
ect
roni
cci
rcui
ts.Ast
hename

i
ndi
cat
es,
fixedr
esi
stor
shav
eaf
ixedr
esi
stancev
alue.I
tisnotpossi
blet
ochanget
her
esi
stance

oft
hef
ixedr
esi
stor
s.

Fi
xedr
esi
stordef
ini
ti
on

Fi
xedr
esi
stori
sat
ypeofr
esi
stort
hatpr
ovi
desf
ixedr
esi
stancet
otheel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Inot
her

wor
ds,
theamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowi
ngt
hroughar
esi
stori
sreducedt
oaf
ixedl
evel
andi
t

coul
dnotbev
ari
ed(
Ift
heappl
i
edv
olt
agei
sconst
ant
).

Exampl
e:

Forexample, ifthef i
xedr esist
orhasar esi
stanceof100KΩ, it
provi
desonl y100KΩofr esist
ancet otheelectri
ccurrent.I
fwe
wantmor er esistancet oreducet heflowofel ect
riccurrent
,then
weneedt or eplacet heexi sti
ngresistorwit
hanot herresist
or,
whichprovideshi ghr esistancethan100KΩr esi
stor
.Simi l
arl
y,i
f
wewantl essr esistancet han100KΩ, t
henweneedt oreplace

8
t
heexist
ingresi
storwi
thanotherr
esi
stor
,whi
chpr
ovi
desl
ess
r
esi
stancethan100KΩresi
stor.

Resist
anceofaf
ixedr
esi
stori
sindependentoft
emper
atur
eor
vol
tage

Ther
esi
stanceofaf
ixedr
esi
stordoesnotchangewi
thi
ncr
easei
nvol
tage.Hence,
afi
xed

amountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowst
hrought
hef
ixedr
esi
stor
.

Themostcommonr
esi
stancev
alueofaf
ixedr
esi
st s10Ω,
ori 100Ω,
10KΩ,
and
100KΩ.Thecostofthefixedresistorishi ghcompar edt othe
costofvar
iabl
eresi
stor,
becauset ochanget her esist ancewe
needtobuyanotherfi
xedr esi
stor.Theresi
stanceval
ueofaresist
orcanbe

measur
edbyusi
ngt
heohmmet
er.

Fi
xedr
esi
storsy
mbol

TheAmer
icanst
andar
dandI
EC(
Int
ernat
ional
Elect
ro-
techni
cal
Commi
ssi
on)st
andar
dfi
xed

r
esi
storsy
mbol
isshowni
nthebel
owf
i e.T
gur hef
ixedr
esi
storconsi
stsoft
wo
ter
minals.Thetwoter
minal
softhefi
xedresi
stori
susedt
o
connectwiththeot
hercomponent
sinthecir
cuit
.

Ty
pesoff
ixedr
esi
stor
s

9
Thev ar
ioustypesoffi
xedresi
storsi
ncl
udecarboncomposi
ti
on,
carbonfil
m,carbonpil
e,metalf
il
m, met
aloxi
def i
l
m,wir
ewound,
thi
ckandt hi
nf i
lm,andgr
idresi
stor.

Var
iabl
eresi
stor
s

Ast
henamei
ndi
cat
es,
var
iabl
eresi
stor
shav
eachangeabl
eresi
stancev
alue.Wecanchanget
he

r
esi
stanceofav
ari
abl
eresi
stort
oadesi
redv
alueatanyt
ime.Thev
ari
abl
eresi
stor
sar
eusedi
f

wedonotknowwhatexactr
esi
stancev
aluewewant
.

Unl
i
ket
hef
ixedr
esi
stor
,thev
ari
abl
eresi
storcont
rol
sthef
lowofel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Ift
her
esi
stance

ofav
ari
abl
eresi
stori
sincr
eased,
theamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowst
hrought
her
esi
stor

decr
eases.Si
mil
arl
y,i
fther
esi
stanceofav
ari
abl
eresi
stori
sreduced,
theamountofel
ect
ri
c

cur
rentf
lowst
hrought
her
esi
stori
ncr
eases.

Var
iabl
eresi
stordef
ini
ti
on

Thev
ari
abl
eresi
stori
sanel
ect
roni
ccomponentt
hatcont
rol
stheel
ect
ri
ccur
rentbyv
ary
ingt
he

r
esi
stanceoft
hev
ari
abl
eresi
stor
.Inot
herwor
ds,
theamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowi
ngt
hrough

t
her
esi
storcanbei
ncr
easedordecr
eased,
ifwev
aryt
her
esi
stanceoft
hev
ari
abl
eresi
stor
.

Ifweincreasetheresi
stanceoft hev ariableresi
stor
,theelect
ri
c
curr
entflowthroughtheresist
ordecr eases.Similar
ly,
ifwe
decreasetheresi
stanceofthev ariabler esi
stor,
theelect
ri
c
curr
entflowthroughtheresist
ori ncreases.

Var
iabl
eresi
storsy
mbol

TheAmer
icanst
andar
dandI
EC(
Int
ernat
ional
Elect
ro-
techni
cal
Commi
ssi
on)st
andar
dvar
iabl
e

r
esi
storsy
mbol
isshowni
nthebel
owf
igur
e.

10
Thr
eet
ermi
nal
sofv
ari
abl
eresi
stor

Var
iabl
eresi
stor
sconsi
stoft
hreet
ermi
nal
samongwhi
cht
woar
efi
xedandonei
schangeabl
e.

Twof
ixedt
ermi
nal
sar
econnect
edt
oar
esi
sti
veel
ementort
rackandonev
ari
abl
eter
minal
is

connect
edt
oawi
perorbr
ush.Thet
rackorr
esi
sti
veel
ementi
sther
esi
sti
vepat
hthr
oughwhi
ch

t
heel
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lows.Thewi
perorbr
ushi
susedt
ovar
yther
esi
stanceoft
her
esi
stor
.

Resi
stanceofav
ari
abl
eresi
stori
sindependentoft
emper
atur
e
orvol
tage

11
Ther
esi
stanceofav
ari
abl
eresi
stordoesnotchangewi
thi
ncr
easei
nvol
tage.Hence,
afi
xed

amountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowst
hrought
hev
ari
abl
eresi
stor
.

I
fwev
aryt
her
esi
stanceoft
hev
ari
abl
eresi
stor
,theamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowi
ngt
hrougha

v
ari
abl
eresi
stori
ncr
easesordecr
eases.

Appl
i
cat
ionsofv
ari
abl
eresi
stor
s

Thev
ari
ousappl
i
cat
ionsofv
ari
abl
eresi
stor
sincl
ude:

TVr
ecei
ver
s

Osci
l
lat
ors

Tr
ansducer
s

Audi
ocont
rol

Ty
pesofv
ari
abl
eresi
stor
s

Thev
ari
oust
ypesofv
ari
abl
eresi
stor
sincl
udepot
ent
iomet
er,
tri
mmer
,andr
heost
at.

Fi
xedr
esi
stor
Fi
xedr
esi
stor
sar
ethemostf
requent
lyusedr
esi
stor
sint
heel
ect
roni
cci
rcui
ts.Theser
esi
stor
s

hav
ethef
ixedr
esi
stancev
alue.Hence,
iti
snotpossi
blet
ovar
yther
esi
stanceoft
hef
ixed

r
esi
stor
.

Resi
stancedef
ini
ti
on

Thepr
ocessofr
est
ri
cti
ngt
hef
lowofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentt
ocer
tai
nlev
eli
scal
l
edr
esi
stance.The

dev
iceorcomponentusedt
orest
ri
ctt
hef
lowofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentt
ocer
tai
nlev
eli
scal
l
edr
esi
stor
.

12
Thedev
ice,
whi
chonl
yrest
ri
ctst
hef
lowofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentt
ocer
tai
nlev
elbutdoesnotv
aryor

cont
rol
thef
lowofel
ect
ri
ccur
renti
scal
l
edf
ixedr
esi
stor
.

Fi
xedr
esi
stordef
ini
ti
on

Fi
xedr
esi
stor
sar
ether
esi
stor
swhoser
esi
stancedoesnotchangewi
tht
hechangei
nvol
tageor

t
emper
atur
e.Fi
xedr
esi
stor
sar
eav
ail
abl
einv
ari
ousshapesandsi
zes.

Ani
deal
fixedr
esi
storpr
ovi
desaconst
antr
esi
stanceunderal
lenv
ironment
s.Howev
er,
the

r
esi
stanceoft
hepr
act
ical
resi
stor
svar
iessl
i
ght
lywi
thi
ncr
easei
ntemper
atur
e.

Themostf
requent
lyusedr
esi
stancev
aluesoft
hef
ixedr
esi
stor
sincl
ude100KΩ,
10kΩ,
100Ω,

10Ω.

Thecostoff
ixedr
esi
stor
sishi
ghwhencompar
edt
othecostofv
ari
abl
eresi
stor
s,becauseeach

t
imet
ochanget
her
esi
stanceweneedt
obuyanewf
ixedr
esi
stor
.Incaseofv
ari
abl
eresi
stor
s,

weuseasi
ngl
eresi
storf
ordi
ff
erentr
esi
stancev
alues.Ther
esi
stanceoft
hef
ixedr
esi
stori
s

measur
edbyusi
ngt
heammet
er.

Sy
mbol
off
ixedr
esi
stor

TheI
EC(
Int
ernat
ional
Elect
ro-
techni
cal
Commi
ssi
on)st
andar
dandAmer
icanst
andar
dfi
xed

r
esi
storsy
mbol
isshowni
nthebel
owf
igur
e.

13
Af
ixedr
esi
storconsi
stsoft
wot
ermi
nal
s.Thi
stwot
ermi
nal
sar
eusedt
oconnectwi
tht
heot
her

component
sint
heel
ect
roni
cci
rcui
t.

Ty
pesoff
ixedr
esi
stor
s

Thedi
ff
erentt
ypesoff
ixedr
esi
stor
sincl
ude:

 Wir
ewoundr esistor
 Car
boncomposi t
ionresi
stor
 Car
bonf i
lmresistor
 Metalfi
lmresi
stor
 Metaloxi
defil
mr esist
or
 Metalgl
azeresistor
 Foi
lresi
stor

 Wi
rewoundr
esi
stor

Thewi
rewoundr
esi
stori
sat
ypeofpassi
vecomponent
,whi
chi
smadebywi
ndi
ngt
hemet
alwi
re

ar
oundamet
alcor
e.Themet
alwi
react
sast
her
esi
sti
veel
ementt
otheel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Hence,

t
hemet
alwi
rer
est
ri
ctst
heel
ect
ri
ccur
rentt
ocer
tai
nlev
el.Themet
alcor
eact
sast
henon-

conduct
ivemat
eri
al.Hence,
itdoesnotal
l
owel
ect
ri
ccur
rentt
hroughi
t.

14
Amangani
norni
chr
omei
sgener
all
yusedast
hemet
alwi
resbecauset
heypr
ovi
dehi
gh

r
esi
stancet
otheel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.

 Car
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
stor

Thecar
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
stori
sat
ypeofpassi
vecomponent
,whi
chr
est
ri
ctst
hef
lowof

el
ect
ri
ccur
rentt
ocer
tai
nlev
el.

Thecar
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
stor
sar
emadef
rom acy
li
ndr
ical
resi
sti
veel
ementwi
thembedded

met
alendcaps.Thecy
li
ndr
ical
resi
sti
veel
ementoft
hecar
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
stori
smade

f
rom t
hemi
xtur
eofcar
bonpowderandcer
ami
c.Thecar
bonpowderact
sast
hegoodconduct
or

ofel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.

15
Thecar
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
stor
sar
ethemostf
requent
lyusedr
esi
stor
sint
he1960’
sandear
li
er.

Howev
er,
nowaday
stheser
esi
stor
sar
erar
elyusedbecauseofi
tshi
ghcostandl
owst
abi
l
ity
.

 Car
bonf
il
mresi
stor

Car
bonf
il
mresi
stor
sar
ethemostwi
del
yusedr
esi
stor
sint
heel
ect
roni
cci
rcui
ts.Thecar
bonf
il
m

r
esi
stor
sar
emadebypl
aci
ngt
hecar
bonf
il
m onacer
ami
csubst
rat
e.Thecar
bonf
il
m act
sast
he

r
esi
sti
veel
ementt
otheel
ect
ri
ccur
rentandt
hecer
ami
csubst
rat
eact
sast
hei
nsul
ati
ngmat
eri
al

t
otheel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.

16
Themet
all
i
cendcapsar
efi
tt
edatbot
hendsoft
her
esi
sti
veel
ement
.Thel
eadsmadeofcopper

ar
ejoi
nedatt
woendsoft
heseendcaps.Thecar
bonf
il
mresi
stor
spr
oducel
essnoi
set
han

car
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
stor
.

 Met
alf
il
mresi
stor

Themet
alf
il
mresi
stori
sat
ypeofpassi
vecomponenti
nwhi
chmet
alf
il
misusedt
orest
ri
ctt
he

f
lowofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentt
ocer
tai
nlev
el.Theconst
ruct
ionofmet
alf
il
mresi
stori
sal
mostsi
mil
art
o

t
hecar
bonf
il
mresi
stor
.Theonl
ydi
ff
erencei
sthemat
eri
alusedf
orconst
ruct
ingt
hef
il
m.I
n

car
bonf
il
mresi
stor
s,t
hef
il
misconst
ruct
edbyusi
ngcar
bonwher
easi
nmet
alf
il
mresi
stor
sthe

f
il
misconst
ruct
edbyusi
ngni
ckel
chr
omi
um ort
inandant
imony
.

Met
alf
il
mresi
stor
shav
elowTCR(
Temper
atur
eCo-
eff
ici
entofResi
stance)
.Ther
ateatwhi
cht
he

r
esi
stanceoft
hemat
eri
alchangeswi
thi
ncr
easei
ntemper
atur
eiscal
l
edTCR.

 Met
aloxi
def
il
mresi
stor

Themet
aloxi
def
il
mresi
stori
sat
ypeofpassi
vecomponenti
nwhi
chmet
aloxi
def
il
misusedas

t
her
esi
sti
veel
ementt
orest
ri
ctt
hef
lowofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentt
ocer
tai
nlev
el.

Theconst
ruct
ionofmet
aloxi
def
il
mresi
stori
sal
mostsi
mil
art
othemet
alf
il
mresi
stor
.Theonl
y

di
ff
erencei
sthemat
eri
alusedf
orconst
ruct
ingt
hef
il
m.I
nmet
alf
il
mresi
stor
,thef
il
mis

const
ruct
edbyusi
ngt
hemet
alssuchasni
ckel
chr
omi
um wher
easi
nmet
aloxi
def
il
mresi
stor
s,

t
hef
il
misconst
ruct
edbyusi
ngt
hemet
aloxi
desuchast
inoxi
de.

Thecostofmet
aloxi
def
il
mresi
stori
slowcompar
edt
othecar
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
stor
.These

r
esi
stor
soper
ateathi
ght
emper
atur
es.

 Met
algl
azer
esi
stor

Themet
algl
azer
esi
stori
sat
ypeofpassi
vecomponenti
nwhi
chgl
asspowderandmet
al

17
par
ti
clesmi
xtur
eisusedt
orest
ri
ctt
hef
lowofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentt
ocer
tai
nlev
el.

Met
algl
azer
esi
stor
shav
elowTCR(
Temper
atur
eCo-
eff
ici
entofResi
stance)
.Ther
ateatwhi
ch

t
her
esi
stanceoft
hemat
eri
alchangeswi
thi
ncr
easei
ntemper
atur
eiscal
l
edTCR.

 Foi
lresi
stor

Foi
lresi
stor
sar
ethemostaccur
ateandst
abl
ecomponent
susedt
orest
ri
ctt
hef
lowofel
ect
ri
c

cur
rentt
ocer
tai
nlev
el.Foi
lresi
stor
spr
oducel
ownoi
secompar
edt
otheot
hert
ypesofr
esi
stor
s.

Theser
esi
stor
sar
eal
socal
l
edhi
ghpr
eci
sionr
esi
stor
s.Foi
lresi
stor
shav
elowTCR(
Temper
atur
e

Co-
eff
ici
entofResi
stance.

Var
iabl
eresi
stor
Var
iabl
eresi
storov
erv
iew

Ast
henamei
mpl
i
es,
ther
esi
stanceoft
hev
ari
abl
eresi
stori
schangeabl
e.I
tiseasyt
ovar
yor

changet
her
esi
stanceofav
ari
abl
eresi
stort
oadesi
redv
alue.Var
iabl
eresi
stor
sar
emost
lyused

whent
heuserdonotknowwhatexactr
esi
stancev
aluedoeshewant
.

Thepr
ocessofl
i
mit
ingorr
est
ri
cti
ngt
heel
ect
ri
ccur
rentt
oacer
tai
nlev
eli
scal
l
edr
esi
stance.

Thedev
ice,
whi
chi
susedt
orest
ri
ctt
hef
lowofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentt
ocer
tai
nlev
el,
iscal
l
edr
esi
stor
.

Thedev
ice,
whi
chnotonl
yrest
ri
ctst
hef
lowofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentbutal
socont
rol
(incr
easeand

decr
ease)t
hef
lowofel
ect
ri
ccur
renti
scal
l
edv
ari
abl
eresi
stor
.

Whenwev
aryt
her
esi
stanceofav
ari
abl
eresi
stort
oahi
gherr
esi
stancev
alue,
theel
ect
ri
c

cur
rentf
lowi
ngt
hrought
hev
ari
abl
eresi
storwi
l
ldecr
ease.I
nthesi
mil
arway
,whenwev
aryt
he

r
esi
stanceofav
ari
abl
eresi
stort
oal
owerr
esi
stancev
alue,
theel
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowi
ngt
hrough

t
hev
ari
abl
eresi
storwi
l
lincr
ease.

18
Var
iabl
eresi
stordef
ini
ti
on

Thev
ari
abl
eresi
stori
sar
esi
stort
hatcont
rol
s(i
ncr
easeordecr
ease)t
hef
lowofel
ect
ri
ccur
rent

whenwev
aryorchangei
tsr
esi
stance.I
not
herwor
ds,
whenwev
aryt
her
esi
stanceoft
he

v
ari
abl
eresi
stor
,theel
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowi
ngt
hroughi
twi
l
lincr
easeordecr
ease.

Var
iabl
eresi
storsy
mbol

TheAmer
icanst
andar
dsy
mbol
andt
hei
nter
nat
ional
standar
dsy
mbol
oft
hev
ari
abl
eresi
stori
s

showni
nthebel
owf
igur
e.

Ty
pesofv
ari
abl
eresi
stor
s

Thedi
ff
erentt
ypesofv
ari
abl
eresi
stor
sincl
ude:

 Potenti
omet er
 Rheostat
 Thermistor
 Magnet oresist
or
 Photoresist
or
 Humi st
or

19
  For
cesensi
ti
ver
esi
stor

Pot
ent
iomet
er

Thepot
ent
iomet
erconsi
stsoft
hreet
ermi
nal
samongwhi
cht
woar
efi
xedandonei
schangeabl
e.

Thet
wof
ixedt
ermi
nal
soft
hepot
ent
iomet
erar
econnect
edt
obot
hendsoft
her
esi
sti
veel
ement

cal
l
edt
rackandt
hir
dter
minal
isconnect
edt
othesl
i
derorsl
i
dingwi
per
.Thesl
i
derorwi
per

mov
ingal
ongt
her
esi
sti
vet
rackchangest
her
esi
stanceoft
hepot
ent
iomet
er.Ther
esi
stanceof

t
hepot
ent
iomet
eri
schangedwhent
hewi
peri
smov
edov
ert
her
esi
sti
vepat
h.

Whenwei
ncr
easet
her
esi
stanceoft
hepot
ent
iomet
er,
theel
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowi
ngt
hrought
he

pot
ent
iomet
erwi
l
ldecr
ease.I
nthesi
mil
arway
,whenwedecr
easet
her
esi
stanceoft
he

pot
ent
iomet
er,
theel
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowi
ngt
hrought
hepot
ent
iomet
erwi
l
lincr
ease.

Rheost
at

Thewor
drheost
ati
sder
ivedf
rom t
heGr
eekwor
d“r
heos”and“
-st
ati
s”whi
chmeansacur
rent

cont
rol
l
ingdev
iceorast
ream cont
rol
l
ingdev
ice.

20
Theconst
ruct
ionofr
heost
ati
sal
mostsi
mil
art
othepot
ent
iomet
er.Li
ket
hepot
ent
iomet
er,
the

r
heost
atal
soconsi
stsoft
hreet
ermi
nal
s.Howev
er,
inr
heost
atweuseonl
ytwot
ermi
nal
sfor

per
for
mingt
heoper
ati
on.

Ther
esi
stanceoft
her
heost
ati
sdependsont
hel
engt
hoft
her
esi
sti
veel
ementort
rackt
hrough

whi
cht
heel
ect
ri
ccur
renti
sfl
owi
ng.

I
fweuset
het
ermi
nal
sAandBi
nther
heost
at(
asshowni
nbel
owf
igur
e),
themi
nimum

r
esi
stancei
sachi
evedwhenwemov
ethewi
percl
oset
othet
ermi
nal
A,becauset
hel
engt
hoft
he

r
esi
sti
vepat
hdecr
eases.Asar
esul
t,onl
yasmal
lamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
renti
sbl
ockedandl
arge

amountofel
ect
ri
ccur
renti
sal
l
owed.

I
nthesi
mil
arway
,themaxi
mum r
esi
stancei
sachi
evedwhenwemov
ethewi
percl
oset
o

t
ermi
nal
C,becauset
hel
engt
hoft
her
esi
sti
vepat
hincr
eases.Asar
esul
t,al
argeamountof

el
ect
ri
ccur
renti
sbl
ockedandonl
yasmal
lamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
renti
sal
l
owed.

Ther
mist
or

Thewor
dther
mist
ori
sder
ivedf
rom t
hecombi
nat
ionofwor
ds:
ther
mal
andr
esi
stor
.Iti
sat
ype

ofr
esi
storwhoser
esi
stancechangeswhent
hesur
roundi
ngt
emper
atur
echanges.

Ther
mist
orsar
eoft
wot
ypes:
negat
ivet
emper
atur
eco-
eff
ici
ent(
NTC)t
her
mist
orsandposi
ti
ve

21
t
emper
atur
eco-
eff
ici
ent(
PTC)t
her
mist
ors.

Ther
esi
stanceoft
heNTCt
her
mist
orsdecr
easeswhent
het
emper
atur
eincr
easeswher
east
he

r
esi
stanceoft
hePTCt
her
mist
orsi
ncr
easeswhent
het
emper
atur
eincr
eases.

Magnet
oresi
stor

Ther
esi
stanceoft
hemagnet
oresi
storchangeswhent
hemagnet
icf
iel
disappl
i
edt
oit
.When

t
hest
rengt
hoft
hemagnet
icf
iel
dappl
i
edt
othemagnet
oresi
stori
sincr
eased,
ther
esi
stanceof

t
hemagnet
oresi
storal
soi
ncr
eased.I
nthesi
mil
arway
,whent
hest
rengt
hoft
hemagnet
icf
iel
d

appl
i
edt
othemagnet
oresi
stori
sdecr
eased,
ther
esi
stanceoft
hemagnet
oresi
storal
so

decr
eased.

Phot
oresi
stor

Thewor
dphot
oresi
stori
sder
ivedf
rom t
hecombi
nat
ionofwor
ds:
phot
onandr
esi
stor
.When

l
i
ghtener
gyi
sappl
i
edt
othephot
oresi
stor
,it
sresi
stancechanges.Ther
esi
stanceoft
he

phot
oresi
stordecr
easeswhent
hei
ntensi
tyofappl
i
edl
i
ghti
ncr
eases.Phot
oresi
stor
sar
eoft
wo

t
ypesbasedont
hemat
eri
alusedt
oconst
ructt
hem:
int
ri
nsi
cphot
oresi
stor
sandext
ri
nsi
c

phot
oresi
stor
s.

22
Phot
oresi
stor
sar
eal
soknownasl
i
ghtdependentr
esi
stor
s,semi
conduct
orphot
oresi
stor
s,or

phot
oconduct
ors.

Humi
stor

Thenamehumi
stori
sder
ivedf
rom t
hecombi
nat
ionofwor
ds:
humi
dit
yandr
esi
stor
.Humi
stor
s

ar
ever
ysensi
ti
vet
othehumi
dit
y.Ther
esi
stanceoft
hehumi
storchangeswi
tht
hesl
i
ghtchange

i
nthehumi
dit
yoft
hesur
roundi
ngai
r.Humi
stor
sar
eal
soknownasr
esi
sti
vehumi
dit
ysensor
sor

humi
dit
ysensi
ti
ver
esi
stor
s.

For
cesensi
ti
ver
esi
stor
s

Thenamei
tsel
fsuggest
sthat
,thef
orcesensi
ti
ver
esi
stor
sar
ever
ysensi
ti
vet
otheappl
i
edf
orce.

Whenweappl
yfor
cet
othef
orcesensi
ti
ver
esi
stor
,it
sresi
stancechangesr
api
dly
.For
ce

sensi
ti
ver
esi
stor
sar
eal
soknownasf
orcesensor
s,pr
essur
esensor
,for
ce-
sensi
ngr
esi
stor
s,or

FSR.

Wi
rewoundr
esi
stor
Wi
rewoundr
esi
stordef
ini
ti
on

Wir
ewoundr esi
storisat y
peofpassi
vecomponenti
nwhich
metalwi
resareusedt oreduceorr
est
ri
ctthef
lowofelect
ri
c
cur
rentt
oacer t
ainlevel
.

Const
ruct
ionofwi
rewoundr
esi
stor

Thewi
rewoundr
esi
stori
smadebywi
ndi
ngt
hemet
alwi
rear
oundamet
alcor
e.I
nwi
rewound

23
r
esi
stor
s,met
alwi
rei
susedast
her
esi
stanceel
ementandmet
alcor
eisusedast
henon-

conduct
ivemat
eri
al.

ANi
chr
omeormangani
niscommonl
yusedast
hemet
alwi
res,
becauset
heypr
ovi
dehi
gh

r
esi
stancet
otheel
ect
ri
ccur
rentandoper
atesathi
ght
emper
atur
e.Mostcommonl
yusedcor
e

mat
eri
alsi
ncl
udepl
ast
ic,
fiber
glass,
orcer
ami
c.

Thewoundedwi
rei
scov
eredwi
thani
nsul
ati
ngmat
eri
alsuchasv
itr
eousenamel
,whi
chopposes

orbl
ockst
heout
sideheat
.Thi
sst
epi
stakent
oachi
evehi
ghst
abi
l
ity
.Hence,
evenathi
gh

t
emper
atur
eheatdoesnotent
eri
ntot
hewi
rewoundr
esi
stor
.Thus,
thewi
rewoundr
esi
stor
s

oper
atesathi
ght
emper
atur
e.

Thewi
rewoundr
esi
stor
scanr
angef
rom smal
lsur
facemountcomponent
stoal
arget
ubul
ar

powerr
esi
stor
.Theser
esi
stor
sar
eusedi
ntheel
ect
roni
cinst
rument
sandequi
pment
swher
e

hi
ghaccur
acyandmor
epowerdi
ssi
pat
ionar
erequi
red.Thewi
rewoundr
esi
stori
smor
e

pr
efer
redov
ert
hemet
aloxi
der
esi
stor
sbecauseofi
tshi
ghst
abi
l
ityathi
ghert
emper
atur
eand

smal
l
ersi
ze.

Resi
stanceoft
hewi
rewoundr
esi
stori
sdependsont
hreef
act
ors:
resi
sti
vi
tyoft
hemet
alwi
re,

l
engt
hoft
hemet
alwi
reandcr
osssect
ional
areaoft
hemet
alwi
re

24
Ther
esi
stanceoft
hewi
rewoundr
esi
stori
sdependsont
her
esi
sti
vi
tyoft
hemet
alwi
re,
lengt
hof

t
hemet
alwi
re,
andcr
osssect
ional
areaoft
hemet
alwi
re.

Resi
sti
vi
tyoft
hemet
alwi
re

Ther
esi
stanceoft
hewi
rewoundr
esi
stori
sdi
rect
lypr
opor
ti
onal
tot
her
esi
sti
vi
tyoft
hemet
al

wi
re.

Amet
alwi
rewi
thhi
ghr
esi
stanceopposesorbl
ocksl
argeamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Ther
efor
e,

t
hewi
rewoundr
esi
storpr
ovi
deshi
ghr
esi
stancet
otheel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.

Ont
heot
herhand,
amet
alwi
rewi
thl
owr
esi
stancebl
ockssmal
lamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.

Ther
efor
e,t
hewi
rewoundr
esi
storpr
ovi
desl
owr
esi
stancet
otheel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.

Lengt
hoft
hemet
alwi
re

Ther
esi
stanceoft
hewi
rewoundr
esi
stori
sdi
rect
lypr
opor
ti
onal
tot
hel
engt
hoft
hemet
alwi
re.

Thel
ongl
engt
hmet
alwi
resof
ferhi
ghr
esi
stancebecauset
hef
reeel
ect
ronshav
etot
rav
ell
arge

di
stance.Hence,
thepossi
bil
i
tyofel
ect
ronscol
l
isi
onwi
tht
heat
omsi
shi
gh.Ther
efor
e,al
arge

numberoff
reeel
ect
ronscol
l
idewi
tht
heat
oms.Thel
argenumberoff
reeel
ect
ronscol
l
idi
ngwi
th

t
heat
omsl
osest
hei
rener
gyi
nthef
orm ofheatandt
her
emai
ningsmal
lnumberoff
ree

el
ect
ronsmov
esf
reel
ybycar
ryi
ngt
heel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Ther
efor
e,onl
yasmal
lnumberoff
ree

el
ect
ronsorsmal
lamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowst
hrought
hewi
rewoundr
esi
stor
.

Theshor
tlengt
hmet
alwi
resof
ferl
owr
esi
stancebecauset
hef
reeel
ect
ronshav
etot
rav
elonl
ya

smal
ldi
stance.Hence,
thepossi
bil
i
tyofel
ect
ronscol
l
isi
onwi
tht
heat
omsi
slow.Ther
efor
e,onl
y

asmal
lnumberoff
reeel
ect
ronscol
l
idewi
tht
heat
oms.Thesmal
lnumberoff
reeel
ect
rons

col
l
idi
ngwi
tht
heat
omsl
osest
hei
rener
gyi
nthef
orm ofheatandt
her
emai
ningl
argenumberof

f
reeel
ect
ronsmov
esf
reel
ybycar
ryi
ngt
heel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Ther
efor
e,l
argeamountofel
ect
ri
c

cur
rentf
lowst
hrought
hewi
rewoundr
esi
stor
.

25
Cr
osssect
ional
areaoft
hemet
alwi
re

Ther
esi
stanceofawi
rewoundr
esi
stori
sinv
ersel
ypr
opor
ti
onal
tot
hecr
osssect
ional
areaof

t
hemet
alwi
re.

Themet
alwi
reswi
thsmal
lcr
osssect
ional
areapr
ovi
desl
essspacef
ort
hef
reeel
ect
ronst
o

mov
e.Hence,
thepossi
bil
i
tyofel
ect
ronscol
l
isi
onwi
tht
heat
omsi
shi
gh.Ther
efor
e,onl
yasmal
l

el
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowst
hrought
hewi
rewoundr
esi
stor
.

Themet
alwi
reswi
thl
argecr
osssect
ional
areapr
ovi
deenoughspacef
ort
hef
reeel
ect
ronst
o

mov
efr
eel
y.Hence,
thepossi
bil
i
tyofel
ect
ronscol
l
isi
onwi
tht
heat
omsi
slow.Ther
efor
e,l
arge

el
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowst
hrought
hewi
rewoundr
esi
stor
.

Ty
pesofwi
rewoundr
esi
stor
s

Thewi
rewoundr
esi
stor
sar
ecl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
wot
ypes:

 Powerwi
rewoundr
esi
stor

 Pr
eci
sionwi
rewoundr
esi
stor

Powerwi
rewoundr
esi
stor

Powerwi
rewoundr
esi
stor
sar
ethenon-
induct
ivewi
rewoundr
esi
stor
soper
atesathi
gh

t
emper
atur
e.Theser
esi
stor
sar
ecommonl
yusedf
orhi
ghpowerappl
i
cat
ions.

Pr
eci
sionwi
rewoundr
esi
stor

Pr
eci
sionwi
rewoundr
esi
storoper
atesatl
owt
emper
atur
ewi
thhi
ghaccur
acy
.Iti
susedasa

pr
eci
si
onr
esi
stori
ninst
rument
ati
onbecauseofi
tshi
ghaccur
acy
.

26
Appl
i
cat
ionsofwi
rewoundr
esi
stor
s

Thewi
rewoundr
esi
stor
sar
ewi
del
yusedf
orv
ari
ousappl
i
cat
ionssuchas:

 Telecommuni cat i
on
 Comput ers
 Audioandv ideoequi pment s
 Medi cal
electronicequipment s
 Defenseandspace
 Telephoneswi tchingsystems
 Transducersinst r
ument at
ion
 Currentandv oltagebalancing
 Currentsensing

Adv
ant
agesanddi
sadv
ant
agesofwi
rewoundr
esi
stor

Adv
ant
agesofwi
rewoundr
esi
stor

 Lowcost
 Highaccuracy
 Highstabil
i
ty
 Wideresist
ancer
ange

Di
sadv
ant
agesofwi
rewoundr
esi
stor

Thewi
rewoundr
esi
stor
sar
eusedonl
yforl
owf
requenci
es,
iti
snotsui
tabl
eforhi
ghf
requenci
es.

Athi
ghf
requenci
es,
itact
sasi
nduct
or.Hence,
forhi
ghf
requenci
esnon-
induct
ivewi
rewound

r
esi
stor
sar
eused.

Car
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
stor
Car
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
stordef
ini
ti
on

27
Thecarboncomposi
ti
onr
esi
stori
sat ypeoff
ixedr
esist
orthat
reducesorr
est
ri
ctst
heel
ect
ri
ccurrentfl
owtoacertai
nlev
el.

Theser
esi
stor
sar
ethemostcommonl
yusedr
esi
stor
sint
he1960’
sandear
li
er.Howev
er,
now-
a-

day
s,car
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
stor
sar
erar
elyusedbecauseofi
tshi
ghcostandl
owst
abi
l
ity
.The

car
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
stor
sar
eal
socal
l
edcar
boncomposi
ti
onorcar
bonr
esi
stor
s.

Const
ruct
ion

Thecar
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
stor
sar
emadef
rom asol
i
dcy
li
ndr
ical
resi
sti
veel
ementwi
th

embeddedwi
rel
eadsormet
alendcaps.Thecy
li
ndr
ical
resi
sti
veel
ementoft
hecar
bon

composi
ti
onr
esi
stori
smadef
rom t
hemi
xtur
eofcar
bonorgr
aphi
tepowderandcer
ami
c(made

ofcl
ay)
.Thecar
bonpowderact
sast
hegoodconduct
orofel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.

Thesol
i
dcy
li
ndr
ical
resi
sti
veel
ementi
scov
eredwi
thpl
ast
ict
opr
otectt
her
esi
storf
rom out
side

heat
.Thel
eadsmadeofcopperar
ejoi
nedatt
woendsoft
her
esi
sti
veel
ement
.Int
heear
lyday
s,

noi
nsul
ati
ngmat
eri
alsar
eusedi
nthecar
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
stor
s.Hence,
evenatl
ow

t
emper
atur
e,heateasi
l
yent
ersi
ntot
her
esi
storanddamagesi
t.

Thecar boncomposit
ionresist
orsar
eavail
abl
ewithdi
ffer
ent
resi
stancevaluesr
angingfrom oneohm (
1Ω)to22-megaohms

28
(
22MΩ)
.

Resi
stanceoft
hecar
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
stori
sdependsont
hreef
act
ors:
amountofcar
bon

added,
lengt
hofsol
i
dcy
li
ndr
ical
rod,
andcr
osssect
ional
areaoft
hesol
i
dcy
li
ndr
ical
rod

Ther
esi
stanceoft
hecar
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
stori
sdependsont
heamountofcar
bonadded,

l
engt
hofsol
i
dcy
li
ndr
ical
rodandcr
osssect
ional
areaoft
hesol
i
dcy
li
ndr
ical
rod.

Amountofcar
bonadded

Ther
esi
stanceoft
hecar
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
stori
sinv
ersel
ypr
opor
ti
onal
tot
heamountof

car
bonadded.

Weknowt
hatcar
boni
sthegoodconduct
orofel
ect
ri
cit
y.Hence,
ifmor
eamountofcar
boni
s

added,
mor
eamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowsandonl
yasmal
lamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
renti
s

bl
ocked.Thus,
thecar
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
storwi
thmor
ecar
bonhasl
owr
esi
stance.I
fless

amountofcar
boni
sadded,
onl
yasmal
lamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowsandmor
eamountof

el
ect
ri
ccur
renti
sbl
ocked.Thus,
thecar
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
storwi
thl
esscar
bonhasmor
e

r
esi
stance.

Lengt
hofsol
i
dcy
li
ndr
ical
rod

Ther
esi
stanceoft
hecar
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
stori
sdi
rect
lypr
opor
ti
onal
tot
hel
engt
hofsol
i
d

cy
li
ndr
ical
rod.

Thecy
li
ndr
ical
rodwi
thl
ongl
engt
hpr
ovi
deshi
ghr
esi
stancet
otheel
ect
ri
ccur
rentbecauset
he

f
reeel
ect
ronshav
etot
rav
ell
argedi
stance.Hence,
thepossi
bil
i
tyofcol
l
isi
onofel
ect
ronswi
th

t
heat
omsi
shi
gh.Thus,
alar
genumberoff
reeel
ect
ronscol
l
idewi
tht
heat
oms.Thel
arge

numberoff
reeel
ect
rons,
whi
chcol
l
ideswi
tht
heat
omsl
osst
hei
rener
gyi
nthef
orm ofheat
,and

t
her
emai
ningsmal
lnumberoff
reeel
ect
ronsmov
esf
reel
y.Thesmal
lnumberoff
reeel
ect
rons,

whi
chmov
esf
reel
y,wi
l
lcar
ryt
heel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Ther
efor
e,onl
yasmal
lamountofel
ect
ri
c

29
cur
rentf
lowst
hrought
hecar
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
stor
.

Thecy
li
ndr
ical
rodwi
thshor
tlengt
hpr
ovi
desl
owr
esi
stancet
otheel
ect
ri
ccur
rentbecauset
he

f
reeel
ect
ronshav
etot
rav
elonl
yasmal
ldi
stance.Hence,
thepossi
bil
i
tyofcol
l
isi
onofel
ect
rons

wi
tht
heat
omsi
sless.Thus,
onl
yasmal
lnumberoff
reeel
ect
ronscol
l
idewi
tht
heat
oms.The

smal
lnumberoff
reeel
ect
rons,
whi
chcol
l
ideswi
tht
heat
omsl
osst
hei
rener
gyi
nthef
orm of

heat
,andt
her
emai
ningl
argenumberoff
reeel
ect
ronsmov
esf
reel
y.Thel
argenumberoff
ree

el
ect
rons,
whi
chmov
esf
reel
y,wi
l
lcar
ryt
heel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Ther
efor
e,al
argeamountofel
ect
ri
c

cur
rentf
lowst
hrought
hecar
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
stor
.

Cr
osssect
ional
areaoft
hesol
i
dcy
li
ndr
ical
rod

Ther
esi
stanceoft
hecar
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
stori
sinv
ersel
ypr
opor
ti
onal
tot
hecr
osssect
ional

ar
eaoft
hecy
li
ndr
ical
rod.

Thecy
li
ndr
ical
rodwi
thl
argecr
osssect
ional
areapr
ovi
desl
argespacef
ort
hef
reeel
ect
ronst
o

mov
efr
eel
y.Hence,
thepossi
bil
i
tyofcol
l
isi
onoff
reeel
ect
ronswi
tht
heat
omsi
slow.Thus,
a

l
argeamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowst
hrought
hecar
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
stor
.

Thecy
li
ndr
ical
rodwi
thsmal
lcr
osssect
ional
areapr
ovi
desonl
yasmal
lspacef
ort
hef
ree

el
ect
ronst
omov
e.Hence,
thepossi
bil
i
tyofcol
l
isi
onoff
reeel
ect
ronswi
tht
heat
omsi
shi
gh.

Thus,
onl
yasmal
lamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowst
hrought
hecar
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
stor
.

Noi
segener
atedbycar
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
stor

Thecar
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
storgener
atest
wot
ypesofnoi
se:
Johnsonnoi
seort
her
mal
noi
se

andcur
rentnoi
se.

Johnsonnoi
se

30
TheJohnsonnoi
sei
sthet
her
mal
noi
segener
atedbyt
hechar
gecar
ri
ersduet
other
mal
agi
tat
ion.

Cur
rentnoi
se

Thecur
rentnoi
sei
sthenoi
secausedbyi
nter
nal
changesi
nther
esi
storwhencur
renti
sfl
owi
ng

t
hroughi
t.

Adv
ant
agesanddi
sadv
ant
agesofcar
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
stor

Adv
ant
agesofcar
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
stor

 Themajoradvantageofcarboncomposi t
ionresi
stori
sit
s
abi
li
tyt
owi t
hstandathighenergypulses.
 Thecostofcarboncomposi t
ionr
esistori
slow.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofcar
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
stor

 Poorstabil
i
ty:Poorst
abi
li
tyi
st hemajordisadvantageof
carboncompositionr
esi
stor
.Ev enwit
hinashor tperi
od,
resi
stanceofcarboncomposit
ionresi
storwill
change
rapidl
y.

 Gener
atehi
ghnoi
se

 Lowaccur
acy

 Themostcommonpr oblem occurr

edinthecarbon
composit
ionresist
ori
swat erabsorpt
ion.Whenthecar
bon
composit
ionresist
orobser
v eswater,
theresi
stancemay
i
ncreaseordecrease.

Appl
i
cat
ionsofcar
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
stor

31
Thev
ari
ousappl
i
cat
ionsofcar
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
stori
ncl
ude:

 Cur
rentl
i
mit
ing

 Pr
otect
ionofci
rcui
ts

 Hi
ghv
olt
agepowersuppl
i
es

 Wel
dingcont
rol
s

 Carboncomposi
ti
onr
esi
stor
sar
eusedi
nhi
ghf
requency
appli
cat
ions.

Car
bonf
il
mresi
stor
Car
bonf
il
mresi
stordef
ini
ti
on

Thecar
bonf
il
mresi
stori
sat
ypeoff
ixedr
esi
stort
hatusescar
bonf
il
mtor
est
ri
ctt
heel
ect
ri
c

cur
rentt
ocer
tai
nlev
el.Theset
ypesofr
esi
stor
sar
ewi
del
yusedi
ntheel
ect
roni
cci
rcui
ts.

Car
bonf
il
mresi
storconst
ruct
ion

Thecar
bonf
il
mresi
stori
smadebypl
aci
ngt
hecar
bonf
il
m orcar
bonl
ayeronacer
ami
c

subst
rat
e.Thecar
bonf
il
m act
sast
her
esi
sti
vemat
eri
alt
otheel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Hence,
thecar
bon

f
il
m bl
ockssomeamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Thecer
ami
csubst
rat
eact
sast
hei
nsul
ati
ng

mat
eri
alt
otheheatorel
ect
ri
cit
y.Hence,
thecer
ami
csubst
rat
edoesnotal
l
owheatt
hrought
hem.

Ther
efor
e,t
heser
esi
stor
scanwi
thst
andathi
ghert
emper
atur
eswi
thoutanydamage.

32
Met
all
i
cendcapsar
efi
tt
edatbot
hendsoft
her
esi
sti
vemat
eri
al.Thel
eadsmadeofcopperar
e

j
oinedatt
woendsoft
hesemet
all
i
cendcaps.Ther
esi
sti
veel
ementoft
hecar
bonf
il
mresi
stori
s

coat
edwi
thepoxyf
orpr
otect
ion.

Thecar
bonf
il
mresi
stor
sar
emor
epr
efer
redov
ercar
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
stor
sbecauset
he

car
bonf
il
mresi
stor
spr
oducel
essnoi
set
hant
hecar
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
stor
s.

Thecar
bonf
il
mresi
stor
shav
elowt
oler
ancev
aluet
hant
hecar
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
stor
s.The

t
oler
anceofar
esi
stori
sthedi
ff
erencebet
weenourdesi
redr
esi
stancev
al 200Ω)andt
ue( he

act
ual
manuf
act
uredr
esi
stancev
alue(
202.
3Ω)
.Thecar
bonf
il
mresi
stor
sar
eav
ail
abl
eint
he

r
angef
rom 1Ω(
oneohm)t
o10MΩ(
tenmegaohm)
.

Incarbonfil
mr esi
stor,
thedesi
redr esi
stancev al
uecanbe
achievedbyeit
hertrimmingthethicknessofacar bonlay
erorby
cutt
ingthecarbonmet ali
nahel i
cal manneralongitsl
ength.
Thisisgeneral
lydonebyusingthel asers.Thecutti
ngofcarbon
metal i
sstoppedoncet hedesi
redr esi
stancevalueisobt
ained.

Car
bonf
il
mresi
storhashi
ghnegat
ivet
emper
atur
eco-
eff
ici
entofr
esi
stance

33
Therateatwhichther esi
stanceofthemat eri
aldecreaseswith
i
ncreaseintemperatureiscallednegati
vetemper at
ureco-
eff
ici
entofresi
stance.Carbonf il
mresist
orshav ehighnegati
ve
temperatur
eco-eff
ici
entofr esist
ance.Hence,theresist
anceof
thecarbonfi
lmresistorsdecreaseseasil
ywithincreasein
temperatur
e.

Resi
stanceofcar
bonf
il
mresi
stordependsont
het
hicknessofcar
bonf
il
mlay
erandwi
dthof

hel
i
cal
car
bonf
il
m cut

Ther
esi
stanceoft
hecar
bonf
il
mresi
stori
sdependsont
het
hicknessofcar
bonf
il
mlay
erand

t
hewi
dthofhel
i
cal
car
bonf
il
m cut

Car
bonf
il
mlay
er

Ther
esi
stanceoft
hecar
bonf
il
mresi
stori
sinv
ersel
ypr
opor
ti
onal
tot
het
hicknessoft
hecar
bon

f
il
mlay
er.

Car
bonf
il
mlay
erwi
thl
arget
hicknesspr
ovi
desmor
espacef
ort
hef
reeel
ect
ronst
omov
efr
eel
y.

Hence,
thepossi
bil
i
tyoff
reeel
ect
ronscol
l
isi
onwi
tht
heat
omsi
slow.Ther
efor
e,onl
yasmal
l

numberoff
reeel
ect
ronscol
l
idewi
tht
heat
oms.Thesmal
lnumberoff
reeel
ect
rons,
whi
ch

col
l
ideswi
tht
heat
oms,
losest
hei
rener
gyi
nthef
orm ofheatandt
her
emai
ningl
argenumberof

f
reeel
ect
ronsmov
esf
reel
ybycar
ryi
ngt
heel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Ther
efor
e,t
hecar
bonf
il
mresi
stor
s

wi
thv
eryt
hickf
il
mlay
eral
l
owsl
argeamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.

Car
bonf
il
mlay
erwi
thl
esst
hicknesspr
ovi
desl
essspacef
ort
hef
reeel
ect
rons.Hence,
the

possi
bil
i
tyoff
reeel
ect
ronscol
l
isi
onwi
tht
heat
omsi
shi
gh.Ther
efor
e,al
argenumberoff
ree

el
ect
ronscol
l
idewi
tht
heat
oms.Thel
argenumberoff
reeel
ect
rons,
whi
chcol
l
ideswi
tht
he

at
oms,
losest
hei
rener
gyi
nthef
orm ofheatandt
her
emai
ningsmal
lnumberoff
reeel
ect
rons

mov
esf
reel
ybycar
ryi
ngt
heel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Ther
efor
e,t
hecar
bonf
il
mresi
stor
swi
thv
eryt
hin

34
f
il
mlay
eral
l
owonl
yasmal
lamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.

Wi
dthofhel
i
cal
car
bonf
il
m cut

Ther
esi
stanceoft
hecar
bonf
il
mresi
stori
sinv
ersel
ypr
opor
ti
onal
tot
hewi
dthofhel
i
cal
car
bon

f
il
m cut
.

Thehel
i
cal
car
bonf
il
m cutwi
thl
argewi
dthpr
ovi
del
essr
esi
stancet
otheel
ect
ri
ccur
rent

becauset
heel
ect
ri
ccur
renthav
etot
rav
elonl
yasmal
ldi
stancet
hrought
her
esi
sti
vepat
h.Hence,

t
hepossi
bil
i
tyofcol
l
isi
onoff
reeel
ect
ronswi
tht
heat
omsi
sless.Ther
efor
e,onl
yasmal
lnumber

off
reeel
ect
ronscol
l
idewi
tht
heat
omsandt
her
emai
ningl
argenumberoff
reeel
ect
ronsmov
es

f
reel
y.

Thel
argenumberoff
reeel
ect
ronst
hatmov
esf
reel
yfr
om onepl
acet
oanot
herpl
acewi
l
lcar
ry

t
heel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Ther
efor
e,t
hecar
bonf
il
mresi
stor
swi
thwi
dehel
i
cal
car
bonf
il
m cutal
l
ows

l
argeamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.

Thehel
i
cal
car
bonf
il
m cutwi
thl
esswi
dthpr
ovi
demor
eresi
stancet
otheel
ect
ri
ccur
rent

becauset
heel
ect
ri
ccur
renthav
etot
rav
elal
argedi
stancet
hrought
her
esi
sti
vepat
h.Hence,
the

possi
bil
i
tyofcol
l
isi
onoff
reeel
ect
ronswi
tht
heat
omsi
shi
gh.Ther
efor
e,al
argenumberoff
ree

el
ect
ronscol
l
idewi
tht
heat
omsandt
her
emai
ningsmal
lnumberoff
reeel
ect
ronsmov
esf
reel
y.

35
Thesmal
lnumberoff
reeel
ect
ronst
hatmov
esf
reel
yfr
om onepl
acet
oanot
herpl
acewi
l
lcar
ry

t
heel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Ther
efor
e,t
hecar
bonf
il
mresi
stor
swi
thnar
rowhel
i
cal
car
bonf
il
m cutal
l
ow

onl
yasmal
lamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.

Adv
ant
agesanddi
sadv
ant
agesofcar
bonf
il
mresi
stor

Adv
ant
agesofcar
bonf
il
mresi
stor

 Gener
ateslessnoiset
hancar
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
stor
 Lowtol
erance
 Lowcost
 Wideoperati
ngrange

Di
sadv
ant
agesofcar
bonf
il
mresi
stor

 Hi
ghnegat
ivet
emper
atur
eco-
eff
ici
entofr
esi
stance

Appl
i
cat
ionsofcar
bonf
il
mresi
stor

 RADAR
 X-
rays
 Powersuppl
i
es

36
 Met
alf
il
mresi
stor
Met
alf
il
mresi
stordef
ini
ti
on

Ther
esi
storwhi
chusesmet
alf
il
mtol
i
mitt
hef
lowofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentt
ocer
tai
nlev
eli
scal
l
ed

met
alf
il
mresi
stor
.

Met
alf
il
mresi
storconst
ruct
ion

Themet
alf
il
mresi
storconst
ruct
ioni
ssi
mil
art
othecar
bonf
il
mresi
storexceptt
hatt
hemat
eri
al

usedf
orconst
ruct
ingt
hef
il
misdi
ff
erent
.

I
ncar
bonf
il
mresi
stor
s,car
boni
susedt
oconst
ructt
hef
il
m wher
easi
nmet
alf
il
mresi
stor
s,t
in

andant
imonyorni
ckel
chr
omi
um i
susedt
oconst
ructt
hef
il
m.

Themet
alf
il
mresi
stori
smadebypl
aci
ngt
hemet
alf
il
m onacer
ami
csubst
rat
e.Themet
alf
il
m

r
esi
stst
heel
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowi
ngt
hroughi
t.Hence,
itact
sasr
esi
sti
veel
ementt
otheel
ect
ri
c

cur
rent
.

Thecer
ami
csubst
rat
edoesnotal
l
owheatt
hroughi
t.Hence,
itact
sasi
nsul
ati
ngmat
eri
alt
oheat
.

37
Themet
alf
il
mresi
stor
sar
emor
epr
efer
redov
ercar
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
stor
sbecauset
hemet
al

f
il
mresi
stor
sgener
atel
essnoi
set
hant
hecar
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
stor
s.

Themet
alf
il
mresi
stor
shav
elowt
oler
ancev
aluet
hant
hecar
boncomposi
ti
onr
esi
stor
s.The

di
ff
erencebet
weenourdesi
redr
esi
stancev
al 300Ω)andt
ue( heact
ual
manuf
act
uredr
esi
stance

v
alue(
302.
4Ω)i
scal
l
edt
oler
ance.

Inmet alf
il
mr esistor,t
hedesi r
edresistancev al
uecanbe
achi
ev edbyeithert r
immingt hethicknessofmet allayerorby
cutt
ingthemet al f
ilminahel i
calmanneral ongit
slength.Thi
sis
generall
ydonebyusi ngthelasers.Oncet hedesiredresist
ance
val
uei sobtai
ned, thecutti
ngofmet ali
sst opped.

Met
alf
il
mresi
storhasl
owt
emper
atur
eco-
eff
ici
entofr
esi
stance

Ther ateatwhichther esistanceoft hemat er

ialchangeswith
changei ntemperaturei scalledtemperatureco-eff
ici
entof
resi
stance.Met alf
il
mr esistorshavelowt emperatureco-
effi
cientofresi
stance.Hence, theresi
stanceoft hemetalfi
lm
resi
storsdoesnotchangeeasi lywithchangei ntemperat
ure.

Resi
stanceofmet
alf
il
mresi
stordependsont
het
hicknessofmet
alf
il
mlay
erandwi
dthof

hel
i
cal
met
alf
il
m cut

Ther
esi
stanceoft
hemet
alf
il
mresi
stori
sdependsont
het
hicknessofmet
alf
il
mlay
erand

wi
dthofhel
i
cal
met
alf
il
m cut

Met
alf
il
mlay
er

Ther
esi
stanceoft
hemet
alf
il
mresi
stori
sinv
ersel
ypr
opor
ti
onal
tot
het
hicknessoft
hemet
al

f
il
mlay
er.

38
Met
alf
il
mlay
erwi
thmor
ethi
cknesspr
ovi
desl
argespacef
ort
hef
reeel
ect
ronst
omov
efr
eel
y

f
rom onepl
acet
oanot
herpl
ace.Hence,
thepossi
bil
i
tyoff
reeel
ect
ronscol
l
isi
onwi
tht
heat
oms

i
slow.Ther
efor
e,onl
yasmal
lnumberoff
reeel
ect
ronscol
l
idewi
tht
heat
oms.Thesmal
lnumber

off
reeel
ect
rons,
whi
chcol
l
ideswi
tht
heat
oms,
losest
hei
rener
gyandt
her
emai
ningl
arge

numberoff
reeel
ect
ronsmov
esf
reel
ybycar
ryi
ngt
heel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Ther
efor
e,t
hemet
alf
il
m

r
esi
stor
swi
thv
eryt
hickf
il
mlay
eral
l
owsl
argeamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.

Met
alf
il
mlay
erwi
thsmal
lthi
cknesspr
ovi
desl
essspacef
ort
hef
reeel
ect
rons.Hence,
the

possi
bil
i
tyoff
reeel
ect
ronscol
l
isi
onwi
tht
heat
omsi
shi
gh.Ther
efor
e,al
argenumberoff
ree

el
ect
ronscol
l
idewi
tht
heat
oms.Thel
argenumberoff
reeel
ect
rons,
whi
chcol
l
ideswi
tht
he

at
oms,
losest
hei
rener
gyandt
her
emai
ningsmal
lnumberoff
reeel
ect
ronsmov
esf
reel
yfr
om

onepl
acet
oanot
herpl
acebycar
ryi
ngt
heel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Ther
efor
e,t
hemet
alf
il
mresi
stor
swi
th

v
eryt
hinf
il
mlay
eral
l
owonl
yasmal
lamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.

Wi
dthofhel
i
cal
met
alf
il
m cut

Ther
esi
stanceoft
hemet
alf
il
mresi
stori
sinv
ersel
ypr
opor
ti
onal
tot
hewi
dthofhel
i
cal
met
alf
il
m

cut
.

Thehel
i
cal
met
alf
il
m cutwi
thl
argewi
dthpr
ovi
del
essr
esi
stancet
otheel
ect
ri
ccur
rentbecause

t
hef
reeel
ect
ronshav
etot
rav
elonl
yasmal
ldi
stancet
hrought
her
esi
sti
vepat
h.Hence,
the

possi
bil
i
tyofcol
l
isi
onoff
reeel
ect
ronswi
tht
heat
omsi
sless.Ther
efor
e,onl
yasmal
lnumberof

f
reeel
ect
ronscol
l
idewi
tht
heat
omsandt
her
emai
ningl
argenumberoff
reeel
ect
ronsmov
es

f
reel
yfr
om onepl
acet
oanot
herpl
ace.

39
Thel
argenumberoff
reeel
ect
ronst
hatmov
esf
reel
yfr
om onepl
acet
oanot
herpl
acewi
l
lcar
ry

t
heel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Ther
efor
e,t
hemet
alf
il
mresi
stor
swi
thwi
dehel
i
cal
met
alf
il
m cutal
l
ows

l
argeamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.

Thehel
i
cal
met
alf
il
m cutwi
thl
esswi
dthpr
ovi
demor
eresi
stancet
otheel
ect
ri
ccur
rentbecause

t
hef
reeel
ect
ronshav
etot
rav
elal
argedi
stancet
hrought
her
esi
sti
vepat
h.Hence,
thepossi
bil
i
ty

off
reeel
ect
ronscol
l
isi
onwi
tht
heat
omsi
shi
gh.Ther
efor
e,al
argenumberoff
reeel
ect
rons

col
l
idewi
tht
heat
omsandt
her
emai
ningsmal
lnumberoff
reeel
ect
ronsmov
esf
reel
y.

Thesmal
lnumberoff
reeel
ect
ronst
hatmov
esf
reel
yfr
om onepl
acet
oanot
herpl
acewi
l
lcar
ry

t
heel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Ther
efor
e,t
hemet
alf
il
mresi
stor
swi
thnar
rowhel
i
cal
met
alf
il
m cutal
l
ows

40
onl
yasmal
lamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.

Adv
ant
agesofmet
alf
il
mresi
stor

 Lowcost
 Generateslessnoisethancarboncomposit
ionr
esi
stor
 Wideoper ati
ngrange
 Long-t
erm stabil
it
y
 Lowtolerance
 Lowtemper atureco-ef
fi
cientofr
esist
ance
 Verysmal li
nsize

Appl
i
cat
ionsofmet
alf
il
mresi
stor

 Hi
ghf
requencyappl
i
cat
ions

Met
aloxi
def
il
mresi
stor
Met
aloxi
def
il
mresi
stordef
ini
ti
on

Themet
aloxi
def
il
mresi
stori
sat
ypeoff
ixedr
esi
stor
,whi
chusesmet
aloxi
def
il
m ast
he

r
esi
sti
veel
ementt
oli
mitt
hef
lowofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentt
ocer
tai
nlev
el.

Whati
smet
aloxi
de?

Met
aloxi
dei
samet
all
i
ccompound,
whi
chi
sfor
medbecauseoft
hechemi
cal
bondi
ngbet
ween

t
heoxy
genat
om andot
herel
ement
s.Met
all
i
ccompoundconsi
stsoft
woormor
edi
ff
erentt
ypes

ofat
omssuchas(
ti
nwi
thoxy
gen)
.Inmet
aloxi
def
il
mresi
stor
s,t
hef
il
misconst
ruct
edbyusi
ng

t
het
inoxi
de.

Whati
sti
noxi
de?

41
Ti
noxi
dei
sat
ypeofmet
all
i
ccompound,
whi
chi
sfor
medbecauseoft
hechemi
cal
bondi
ng

bet
weent
heoxy
genat
om andt
in.

Met
aloxi
def
il
mresi
storconst
ruct
ion

Theconst
ruct
ionofmet
aloxi
def
il
mresi
stori
sal
mostsi
mil
art
othemet
alf
il
mresi
stor
s.The

mai
ndi
ff
erencebet
weent
hemet
aloxi
def
il
mresi
storandt
hemet
alf
il
mresi
stori
smat
eri
alused

f
orconst
ruct
ingt
hef
il
m.

I
nmet
alf
il
mresi
stor
,thef
il
misconst
ruct
edbyusi
ngt
hemet
alssuchasni
ckel
chr
omi
um

wher
easi
nmet
aloxi
def
il
mresi
stor
s,t
hef
il
misconst
ruct
edbyusi
ngt
hemet
aloxi
desuchast
in

oxi
de.

Themet
aloxi
def
il
mresi
stori
smadebycoat
ingt
hecer
ami
ccor
ewi
thmet
aloxi
desuchast
in

oxi
de.Theant
imonyoxi
dei
saddedt
othet
inoxi
det
oincr
easei
tsr
esi
sti
vi
ty.Ther
esi
sti
vi
tyoft
he

met
aloxi
def
il
mismai
nlydependsont
heamountofant
imonyoxi
deaddedt
othet
inoxi
de.

Thef
il
m madeoft
inoxi
deandant
imonyoxi
deact
sast
her
esi
sti
veel
ementt
otheel
ect
ri
c

cur
rent
.Hence,
met
aloxi
def
il
mrest
ri
ctst
heel
ect
ri
ccur
rentt
ocer
tai
nlev
el.Thecer
ami
ccor
e

42
act
sthei
nsul
ati
ngmat
eri
alt
otheel
ect
ri
cit
y.Hence,
thecer
ami
ccor
edoesnotal
l
owheat

t
hroughi
t.Thus,
theser
esi
stor
scanwi
thst
andathi
ght
emper
atur
es.

Themet
alendcapsar
efi
tt
edatbot
hendsoft
her
esi
sti
veel
ement
.Thel
eadsmadeofcopper

ar
ejoi
nedatt
woendsoft
hesemet
all
i
cendcaps.Themet
aloxi
def
il
mresi
stor
sar
eabl
eto

wi
thst
andathi
ghert
emper
atur
est
hanmet
alf
il
m andcar
bonf
il
mresi
stor
s.

I
nmet
aloxi
def
il
mresi
stor
,thedesi
redr
esi
stancei
sachi
evedbycut
ti
ngt
hemet
aloxi
def
il
mina

hel
i
cal
manneral
ongi
tsl
engt
h.Oncet
hedesi
redr
esi
stancev
aluei
sachi
eved,
thecut
ti
ngof

met
aloxi
def
il
misst
opped.Laser
sar
egener
all
yusedt
ocutt
hemet
aloxi
def
il
minahel
i
cal

manner
.

Resi
stanceofmet
aloxi
def
il
mresi
stori
sdependsont
heamountofant
imonyoxi
deadded,
the

t
hicknessofmet
aloxi
def
il
mlay
er,
andt
hewi
dthofhel
i
cal
met
aloxi
def
il
m cut

Ther
esi
stanceoft
hemet
aloxi
def
il
mresi
stori
sdependsont
heamountofant
imonyoxi
de

addedt
othet
inoxi
de,
thet
hicknessoft
hemet
aloxi
def
il
mlay
er,
andt
hewi
dthofhel
i
cal
met
al

oxi
def
il
m cut
.

Amountofant
imonyoxi
deadded

Theant
imonyoxi
dei
saddedt
othet
inoxi
det
oincr
easet
her
esi
stanceoft
hemet
aloxi
def
il
m.

Ther
esi
sti
vi
tyoft
hemet
aloxi
def
il
misdi
rect
lypr
opor
ti
onal
tot
heamountofant
imonyoxi
de

added.

I
flar
geamountofant
imonyoxi
dei
saddedt
othet
inoxi
de,
ther
esi
stanceoft
hemet
aloxi
def
il
m

t
otheel
ect
ri
ccur
renti
ncr
easeshi
ghl
y.Ther
efor
e,al
argeamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
renti
sbl
ocked.

I
fsmal
lamountofant
imonyoxi
dei
saddedt
othet
inoxi
de,
ther
esi
stanceoft
hemet
aloxi
def
il
m

43
t
otheel
ect
ri
ccur
renti
ncr
easessl
i
ght
ly.Ther
efor
e,onl
yasmal
lamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
renti
s

bl
ocked.

Wi
dthofhel
i
cal
met
aloxi
def
il
m cut

Cut
ti
ngt
hemet
aloxi
def
il
minahel
i
cal
mannerwi
thl
aserwi
l
lincr
easet
her
esi
sti
vepat
hoft
he

el
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Hence,
ther
esi
stancet
otheel
ect
ri
ccur
renti
ncr
eases.Ther
esi
stancepr
ovi
ded

byt
hemet
aloxi
def
il
mresi
stori
sdependsont
hewi
dthofmet
aloxi
def
il
m cut
.

Thehel
i
cal
fil
m cutwi
thmor
ewi
dthpr
ovi
del
essr
esi
stancet
otheel
ect
ri
ccur
rentbecauset
he

f
reeel
ect
ronshav
etot
rav
elonl
yasmal
ldi
stancet
hrought
her
esi
sti
vepat
h.Hence,
the

possi
bil
i
tyoff
reeel
ect
ronscol
l
isi
onwi
tht
heat
omsi
sless.Thus,
onl
yasmal
lnumberoff
ree

el
ect
ronscol
l
idewi
tht
heat
omsandt
her
emai
ningl
argenumberoff
reeel
ect
ronsmov
esf
reel
y

f
rom onepl
acet
oanot
herpl
acebycar
ryi
ngt
heel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.

Ther
efor
e,t
hemet
aloxi
def
il
mresi
stor
swi
thwi
dehel
i
cal
met
alf
il
m cutal
l
owsl
argeamountof

el
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.

Theheli
calf
il
m cutwithlesswidt
hprovidesmoreresist
anceto
theel
ectr
iccur
rentbecausethefreeel
ectronshavetotrav
ela
l
argedist
ancethroughtheresi
sti
vepath.Hence,t
hepossibil
i
ty

44
offr
eeelectr
onscoll
isi
onwi t
htheatomsishi
gh.Ther
efor
e,a
l
argenumberoff r
eeelectr
onscolli
dewit
htheatomsandthe
remaini
ngsmallnumberoff r
eeelectr
onsmovesfr
eel
yby
carr
yingtheel
ect
riccurr
ent.

Theref
ore,
themetal
oxidef
il
mresistor
swit
hnarr
owhel
i
cal
fil
m
cutall
owsonlyasmall
amountofelect
ri
ccurr
ent
.

Met
aloxi
def
il
mlay
er

Ther
esi
stanceoft
hemet
aloxi
def
il
mresi
stori
sinv
ersel
ypr
opor
ti
onal
tot
het
hicknessoft
he

met
aloxi
def
il
mlay
er.

Met
aloxi
def
il
mresi
stor
swi
thv
eryt
hickf
il
m pr
ovi
del
argespacef
ort
hef
reeel
ect
ronst
omov
e

f
reel
yfr
om onepl
acet
oanot
herpl
ace.Hence,
thepossi
bil
i
tyoff
reeel
ect
ronscol
l
isi
onwi
tht
he

at
omsi
sver
yless.Ther
efor
e,onl
yasmal
lnumberoff
reeel
ect
ronscol
l
idewi
tht
heat
oms.The

smal
lnumberoff
reeel
ect
rons,
whi
chcol
l
ideswi
tht
heat
oms,
losest
hei
rener
gyi
nthef
orm of

heatandt
her
emai
ningl
argenumberoff
reeel
ect
ronsmov
esf
reel
yfr
om onepl
acet
oanot
her

pl
acebycar
ryi
ngt
heel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Ther
efor
e,t
hemet
aloxi
def
il
mresi
stor
swi
thv
eryt
hickf
il
m

l
ayeral
l
owsl
argeamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.

Met
aloxi
def
il
mresi
stor
swi
thv
eryt
hinf
il
m pr
ovi
del
essspacef
ort
hef
reeel
ect
rons.Hence,
the

45
possi
bil
i
tyoff
reeel
ect
ronscol
l
isi
onwi
tht
heat
omsi
shi
gh.Ther
efor
e,al
argenumberoff
ree

el
ect
ronscol
l
idewi
tht
heat
oms.Thel
argenumberoff
reeel
ect
rons,
whi
chcol
l
ideswi
tht
he

at
oms,
losest
hei
rener
gyi
nthef
orm ofheatandt
her
emai
ningsmal
lnumberoff
reeel
ect
rons

mov
esf
reel
ybycar
ryi
ngt
heel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Ther
efor
e,t
hemet
aloxi
def
il
mresi
stor
swi
thv
ery

t
hinf
il
mlay
eral
l
owonl
yasmal
lamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.

Adv
ant
agesofmet
aloxi
def
il
mresi
stor
s

 Lowcostcompar edtothecar
boncomposit
ionr
esi
stor
.
 Metaloxidefil
mr esi
stor
soperat
eathi
ghertemper
atur
es.
 Producelownoi se.
 Smallsize
 Highstabil
i
ty
 Highrel
iabil
i
ty

Met
algl
azer
esi
stor
Met
algl
azer
esi
stordef
ini
ti
on

Themet
algl
azer
esi
stori
sat
ypeoff
ixedr
esi
stor
,whi
chusesgl
asspowderandmet
alpar
ti
cles

(
sil
verandpal
l
adi
um)mi
xtur
etor
est
ri
ctt
hef
lowofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentt
ocer
tai
nlev
el.

Whati
smet
algl
aze?

Met
algl
azer
efer
stot
hemet
als,
whi
chl
ooksshi
nybecauseoft
hegl
asspowderandt
hemet
al

par
ti
clesmi
xtur
e.Ther
esi
stor
sthatar
emadef
rom t
hemet
algl
azear
ecal
l
edmet
algl
aze

r
esi
stor
s.

Met
algl
azer
esi
storconst
ruct
ion

46
Thef
il
m oft
hemet
algl
azer
esi
stori
sconst
ruct
edbyusi
ngt
hegl
asspowderandmet
alpar
ti
cles

mi
xtur
e.Thi
smi
xtur
eist
hendeposi
tedonacer
ami
csubst
rat
e.

Thecombi
nat
ionoff
il
m andsubst
rat
eisheat
edat800°
C.Becauseoft
hisext
remeheat
,the

gl
asspowderandt
hemet
alpar
ti
clesar
ejoi
nedwi
tht
hesubst
rat
e.Asar
esul
t,at
hickl
ayeri
s

f
ormedont
hesubst
rat
e.Thi
slay
eri
snot
hingbutt
het
hickf
il
m ofmet
algl
azer
esi
stor
.

Thef
il
m madeofgl
asspowderandmet
alpar
ti
clesmi
xtur
eact
sast
her
esi
sti
veel
ementt
othe

el
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Hence,
themet
algl
azef
il
mrest
ri
ctst
heel
ect
ri
ccur
rentt
ocer
tai
nlev
el.The

r
esi
stanceoft
hemet
algl
azer
esi
stor
srangi
ngf
rom 100kΩt
o100MΩ.

I
nthemet
algl
azer
esi
stor
,thedesi
redr
esi
stancei
sachi
evedbycut
ti
ngt
hemet
algl
azef
il
mina

hel
i
cal
manneral
ongi
tsl
engt
h.Oncet
hedesi
redr
esi
stancei
sachi
eved,
thecut
ti
ngofmet
al

gl
azef
il
misst
opped.

Thef
il
m oft
hemet
algl
azer
esi
stor
sisv
eryt
hick.Hence,
theyoper
ateathi
ghsur
gecur
rent
.A

suddenr
iseoft
heel
ect
ri
ccur
renti
scal
l
edhi
ghsur
gecur
rent
.Thef
il
m oft
hemet
algl
aze

r
esi
stor
sismucht
hickert
hant
hemet
alf
il
m andcar
bonf
il
mresi
stor
s.

Ther
esi
stanceoft
hemet
algl
azer
esi
stori
sdependsont
heamountofmet
alandgl
assadded

Met
algl
azef
il
m wi
thhi
gheramountofmet
alpar
ti
clesandl
oweramountofgl
asspr
ovi
desl
ow

r
esi
stancet
otheel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Hence,
alar
geamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowst
hrought
he

met
algl
azer
esi
stor
.

Met
algl
azef
il
m wi
thhi
gheramountofgl
assandl
oweramountofmet
alpar
ti
clespr
ovi
deshi
gh

r
esi
stancet
otheel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Hence,
onl
yasmal
lamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowst
hrough

t
hemet
algl
azer
esi
stor
.

Met
algl
azer
esi
stor
shav
elowt
emper
atur
eco-
eff
ici
entofr
esi
stance

47
Ther
ateatwhi
cht
her
esi
stanceoft
hemat
eri
alchangeswi
thi
ncr
easei
ntemper
atur
eiscal
l
ed

t
emper
atur
eco-
eff
ici
entofr
esi
stance.

Met
algl
azer
esi
stor
shav
elowt
emper
atur
eco-
eff
ici
entofr
esi
stance.Hence,
ther
esi
stanceof

t
hemet
algl
azer
esi
stor
sdoesnotchangeeasi
l
ywi
thi
ncr
easei
ntemper
atur
e.

Adv
ant
agesofmet
algl
azer
esi
stor
s

LowTCR(
Temper
atur
eCo-
eff
ici
entofResi
stance)
.

Hi
ghst
abi
l
ity
.

Foi
lresi
stor
I
nther
ecenty
ear
s,t
hedemandf
orhi
ghaccur
ate,
rel
i
abl
e,andst
abl
edev
icest
hatoper
atesi
n

har
shenv
ironment
shasi
ncr
eased.Manyi
ndust
ri
es,
medi
cal
,aut
omot
ive,
mil
i
tar
y,andaer
ospace

ar
elooki
ngf
orhi
ghaccur
ateandst
abl
epassi
vecomponent
s.Al
ltheser
equi
rement
scanbe

achi
evedwi
tht
hehel
poff
oil
resi
stor
s.

Foi
lresi
stordef
ini
ti
on

Thef
oil
resi
stori
sthehi
ghaccur
ateandst
abl
ecomponentusedt
orest
ri
ctt
heel
ect
ri
ccur
rent

f
lowt
ocer
tai
nlev
el.

Foi
lresi
storconst
ruct
ion

Thef
oil
oft
hisr
esi
stori
smadef
rom anal
l
oy.Themat
eri
almadef
rom t
woormor
emet
all
i
c

el
ement
stopr
otecti
tfr
om damagei
scal
l
edal
l
oy.

Anal
l
oyofni
ckel
,chr
omi
um,
andaddi
ti
vesar
eusedt
oconst
ructt
hef
oil
becauset
hesemat
eri
als

pr
ovi
dehi
ghr
esi
stancet
oel
ect
ri
ccur
rentandpr
otectt
hef
oil
resi
storf
rom damage.Hence,
the

f
oil
isusedast
hepr
imar
yresi
stanceel
ementt
obl
ockt
heel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.

48
Foi
lresi
storhasl
owt
emper
atur
eco-
eff
ici
entofr
esi
stance(
TCR)

Thef
oil
resi
storhasl
owt
emper
atur
eco-
eff
ici
entofr
esi
stance.I
not
herwor
ds,
ther
ateatwhi
ch

t
her
esi
stanceoft
hef
oil
resi
storchangeswi
thr
espectt
ochangei
nthet
emper
atur
eisv
eryl
ow.

Hence,
thef
oil
resi
stor
shav
ehi
ghpr
eci
sionandst
abi
l
ity
.

Adv
ant
agesoff
oil
resi
stor

 Highst
abil
ity
 Lownoise
 Highpreci
sionoraccur
acy
 Lowcapacitance
 Lowinductance

Whati
spot
ent
iomet
er?
Pot
ent
iomet
erdef
ini
ti
on

Apot
ent
iomet
eri
sat
hreet
ermi
nal
resi
stori
nwhi
cht
her
esi
stancei
smanual
l
yvar
iedt
ocont
rol

t
hef
lowofel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.

Const
ruct
ionofpot
ent
iomet
er

Thepot
ent
iomet
erconsi
stsoft
hreet
ermi
nal
samongwhi
cht
woar
efi
xedandonei
svar
iabl
e.

Thet
wof
ixedt
ermi
nal
soft
hepot
ent
iomet
erar
econnect
edt
obot
hendsoft
her
esi
sti
veel
ement

cal
l
edt
rackandt
hir
dter
minal
isconnect
edt
othesl
i
dingwi
per
.Thewi
pert
hatmov
esal
ongt
he

r
esi
sti
veel
ementv
ari
est
her
esi
stanceoft
hepot
ent
iomet
er.Ther
esi
stanceoft
hepot
ent
iomet
er

i
schangedwhent
hewi
peri
smov
edov
ert
her
esi
sti
vepat
h.

49
Ther
esi
sti
veel
ementoft
hepot
ent
iomet
eri
sei
therf
latorangl
ed.I
fther
esi
sti
veel
ementi
sfl
at,

t
hewi
permov
esl
i
near
ly.Ont
heot
herhand,
ift
her
esi
sti
veel
ementi
sangl
ed,
thewi
permov
esi
n

ar
otar
ymanner
.

Themat
eri
alsusedt
oconst
ructt
her
esi
sti
veel
ementoft
hepot
ent
iomet
eri
ncl
udecar
bon

par
ti
clesi
npl
ast
ic,
graphi
te,
resi
sti
vewi
res,
andcer
met
s(combi
nat
ionofcer
ami
csandmet
als)
.

Pot
ent
iomet
ersar
eal
sosomet
imesr
efer
redaspot
s.

Pot
ent
iomet
ercont
rol
sthef
lowofel
ect
ri
ccur
rent

I
ncr
easi
ngordecr
easi
ngt
her
esi
stanceoft
hepot
ent
iomet
ercont
rol
sthef
lowofel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.

I
fwei
ncr
easet
her
esi
stanceoft
hepot
ent
iomet
er,
lar
geamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
renti
sbl
ocked

andonl
yasmal
lamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
renti
sal
l
owed.Ont
heot
herhand,
ifwer
educet
he

r
esi
stanceoft
hepot
ent
iomet
er,
alar
geamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
renti
sal
l
owedandonl
yasmal
l

amountofel
ect
ri
ccur
renti
sbl
ocked.

Pot
ent
iomet
err
esi
stancei
svar
iedbyadj
ust
ingt
hewi
per

I
fthewi
peri
sadj
ust
edi
nsuchawayt
hatt
her
esi
sti
vepat
hisr
educed,
ther
esi
stancedecr
eases,

50
becauset
heel
ect
ri
ccur
renthast
otr
avel
onl
yasmal
ldi
stancet
hrought
her
esi
sti
vepat
h.Ont
he

ot
herhand,
ift
hewi
peri
sadj
ust
edi
nsuchawayt
hatt
her
esi
sti
vepat
hisi
ncr
eased,
the

r
esi
stancei
ncr
eases,
becauset
heel
ect
ri
ccur
renthast
otr
avel
alar
gedi
stancet
hrought
he

r
esi
sti
vepat
h.

Sy
mbol
ofpot
ent
iomet
er

TheAmer
icanst
andar
dandt
hei
nter
nat
ional
standar
dsy
mbol
ofpot
ent
iomet
eri
sshowni
nthe

bel
owf
igur
e.

Ther
ect
angul
arboxwi
tht
hreet
ermi
nal
srepr
esent
sthei
nter
nat
ional
symbol
ofpot
ent
iomet
er

wher
east
hezi
gzagl
i
neswi
tht
hreet
ermi
nal
srepr
esentt
heAmer
icanst
andar
dsy
mbol
of

pot
ent
iomet
er.

Appl
i
cat
ionsofpot
ent
iomet
ers

 Pot
ent
iomet
ersar
eusedt
ocont
rol
vol
umei
naudi
o

51
 equipments,fr
equencyattenuati
on,changingl
oudness,
and
changingotherchar
acteri
sticsofaudiosignal
s.
 Potenti
ometersareusedint elev
isi
onsandcomput er
sto
controlt
hepictur
econtrastandbr i
ghtness.

Rheost
at
Rheost
atdef
ini
ti
on

Rheost
ati
sav
ari
abl
eresi
stor
,whi
chi
susedt
ocont
rol
thef
lowofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentbymanual
l
y

i
ncr
easi
ngordecr
easi
ngt
her
esi
stance.TheEngl
i
shsci
ent
istSi
rChar
lesWheat
stonecoi
nedt
he

wor
drheost
at,
iti
sder
ivedf
rom t
heGr
eekwor
d“r
heos”and“
-st
ati
s”whi
chmeansast
ream

cont
rol
l
ingdev
iceoracur
rentcont
rol
l
ingdev
ice.

Whati
srheost
at?

Theel
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowi
ngt
hroughanel
ect
ri
cal
cir
cui
tisdet
ermi
nedbyt
wof
act
ors:
theamount

ofv
olt
ageappl
i
edandt
het
otal
resi
stanceoft
heel
ect
ri
cal
cir
cui
t.I
fwer
educet
heci
rcui
t

r
esi
stance,
thef
lowofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentt
hrought
heci
rcui
twi
l
lbei
ncr
eased.Ont
heot
herhand,
if

wei
ncr
easet
heci
rcui
tresi
stance,
thef
lowofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentt
hrought
heci
rcui
twi
l
lbe

decr
eased.

Bypl
aci
ngt
her
heost
ati
ntheel
ect
ri
cal
cir
cui
t,wecancont
rol
(incr
easeordecr
ease)t
hef
lowof

el
ect
ri
ccur
renti
ntheci
rcui
t.Rheost
atr
educest
heel
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowt
ocer
tai
nlev
el.Howev
er,

i
tdoesnotcompl
etel
ybl
ockst
heel
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
low.Tocompl
etel
ybl
ockt
heel
ect
ri
ccur
rent

f
low,
weneedi
nfi
nit
eresi
stance.Pr
act
ical
l
yiti
snotpossi
blet
ocompl
etel
ybl
ockt
heel
ect
ri
c

cur
rent
.

Const
ruct
ionofr
heost
at

Theconst
ruct
ionofr
heost
ati
sal
mostsi
mil
art
othepot
ent
iomet
er.Li
ket
hepot
ent
iomet
er,
the

52
r
heost
atal
soconsi
stsoft
hreet
ermi
nal
s:t
ermi
nal
A,t
ermi
nal
Bandt
ermi
nal
C.Howev
er,
weuse

onl
ytwot
ermi
nal
s:ei
therAandBorBandC.Ter
minal
Aandt
ermi
nal
Car
ethet
wof
ixed

t
ermi
nal
sconnect
edt
obot
hendsoft
her
esi
sti
veel
ementcal
l
edt
rackandt
ermi
nal
Bist
he

v
ari
abl
eter
minal
connect
edt
othesl
i
dingwi
perorsl
i
der
.

Thewi
pert
hatmov
esal
ongt
her
esi
sti
veel
ementv
ari
est
her
esi
stanceoft
her
heost
at.The

r
esi
stanceoft
her
heost
ati
schangedwhent
hesl
i
derorwi
peri
smov
edov
ert
her
esi
sti
vepat
h.

Ther
esi
sti
veel
ementoft
her
heost
ati
smadeofacoi
lofwi
reorat
hincar
bonf
il
m.

Rheost
atsar
emost
lywi
rewound.Hence,
rheost
atsar
eal
sosomet
imesr
efer
redasv
ari
abl
ewi
re

woundr
esi
stor
s.Gener
all
y,r
heost
atsar
emadebywi
ndi
ngt
heNi
chr
omewi
rear
oundan

i
nsul
ati
ngcer
ami
ccor
e.Thecer
ami
ccor
eoft
her
heost
atact
sast
hei
nsul
ati
ngmat
eri
alt
othe

heat
.Hence,
thecer
ami
ccor
edoesnotal
l
owheatt
hroughi
t.

Resi
stanceofr
heost
ati
sdependsont
hel
engt
hoft
her
esi
sti
vet
rack

Ther
esi
stanceoft
her
heost
ati
sdependsont
hel
engt
hoft
her
esi
sti
vet
rackt
hroughwhi
ch

el
ect
ri
ccur
renti
sfl
owi
ng.

I
fweuset
het
ermi
nal
sAandBi
nther
heost
at,
themi
nimum r
esi
stancei
sachi
evedwhenwe

53
mov
ethesl
i
derorwi
percl
oset
othet
ermi
nal
A,becauset
hel
engt
hoft
her
esi
sti
vepat
h

decr
eases.Asar
esul
t,onl
yasmal
lamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
renti
sbl
ockedandl
argeamountof

el
ect
ri
ccur
renti
sal
l
owed.

I
nthesi
mil
arway
,themaxi
mum r
esi
stancei
sachi
evedwhenwemov
ethesl
i
dercl
oset
o

t
ermi
nal
C,becauset
hel
engt
hoft
her
esi
sti
vepat
hincr
eases.Asar
esul
t,al
argeamountof

el
ect
ri
ccur
renti
sbl
ockedandonl
yasmal
lamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
renti
sal
l
owed.

I
fweuset
het
ermi
nal
sBandC,
themi
nimum r
esi
stancei
sachi
evedwhenwemov
ethesl
i
deror

wi
percl
oset
othet
ermi
nal
C,becauset
hel
engt
hoft
her
esi
sti
vepat
hdecr
eases.Asar
esul
t,onl
y

asmal
lamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
renti
sbl
ockedandl
argeamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
renti
sal
l
owed.

I
nthesi
mil
arway
,themaxi
mum r
esi
stancei
sachi
evedwhenwemov
ethesl
i
dercl
oset
o

t
ermi
nal
A,becauset
hel
engt
hoft
her
esi
sti
vepat
hincr
eases.Asar
esul
t,al
argeamountof

el
ect
ri
ccur
renti
sbl
ockedandonl
yasmal
lamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
renti
sal
l
owed.

Rememberwear
enotr
educi
ngt
her
esi
stanceoft
hewi
reorr
esi
sti
vepat
h;i
nst
ead,
wear
ejust

r
educi
ngt
hel
engt
hoft
her
esi
sti
vepat
htodecr
easet
her
esi
stance.Whenwet
urnt
heout
side

knobwi
thourhands,
thewi
perorsl
i
dermov
esal
ongt
her
esi
sti
vepat
h.

Sy
mbol
ofr
heost
at

54
TheAmer
icanst
andar
dandt
hei
nter
nat
ional
standar
dsy
mbol
ofr
heost
ati
sshowni
nthebel
ow

f
igur
e.

Thezi
gzagl
i
neswi
tht
hreet
ermi
nal
srepr
esentt
heAmer
icanst
andar
dsy
mbol
ofr
heost
atand

t
her
ect
angul
arboxwi
tht
hreet
ermi
nal
srepr
esent
sthei
nter
nat
ional
standar
dsy
mbol
ofr
heost
at.

Ty
pesofr
heost
ats

Rheost
atsar
eoft
wot
ypes:

 Rot
aryr
heost
ats
 Li
nearr
heost
ats

Rot
aryr
heost
ats

Rot
aryr
heost
ati
sal
sosomet
imesr
efer
redasci
rcul
arr
heost
atbecausei
tsr
esi
sti
veel
ement

l
ooksl
i
keaci
rcl
e.Ther
esi
sti
veel
ementoft
her
otar
yrheost
ati
sci
rcul
arorangl
ed.I
ntheset
ypes

ofr
esi
stor
s,t
hewi
perorsl
i
dermov
esi
nar
otar
ymanner
.Rot
aryr
heost
atsar
eusedi
nmostof

t
heappl
i
cat
ionst
hant
hel
i
nearr
heost
atsbecauset
hei
rsi
zei
ssmal
l
ert
hant
hel
i
nearr
heost
ats.

Li
nearr
heost
ats

Li
nearr
heost
ati
sal
sosomet
imesr
efer
redascy
li
ndr
ical
rheost
atbecausei
tsr
esi
sti
veel
ement

l
ooksl
i
keacy
li
nder
.Int
heset
ypesofr
esi
stor
s,t
hewi
perorsl
i
dermov
esi
nal
i
nearmanner
.

55
Li
nearr
heost
atsar
eusedi
nlabor
ator
iesofdoi
ngr
esear
chandt
eachi
ng.

Di
ff
erencebet
weenpot
ent
iomet
erandr
heost
at

Theconst
ruct
ionofbot
hthepot
ent
iomet
erandr
heost
ati
ssame.Themai
ndi
ff
erencei
stheway

weusedi
tforoper
ati
on.I
npot
ent
iomet
ers,
weuseal
lthet
hreet
ermi
nal
sforper
for
mingt
he

oper
ati
onwher
easi
nrheost
ats,
weuseonl
ytwot
ermi
nal
sforper
for
mingt
heoper
ati
on.

Appl
i
cat
ionsofr
heost
at

 Rheost atisgeneral l
yusedi nt heappl i
cationswher ehigh
voltageorcur r
enti sr equired.
 Rheost atsareusedi ndi ml i
ght stochanget heintensit
yof
l
ight .Ifwei ncreaset her esistanceoft her heostat,t
hef l
ow
ofel ectriccurr
entt hr ought hel i
ghtbul bdecreases.Asa
resul t
,thel i
ghtbright nessdecr eases.Inthesi mil
arway ,i
f
wedecr easether esistanceoft her heostat,t
hef l
owof
electriccur r
entthr ought hel i
ghtbul bincreases.Asar esul
t,
thel i
ghtbr ight
nessi ncreases.
 Rheost atsareusedt oi ncr
easeordecr easet hevolumeofa
radioandt oincreaseordecr easet hespeedofanel ectr
ic
mot or .

Ther
mist
or
Ar
esi
stori
sat
ypeofpassi
vecomponentt
hatr
est
ri
ctst
hef
lowofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentt
ocer
tai
nlev
el.

Resi
stor
sar
emai
nlycl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
wot
ypes:
fixedr
esi
stor
sandv
ari
abl
eresi
stor
s.

Fi
xedr
esi
stori
sat
ypeofr
esi
stort
hatonl
yrest
ri
ctst
hef
lowofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentbutdoesnot

cont
rol
(incr
easeanddecr
ease)t
hef
lowofel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Ont
heot
herhand,
var
iabl
eresi
stori
s

56
at
ypeofr
esi
stort
hatcont
rol
s(i
ncr
easesanddecr
eases)t
hef
lowofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentbymanual
l
y

decr
easi
ngandi
ncr
easi
ngi
tsr
esi
stance.

I
nthef
ixedorv
ari
abl
eresi
stor
s,i
fwemanual
l
ysett
her
esi
stanceasconst
ant
,ther
esi
stance

changessl
i
ght
lyast
emper
atur
eincr
easesordecr
eases.Howev
er,
byusi
ngaspeci
alt
ypeof

r
esi
storwecanr
api
dlychanget
her
esi
stanceoft
her
esi
storwi
thchangei
ntemper
atur
e.Thi
s

speci
alt
ypeofr
esi
stori
scal
l
edt
her
mist
or.

Thedemandf
ort
hepr
eci
secomponent
sordev
ices(
ther
mist
ors)i
sincr
easedi
nther
ecenty
ear
s.

Ther
mist
orsmeasur
ethet
emper
atur
eaccur
atel
yandwor
kef
fi
cient
lyf
ory
ear
s.

Ther
mist
ordef
ini
ti
on

Ther
mist
ori
sat
ypeofr
esi
storwhoser
esi
stancechangesr
api
dlywi
tht
hesmal
lchangei
n

t
emper
atur
e.I
not
herwor
ds,
iti
sat
ypeofr
esi
stori
nwhi
cht
hef
lowofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentchanges

r
api
dlywi
thsmal
lchangei
ntemper
atur
e.Thewor
dther
mist
ori
sder
ivedf
rom t
hecombi
nat
ionof

wor
ds“
ther
mal
”and“
resi
stor
”.

Ther
mist
orsy
mbol

TheAmer
icanst
andar
dandi
nter
nat
ional
standar
dsy
mbol
oft
her
mist
ori
sshowni
nthebel
ow

f
igur
e.

57
Ty
pesoft
her
mist
ors

Ther
mist
orsar
ecl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
wot
ypesbasedonhowt
heybehav
ewi
tht
hechangei
n

t
emper
atur
e:

 Negat
iveTemper
atur
eCo-
eff
ici
ent(
NTC)t
her
mist
ors

 Posi
ti
veTemper
atur
eCo-
eff
ici
ent(
PTC)t
her
mist
ors

 Negat
iveTemper
atur
eCo-
eff
ici
ent(
NTC)t
her
mist
ors

Ther
esi
stanceoft
heNTC(
Negat
iveTemper
atur
eCo-
eff
ici
ent
)ther
mist
orsdecr
easeswi
th

i
ncr
easi
ngt
emper
atur
e.I
not
herwor
ds,
theel
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowt
hrought
heNTC(
Negat
ive

Temper
atur
eCo-
eff
ici
ent
)ther
mist
orsi
ncr
easeswi
tht
hei
ncr
easei
ntemper
atur
e.

Mostoft
heNTCt
her
mist
orsar
emadef
rom apr
esseddi
sc,
rodorcastchi
pofsemi
conduct
or

mat
eri
alsuchassi
nter
edmet
aloxi
des.

I
nNTCt
her
mist
ors,
char
gecar
ri
ersar
egener
atedbydopi
ngpr
ocess.Becauseoft
hisdopi
ng

pr
ocess,
alar
genumberofchar
gecar
ri
ersar
egener
ated.

I
fthet
emper
atur
eissl
i
ght
lyi
ncr
eased,
alar
genumberofchar
gecar
ri
ers(
freeel
ect
rons)col
l
ides

58
wi
tht
hev
alenceel
ect
ronsofot
herat
omsandpr
ovi
dest
hem suf
fi
cientener
gy.Thev
alence

el
ect
ronswhi
chgai
nssuf
fi
cientener
gywi
l
lbr
eakst
hebondi
ngwi
tht
hepar
entat
om andmov
es

f
reel
yfr
om onepl
acet
oanot
herpl
ace.Theel
ect
ronst
hatmov
efr
eel
yfr
om onepl
acet
oanot
her

pl
acear
ecal
l
edf
reeel
ect
rons.Theseel
ect
ronscar
ryt
heel
ect
ri
ccur
rentwhi
l
emov
ingf
rom one

pl
acet
oanot
herpl
ace.Thev
alenceel
ect
ron,
whi
chbecomesaf
reeel
ect
ronwi
l
lagai
ncol
l
ide

wi
tht
heot
herv
alenceel
ect
ronsandmakest
hem f
ree.

Li
kewi
se,
asmal
li
ncr
easei
ntemper
atur
epr
oducesmi
l
li
onsoff
reeel
ect
rons.Mor
efr
ee

el
ect
ronsorchar
gecar
ri
ersmeansmor
eel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Thus,
asmal
li
ncr
easei
ntemper
atur
e

wi
l
lrapi
dlydecr
easet
her
esi
stanceofNTCt
her
mist
orandal
l
owsal
argeamountofel
ect
ri
c

cur
rent
.

 Posi
ti
veTemper
atur
eCo-
eff
ici
ent(
PTC)t
her
mist
ors

Ther
esi
stanceofPosi
ti
veTemper
atur
eCo-
eff
ici
ent(
PTC)t
her
mist
orsi
ncr
easeswi
thi
ncr
easei
n

t
emper
atur
e.Mostoft
hePosi
ti
veTemper
atur
eCo-
eff
ici
ent(
PTC)t
her
mist
orsar
emadef
rom

dopedpol
ycr
yst
all
i
necer
ami
c.Ther
mist
orswi
thPosi
ti
veTemper
atur
eCo-
eff
ici
ent(
PTC)ar
eal
so

cal
l
edposi
stor
s.

Hi
stor
yoft
her
mist
ors

59
Thef
ir
stNTC(
Negat
iveTemper
atur
eCo-
eff
ici
ent
)ther
mist
orwasdi
scov
eredbyMi
chael
Far
aday

i
n1833.Mi
chael
Far
adayobser
vedt
hatt
her
esi
stanceofsi
l
versul
fi
dedecr
easedr
api
dlywhent
he

t
emper
atur
eisi
ncr
eased.

Adv
ant
agesanddi
sadv
ant
agesoft
her
mist
ors

Adv
ant
agesoft
her
mist
ors

 Ther esi
stanceofthermi
stor
schangesr
apidl
ywit
hsmall
changeint emperatur
e.
 Lowcost
 Smal lsi
ze
 Itiseasytocarr
yt her
mist
orsfr
om onepl
acetoanot
her
place.

Di
sadv
ant
agesoft
her
mist
ors

 Thermistorsarenotsui
tabl
eoverawideoperat
ingr
ange
 Theresistancever
sustemperat
urechar
acter
ist
icsi
snon-
l
inear
.

Appl
i
cat
ionsoft
her
mist
ors

 Ther
mistorsareusedinmedicalequi pment
s
 Ther
mistorsareusedinhotendsof3dpr i
nter
s.
 Ther
mistorsareusedinhomeappl iancessuchasov ens,
hai
rdryer
s,toast
ers,
refr
iger
ator
s,et c.
 Moderncoffeemakersusethermistor st
oaccurat
ely
measureandcontrolwatert
emper ature.
 Ther
mistorsareusedincomputers.

60
  Ther
mist
orsar
eusedast
emperaturesensors.
 Ther
mist
orsar
eusedasi
nrushcurr
entli
miter.

Magnet
oresi
stor
Magnet
oresi
stordef
ini
ti
on

Magnet
oresi
stori
sat
ypeofr
esi
storwhoser
esi
stancechangeswhenanext
ernal
magnet
icf
iel
d

i
sappl
i
ed.I
not
herwor
ds,
thef
lowofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentt
hrought
hemagnet
oresi
storchangeswhen

anext
ernal
magnet
icf
iel
disappl
i
edt
oit
.

Magnet
icf
iel
dist
her
egi
onpr
esentar
oundamagnet
icobj
ectwi
thi
nwhi
chot
herobj
ect
s

exper
ienceanat
tract
iveorr
epul
siv
efor
ce.

Howmagnet
oresi
stor
swor
k?

Themagnet
oresi
stor
sthatar
epl
acedi
nthemagnet
icf
iel
dwi
l
lexper
ienceachangei
n

r
esi
stance.Whent
hest
rengt
hoft
hemagnet
icf
iel
disi
ncr
eased,
ther
esi
stanceofmagnet
o

r
esi
stor
sal
soi
ncr
eases.Ont
heot
herhand,
whent
hest
rengt
hofmagnet
icf
iel
disr
educed,
the

r
esi
stanceofmagnet
oresi
stor
sdecr
eases.Thi
schangei
nresi
stancei
scausedbyt
hemagnet
o

r
esi
sti
veef
fect
.

I
ntheabsenceofmagnet
icf
iel
d,t
hechar
gescar
ri
ersi
nthemat
eri
almov
einast
rai
ghtpat
h.

Ther
efor
e,el
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowsi
nast
rai
ghtpat
h.Whent
hemagnet
icf
iel
disappl
i
edt
othe

mat
eri
al,
themagnet
icf
orcescauset
hemobi
l
echar
gecar
ri
ers(
freeel
ect
rons)t
ochanget
hei
r

di
rect
ionf
rom di
rectpat
htoi
ndi
rectpat
h.Thi
sincr
easest
hel
engt
hofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentpat
h.

61
Hence,
lar
genumberoff
reeel
ect
ronscol
l
ideswi
tht
heat
omsandl
osest
hei
rener
gyi
nthef
orm

ofheatandonl
yasmal
lnumberoff
reeel
ect
ronsf
lowt
hrought
heconduct
ivepat
h.Thesmal
l

numberoff
reeel
ect
ronsmov
ingf
rom onepl
acet
oanot
herpl
acecar
ri
est
heel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.

Ther
efor
e,t
her
esi
stanceoft
hemat
eri
ali
ncr
easeswi
thi
ncr
easi
ngmagnet
icf
iel
d.

Magnet
oresi
sti
veef
fect

Magnet
oresi
sti
veef
fecti
sthepr
oper
tyofsomemat
eri
als,
whi
chcausest
hem t
ochanget
hei
r

r
esi
stanceundert
hepr
esenceofmagnet
icf
iel
d.Thi
smagnet
oresi
sti
veef
fectoccur
sin

mat
eri
alssuchassemi
conduct
ors,
non-
magnet
icmet
als,
andmagnet
icmet
als.

AnI
ri
shmat
hemat
ical
phy
sici
standengi
neerWi
l
li
am Thomsonf
ir
stdi
scov
eredt
hismagnet
o

r
esi
sti
veef
fecti
n1856.Heobser
vedt
hatr
esi
stanceoft
hepi
ecesofi
roni
ncr
easedwhent
he

el
ect
ri
ccur
renti
sfl
owi
ngi
nthesamedi
rect
ionast
hemagnet
icf
orceormagnet
icf
iel
dandt
he

r
esi
stancei
sdecr
easedwhent
heel
ect
ri
ccur
renti
sfl
owi
ngat90°t
othemagnet
icf
iel
dor

magnet
icf
orce.

Af
tert
hat
,heper
for
medt
hesameexper
imentwi
thni
ckel
andhef
oundt
hatt
her
esi
stanceoft
he

ni
ckel
isaf
fect
edi
nthesamemannerbutt
hemagni
tudeoft
hismagnet
icf
iel
dwasmuchgr
eat
er

62
t
hanbef
ore.Thi
sef
fecti
scal
l
edAni
sot
ropi
cMagnet
oResi
stance(
AMR)
.

Ty
pesofmagnet
oresi
sti
veef
fect
s

Magnet
oresi
sti
veef
fect
sar
eoft
hreet
ypes:

 GiantMagnetoResi
stance(GMR)
 Extraor
dinar
yMagnetoResist
ance(
EMR)
 TunnelMagnetoResi
stance(TMR)

 Gi
antMagnet
oResi
stance(
GMR)

Al
ber
tFer
tandPet
erGr
unber
gdi
scov
eredt
heGi
antMagnet
oResi
stance(
GMR)i
n1988.Thi
s

ef
fecti
sobser
vedi
nthef
err
omagnet
icmat
eri
als.Ther
esi
stanceoft
hef
err
omagnet
icmat
eri
ali
s

dependsont
hewhet
hert
hemagnet
izat
ionofadj
acentf
err
omagnet
icl
ayer
sar
eal
i
gnedpar
all
el

orant
i-
par
all
el.Ther
esi
stancei
shi
ghf
ort
hef
err
omagnet
icl
ayer
swi
thant
i-
par
all
elal
i
gnment

wher
east
her
esi
stancei
slowf
ort
hef
err
omagnet
icl
ayer
swi
thpar
all
elal
i
gnment
.

 Ext
raor
dinar
yMagnet
oResi
stance(
EMR)

Theext
raor
dinar
ymagnet
oresi
sti
veef
fecti
sdi
scov
eredi
n2000.Themagnet
icf
iel
def
fectof

EMR(
Ext
raor
dinar
yMagnet
oResi
stance)i
smuchgr
eat
ert
han(
GMR)Gi
antMagnet
oResi
stance.

TheEMRef
fectoccur
sinsemi
conduct
ormet
alhy
bri
dsy
stemswhenat
ransv
ersemagnet
icf
iel
d

i
sappl
i
ed.

I
ntheabsenceofmagnet
icf
iel
d,t
her
esi
stanceofsemi
conduct
ormet
alhy
bri
dsy
stem i
sver
y

l
owwher
easi
nthepr
esenceofst
rongmagnet
icf
iel
d,t
her
esi
stanceofsemi
conduct
ormet
al

hy
bri
dsy
stem i
shi
gh.

 Tunnel
Magnet
oResi
stance(
TMR)

M.Jul
l
ier
edi
scov
eredt
heTunnel
Magnet
oResi
stance(
TMR)i
n1975.TheTunnel
Magnet
o

63
Resi
stance(
TMR)occur
sinMagnet
icTunnel
Junct
ion(
MTJ)
.Magnet
icTunnel
Junct
ion(
MTJ)i
s

acomponentconsi
stsoft
wof
err
omagnet
ssepar
atedbyani
nsul
ator
.Theel
ect
ronswi
l
lfl
ow

f
rom onef
err
omagnett
oanot
herf
err
omagnett
hrought
het
unnel
bar
ri
erori
nsul
ator
.Theamount

ofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentorchar
gecar
ri
ersf
lowi
ngt
hrought
het
unnel
isdependsonor
ient
ati
onof

magnet
izat
ions.

I
fthemagnet
icf
iel
disappl
i
edt
oMagnet
icTunnel
Junct
ion(
MTJ)i
nsuchawayt
hatt
he

di
rect
ionofmagnet
izat
ionsoff
err
omagneti
sal
i
gnedi
napar
all
elmanner
,al
argenumber
sof

el
ect
rons

f
loweasi
l
y.Asar
esul
t,el
ect
ri
ccur
renti
ncr
easesandr
esi
stancedecr
eases.Ont
heot
herhand,
if

t
hemagnet
icf
iel
disappl
i
edi
nsuchaswayt
hatt
hedi
rect
ionofmagnet
izat
ionsoff
err
omagnet

i
sal
i
gnedi
nanant
i-
par
all
elmanner
,onl
yasmal
lnumberofchar
gescar
ri
ers(
freeel
ect
rons)

f
lowst
hrought
het
unnel
andl
argenumberoff
reeel
ect
ronsar
ebl
ocked.Asar
esul
t,el
ect
ri
c

cur
rentdecr
easesandr
esi
stancei
ncr
eases.

Adv
ant
agesofmagnet
oresi
stor
s

 Magnet
oresi
stor
soper
atewi
thoutanyphy
sical
cont
act
.

Appl
i
cat
ionsofmagnet
oresi
stor
s

Thev
ari
ousappl
i
cat
ionsofmagnet
oresi
stor
sincl
ude:

64
  Bi
o-sensors
 Har
ddi skdri
v es
 Magneticfi
eldsensors
 Magnetoresistorsar
eusedinelect
roni
ccompassfor
measuringear t
h’smagnet
icf
iel
d.
 Magnetoresistorsar
eusedformeasuri
ngelect
ri
ccur
rent
.

Phot
oresi
stor
Phot
oresi
stordef
ini
ti
on

Thenamephot
oresi
stori
sthecombi
nat
ionofwor
ds:
phot
on(
li
ghtpar
ti
cles)andr
esi
stor
.A

phot
oresi
stori
sat
ypeofr
esi
storwhoser
esi
stancedecr
easeswhent
hei
ntensi
tyofl
i
ght

i
ncr
eases.I
not
herwor
ds,
thef
lowofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentt
hrought
hephot
oresi
stori
ncr
easeswhen

t
hei
ntensi
tyofl
i
ghti
ncr
eases.

Phot
oresi
stor
sar
eal
sosomet
imesr
efer
redasLDR(
LightDependentResi
stor
),semi
conduct
or

phot
oresi
stor
,phot
oconduct
or,
orphot
ocel
l
.Phot
oresi
storchangesi
tsr
esi
stanceonl
ywheni
tis

exposedt
oli
ght
.

Howphot
oresi
storwor
ks?

Whent
hel
i
ghtf
all
sont
hephot
oresi
stor
,someoft
hev
alenceel
ect
ronsabsor
bsener
gyf
rom t
he

l
i
ghtandbr
eakst
hebondi
ngwi
tht
heat
oms.Thev
alenceel
ect
rons,
whi
chbr
eakt
hebondi
ngwi
th

t
heat
oms,
arecal
l
edf
reeel
ect
rons.

65
Whent
hel
i
ghtener
gyappl
i
edt
othephot
oresi
stori
shi
ghl
yincr
eased,
alar
genumberofv
alence

el
ect
ronsgai
nenoughener
gyf
rom t
hephot
onsandbr
eakst
hebondi
ngwi
tht
hepar
entat
oms.

Thel
argenumberofv
alenceel
ect
rons,
whi
chbr
eakst
hebondi
ngwi
tht
hepar
entat
omswi
l
l

j
umpsi
ntot
heconduct
ionband.

Theel
ect
ronspr
esenti
ntheconduct
ionbandar
enotbel
ongst
oanyat
om.Hence,
theymov
e

f
reel
yfr
om onepl
acet
oanot
herpl
ace.Theel
ect
ronst
hatmov
efr
eel
yfr
om onepl
acet
oanot
her

pl
acear
ecal
l
edf
reeel
ect
rons.

Whent
hev
alenceel
ect
ronl
eftt
heat
om,
avacancyi
scr
eat
edatapar
ti
cul
arl
ocat
ioni
nanat
om

f
rom whi
cht
heel
ect
ronl
eft
.Thi
svacancyi
scal
l
edashol
e.Ther
efor
e,t
hef
reeel
ect
ronsand

hol
esar
egener
atedaspai
rs.

66
Thef
reeel
ect
ronst
hatar
emov
ingf
reel
yfr
om onepl
acet
oanot
herpl
acecar
ryt
heel
ect
ri
c

cur
rent
.Int
hesi
mil
arway
,thehol
esmov
ingi
nthev
alencebandcar
ryel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Li
kewi
se,

bot
hfr
eeel
ect
ronsandhol
eswi
l
lcar
ryel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Theamountofel
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowi
ng

t
hrought
hephot
oresi
stori
sdependsont
henumberofchar
gecar
ri
ers(
freeel
ect
ronsandhol
es)

gener
ated.

Whent
hel
i
ghtener
gyappl
i
edt
othephot
oresi
stori
ncr
eases,
thenumberofchar
gecar
ri
ers

gener
atedi
nthephot
oresi
storal
soi
ncr
eases.Asar
esul
t,t
heel
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowi
ngt
hrought
he

phot
oresi
stori
ncr
eases.

I
ncr
easei
nel
ect
ri
ccur
rentmeansdecr
easei
nresi
stance.Thus,
ther
esi
stanceoft
he

phot
oresi
stordecr
easeswhent
hei
ntensi
tyofappl
i
edl
i
ghti
ncr
eases.

Phot
oresi
stor
sar
emadeofhi
ghr
esi
stancesemi
conduct
orsuchassi
l
iconorger
mani
um.They

ar
eal
somadeofot
hermat
eri
alssuchascadmi
um sul
fi
deorcadmi
um sel
eni
de.

I
ntheabsenceofl
i
ght
,thephot
oresi
stor
sact
sashi
ghr
esi
stancemat
eri
alswher
easi
nthe

pr
esenceofl
i
ght
,thephot
oresi
stor
sact
sasl
owr
esi
stancemat
eri
als.

67
Ty
pesofphot
oresi
stor
sbasedonmat
eri
alusedt
oconst
ructt
hem

Phot
oresi
stor
sar
ecl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
wot
ypesbasedont
hemat
eri
alusedt
oconst
ructt
hem:

 I
ntr
insi
cphot
oresi
stor

 Ext
ri
nsi
cphot
oresi
stor

 I
ntr
insi
cphot
oresi
stor

I
ntr
insi
cphot
oresi
stor
sar
emadef
rom t
hepur
esemi
conduct
ormat
eri
alssuchassi
l
iconor

ger
mani
um.Theout
ermostshel
lofanyat
om i
scapabl
etohol
dupt
oei
ghtv
alenceel
ect
rons.

Howev
er,
insi
l
iconorger
mani
um,
eachat
om consi
stsofonl
yfourv
alenceel
ect
rons.Thesef
our

v
alenceel
ect
ronsofeachat
om f
ormf
ourcov
alentbondswi
tht
henei
ghbor
ingf
ourat
omst
o

compl
etel
yfi
l
ltheout
ermostshel
l
.Asar
esul
t,noel
ect
roni
slef
tfr
ee.

Whenweappl
yli
ghtener
gyt
othei
ntr
insi
cphot
oresi
stor
,onl
yasmal
lnumberofv
alence

el
ect
ronsgai
nenoughener
gyandbecomesf
reef
rom t
hepar
entat
om.Hence,
asmal
lnumberof

char
gecar
ri
ersar
egener
ated.Asar
esul
t,onl
yasmal
lel
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowst
hrought
hei
ntr
insi
c

68
phot
oresi
stor
.

Weal
readyhav
eknownt
hati
ncr
easei
nel
ect
ri
ccur
rentmeansdecr
easei
nresi
stance.I
nint
ri
nsi
c

phot
oresi
stor
s,t
her
esi
stancedecr
easessl
i
ght
lywi
tht
hei
ncr
easei
nli
ghtener
gy.Hence,
int
ri
nsi
c

phot
oresi
stor
sar
elesssensi
ti
vet
othel
i
ght
.Ther
efor
e,t
heyar
enotr
eli
abl
efort
hepr
act
ical

appl
i
cat
ions.

 Ext
ri
nsi
cphot
oresi
stor

Ext
ri
nsi
cphot
oresi
stor
sar
emadef
rom t
heext
ri
nsi
csemi
conduct
ormat
eri
als.Letusconsi
deran

exampl
eofext
ri
nsi
cphot
oresi
stor
,whi
chi
smadef
rom t
hecombi
nat
ionofsi
l
iconandi
mpur
it
y

(
phosphor
us)at
oms.

Eachsi
l
iconat
om consi
stsoff
ourv
alenceel
ect
ronsandeachphosphor
usat
om consi
stsoff
ive

v
alenceel
ect
rons.Thef
ourv
alenceel
ect
ronsoft
hephosphor
usat
om f
ormf
ourcov
alentbonds

wi
tht
henei
ghbor
ingf
oursi
l
iconat
oms.Howev
er,
thef
if
thv
alenceel
ect
ronoft
hephosphor
us

at
om cannotabl
etof
ormt
hecov
alentbondwi
tht
hesi
l
iconat
om becauset
hesi
l
iconat
om has

onl
yfourv
alenceel
ect
rons.Hence,
thef
if
thv
alenceel
ect
ronofeachphosphor
usat
om becomes

f
reef
rom t
heat
om.Thus,
eachphosphor
usat
om gener
atesaf
reeel
ect
ron.

69
Thef
reeel
ect
ron,
whi
chi
sgener
atedwi
l
lcol
l
ideswi
tht
hev
alenceel
ect
ronsofot
herat
omsand

makest
hem f
ree.Li
kewi
se,
asi
ngl
efr
eeel
ect
rongener
atesmul
ti
plef
reeel
ect
rons.Ther
efor
e,

addi
ngasmal
lnumberofi
mpur
it
y(phosphor
us)at
omsgener
atesmi
l
li
onsoff
reeel
ect
rons.

I
next
ri
nsi
cphot
oresi
stor
s,weal
readyhav
elar
genumberofchar
gecar
ri
ers.Hence,
prov
idi
nga

smal
lamountofl
i
ghtener
gygener
atesev
enmor
enumberofchar
gecar
ri
ers.Thus,
theel
ect
ri
c

cur
renti
ncr
easesr
api
dly
.

I
ncr
easei
nel
ect
ri
ccur
rentmeansdecr
easei
nresi
stance.Ther
efor
e,t
her
esi
stanceoft
he

ext
ri
nsi
cphot
oresi
stordecr
easesr
api
dlywi
tht
hesmal
li
ncr
easei
nappl
i
edl
i
ghtener
gy.Ext
ri
nsi
c

phot
oresi
stor
sar
erel
i
abl
efort
hepr
act
ical
appl
i
cat
ions.

Phot
oresi
storsy
mbol

TheAmer
icanst
andar
dsy
mbol
andt
hei
nter
nat
ional
standar
dsy
mbol
oft
hephot
oresi
stori
s

showni
nthebel
owf
igur
e.

70
Appl
i
cat
ionsofphot
oresi
stor
s

 Photoresistorsareusedinst r
eet l
ightstocontr
olwhent he
l
ightshoul dturnonandwhent helightshouldt
urnoff.When
thesurroundinglightfal
lsonthephot oresi
stor
,itcauses
thestreet
lighttot ur
noff
.Whent hereisnolight
,the
photoresi
st orcausesthestreetlighttoturnon.This
reducesthewast ageofelectr
icit
y .

 Theyar
ealsousedinv ar
iousdevi
cessuchasalar
m dev
ices,
sol
arst
reetl
amps,night-
li
ghts,
andclockr
adios.

Adv
ant
agesanddi
sadv
ant
agesofphot
oresi
stor

Adv
ant
agesofphot
oresi
stor

 Smalli
nsi
ze
 Lowcost
 Iti
seasyt
ocar
ryf
rom onepl
acet
oanot
herpl
ace.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofphot
oresi
stor

 Theaccur
acyofphot
oresi
stori
sver
ylow.

71
 Humi
stor
Thenamehumi
stori
sobt
ainedf
rom t
hecombi
nat
ionofwor
ds:
humi
dit
yandr
esi
stor
.Humi
stor

i
sver
ysensi
ti
vet
othehumi
dit
y.Ther
efor
e,i
tisusedasasensorf
ormeasur
ingt
hehumi
dit
yin

t
hesur
roundi
ngai
r.

Humi
stordef
ini
ti
on

Ahumi
stori
sat
ypeofv
ari
abl
eresi
storwhoser
esi
stancechangeswi
tht
hechangei
nhumi
dit
yof

t
hesur
roundi
ngai
r.Humi
stor
sar
eal
sosomet
imesr
efer
redashumi
dit
ysensi
ti
ver
esi
storor

r
esi
sti
vehumi
dit
ysensor
.Humi
dit
yist
heamountofgaseouswat
erorwat
erv
aporpr
esenti
nthe

ai
r.

Const
ruct
ionandwor
kingofhumi
stor

Humi
stori
sgener
all
ymadeofanor
gani
cpol
ymersuchaspol
yami
der
esi
n,pol
yet
hyl
ene,
ora

met
aloxi
de.

Ther
esi
stanceoft
hehumi
stori
sdependsont
heconcent
rat
ionofabsor
bedwat
ermol
ecul
es.

Whent
hehumi
dit
yincr
eases,
thewat
ermol
ecul
esabsor
bedbyt
hehumi
stori
ncr
easesandt
he

humi
storbecomesmor
eel
ect
ri
cal
l
yconduct
ive.Asar
esul
t,t
her
esi
stanceoft
hehumi
stor

decr
eases.Ont
heot
herhand,
whent
hehumi
dit
ydecr
eases,
thewat
ermol
ecul
esabsor
bedby

t
hehumi
stordecr
easesandhumi
storbecomesl
essel
ect
ri
cal
l
yconduct
ive.Asar
esul
t,t
he

r
esi
stanceoft
hehumi
stori
ncr
eases.Li
kewi
se,
thehumi
stordet
ect
sandmeasur
est
hechangei
n

humi
dit
y.

Humi
storsy
mbol

TheAmer
icanst
andar
dandi
nter
nat
ional
standar
dsy
mbol
ofhumi
stori
sshowni
nthebel
ow

f
igur
e.

72
Adv
ant
agesanddi
sadv
ant
agesofhumi
stor

Adv
ant
agesofhumi
stor

 Lowcost
 Highaccuracy
 Smallsi
ze
 Long-
term stabil
i
ty
 Highl
ysensitiv
et ohumi
dit
y

Di
sadv
ant
agesofhumi
stor

 Theresi
stanceoft
hehumi
storv
ari
esnon-
li
near
lywi
tht
he
changei
nhumi di
ty.

Appl
i
cat
ionsofhumi
stor

 I
ndustr
ialpr
ocesscont
rol
 Atmospheri
cenvi
ronment
almoni
tor
ing
 Agri
cul
tur
e

For
cesensi
ti
ver
esi
stor
73
Ast
henamei
mpl
i
es,
thef
orcesensi
ti
ver
esi
stor
sar
ever
ysensi
ti
vet
otheappl
i
ed
f
orce.Whenweappl
yfor
cet
othef
orcesensi
ti
ver
esi
stor
,it
sresi
stancechanges
r
api
dly
.

For
cesensi
ti
ver
esi
stordef
ini
ti
on

Af
orcesensi
ti
ver
esi
stori
sat
ypeofv
ari
abl
eresi
storwhoser
esi
stancedecr
eases
whent
heappl
i
edf
orcei
ncr
eases.For
cesensi
ti
ver
esi
stor
sar
eal
soknownasf
orce
sensi
ngr
esi
stor
s,FSR,
for
cesensor
,orpr
essur
esensor
.

Const
ruct
ionandwor
kingoff
orcesensi
ti
ver
esi
stor

Thef
orcesensi
ti
ver
esi
storconsi
stsofconduct
ivepol
ymerwhoser
esi
stance
changeswhent
hef
orcei
sappl
i
ed.I
tisnor
mal
l
ysuppl
i
edaspol
ymersheetori
nk
t
hatcanbeappl
i
edbyat
echni
quecal
l
edscr
een-
pri
nti
ng.Scr
een-
pri
nti
ngi
sa
t
echni
queusedt
otr
ansf
eri
nki
ntoasubst
rat
e.

Thesensi
ngf
il
m consi
stsofbot
hel
ect
ri
cal
l
ynon-
conduct
ingandconduct
ing
par
ti
clessuspendedi
nmat
ri
x.Whent
hef
orcei
sappl
i
ed,
thesensi
ngf
il
m causes
par
ti
clest
otoucht
heconduct
ingel
ect
rodes.Asar
esul
t,t
her
esi
stanceoft
hef
il
m
decr
eases.

Ther
esi
stanceoft
hef
orcesensi
ti
ver
esi
stori
sdependsont
heamountoff
orce
appl
i
ed.I
flar
geamountoff
orcei
sappl
i
ed,
ther
esi
stanceoft
hef
orcesensi
ti
ve

74
r
esi
stordecr
easesandpr
ovi
desl
owr
esi
stancet
otheel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.Ont
heot
her
hand,
ifl
i
ttl
efor
ceornof
orcei
sappl
i
edt
othef
orcesensi
ti
ver
esi
stor
,the
r
esi
stancer
emai
nssameandpr
ovi
deshi
ghr
esi
stancet
otheel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
.

Hi
stor
yoff
orcesensi
ti
ver
esi
stor

I
n1972,
Frankl
i
nEv
ent
offst
art
eddev
elopi
ngaser
iesofmusi
cal
inst
rument
cont
rol
l
ers.Fi
vey
ear
slat
er(
1977)
,hei
nvent
edt
hef
orce-
sensi
ngr
esi
stororf
orce
sensi
ti
ver
esi
stor
.

I
n1985,
Frankl
i
nEv
ent
offf
oundedI
nter
li
nkEl
ect
roni
cs,
acompanybasedonhi
s
i
nvent
ion,
for
ce-
sensi
ngr
esi
stor
.

Adv
ant
agesanddi
sadv
ant
agesoff
orcesensi
ti
ver
esi
stor

Adv
ant
agesoff
orcesensi
ti
ver
esi
stor

 Lowcost
 Smal
lsi
ze
 Hi
ghl
ysensi
ti
vet
ofor
ce

Di
sadv
ant
agesoff
orcesensi
ti
ver
esi
stor

 Lowaccur
acy

Appl
i
cat
ionsoff
orcesensi
ti
ver
esi
stor

 Musi
cal
inst
rument
s:I
nmusi
cal
inst
rument
s,t
hef
orcesensi
ti
ver
esi
stor
sar
e
usedt
otr
ansl
atet
heemot
ionsofaper
soni
ntomusi
cal
expr
essi
onst
hrough
hi
stouch.
 Comput
eri
nputdev
ices:
For
cesensi
ti
ver
esi
stor
sar
eusedt
ocont
rol
the
f
orceandspeedoft
hecur
sormov
ement
.

75
  I
ndust
ri
alappl
i
cat
ions:
For
cesensi
ti
ver
esi
stor
sar
eusedi
nbr
akes,
seat
occupancydet
ect
ion,
mot
orspeedcont
rol
andmi
rr
oradj
ust
or.
 Robot
icsf
inger
ti
ps
 Medi
cal
appl
i
cat
ions
 Spor
ts

Resi
storcol
orcode
Whati
sar
esi
stor
?

Resistorsar ethepassi vecomponent susedintheelectr i

cal
cir
cuitst oreducet hef l
owofel ectri
ccurrenttocert
ainl evel
.The
abil
it
yt or estr
ictthef l
owofel ectri
ccurrentiscal
ledresi st
ance.
Ther esistorswithhi ghresistancev aluewillr
estr
ict
slar ge
amountofel ectriccurrentwher east heresist
orswithlow
resi
stancev al
uewi l
lrestr
ictsonl yasmal lamountofel ectri
c
curr
ent .Ther esistanceofar esistori
smeasur edinohms.

Whati
sacol
orcode?

Generall
y,coderef erstoar epresentationofinf ormat ioni
n
anotherform byusi ngsymbol s,signals,andl ettersforthe
purposesofsecr ecy .Her
e, thesignalsorsy mbol sactascodes.
Inthesimilarway, i
nr esi
storsweusedi f
ferentcol orsascodes
tospecifytheresistance(informat i
on)oft her esistor.Her
e,t
he
dif
ferentcolor
scoat edont heresistoractascodes.

Thecol
orcodesarealsousedt
ospeci
fythetoler
anceand
rel
i
abi
li
tyoft
heresist
or.Wecanal
sodir
ectl
yf i
ndtheresi
stance

76
v
alueofar
esi
storbyusi
ngohmmet
er.

Thecol
orcodesar
eusednotonl
yinresistor
sbutal
soinother
el
ect
roni
ccomponent
ssuchascapacitorsandi
nductor
s.

Speci fy
ingt hev aluesorratingsofelectroni
ccomponent ssuch
resistors,capaci t
ors,andinductorsbyusi ngthecolorcodes
printedont hem iscalledelectr
oniccolorcodesy st
em.The
electroniccol orcodesy stem wasdev elopedintheearly1920s
byt heradi omanuf act
uresassociati
on, whichisnowpar tof
ElectronicIndust r
iesAl l
i
ance( EI
A).

Thecolor-codingisdoneonl yi
nthef i
xedresistorsbutnotin
vari
ableresistor
sbecauset hecolorcodi
ngt echniqueshows
onlyafixedr esi
stancevalue.Thev ari
abl
er esistor
shavev ar
ying
resi
stance.Hence, iti
snotpossi blet
ouset hecol orcodi
ng
techni
quei nv ar
iabler
esistors.

Whycol
orcodesar
eusedi
nresi
stor
sinst
eadofdi
rect
lypr
int
ingt
her
esi
stancev
alue?

Pri
nti
ngthenumbersonlargeel
ect
roni
ccomponentsisv er
y
easy,
butiti
sverydi
ff
icul
ttopri
ntt
henumbersorresi
stance
val
uesont i
nycomponent
s.Hence,i
nst
eadofdi
rectl
yprinti
ng

77
thenumbers,
wepr intt
hecol
orcodesorcol
orbands.However
,
byusingt
helatestpri
nti
ngt
echnol
ogywecandirect
lypri
ntt
he
numbersonresist
ors.

Thecolorcodi
ngtechniquehassomedr awbacks.Forbli
nd
people,
iti
simpossibl
et ofi
ndtheresi
stanceoftheresi
stor,
becausetheycannotseethecolor
scoat edontheresi
stor.

Anot herdrawbackisr ecognizingthediffer

encebet weentwo
colorsi nanov er
heatedresistorisverydiff
icul
t.Whent he
resistorisoverheat
ed, t
hecol orsonther esist
orchangesslight
ly.
Ther efore,
itbecomesi mpossi bl
et orecognizethediff
erence
betweenbr owncolorandr edcol ororbrowncol orandorange
color.

Repr
esent
ingt
her
esi
stanceofar
esi
storbyusi
ngcol
orbands

Inacol orcodingtechni
que,theresistorsv al
ueismar kedont he
resi
storsbodybyusi ngcolors.Thecol orspaintedont he
resi
storsbodyar ecall
edcolorbands.Al l
thecolorbandspai nted
ont heresist
orbodyar eusedt oi
ndicat etheresist
ancev al
ue
andt ol
erance.Eachcoloront heresistorsbodyr epr
esentsa
diff
erentnumber .

Thecolorbandsofr esi
storsarebasi
call
yofthreetypes:4band
resi
stor,5bandr esist
or,and6bandresistor
.Inordertofi
ndthe
resi
stanceofar esistor
,weneedt odecodethecol or
spaintedon
theresi
storsbody .Thedecodingchangesbasedupont he
numberofcol orbandspai ntedontheresi
storsbody.

78
4bandcol
orcoder
esi
stor

A4bandcol orcoder esi

storhas3col orbandsonl
eftsideand
onecol orbandonrightside.The3col orbandsonleftsi
deare
veryclosetoeachot herandt he4thcolorbandonr
ightsidei
s
separatedfrom f
ir
st3bandswi thsomespace.

The3colorbandsontheleftsi
dearegroupedtogetherto
i
ndicat
etheresi
stor
sresi
stancev al
ueandthe4thcolorbandon
theri
ghtsi
deindi
catest
hetoleranceofther
esi
st or
.

Whati stolerance? " Tolerancei st hevar i

ationi nther esistance
ofar esi
st orfrom it
sact ual resistance.Ther esist
or sofhi gh
tolerancehav ehighv ar
iationi nther esistance.Ther esistorsof
l
owt oler
ancehav elowv ar i
ationi nther esistance.Forexampl e,
ar esi
st orthathasat oleranceof5%mayv ary5%ofi ts
resistancef rom itsactual resistancev alue.Simi lar
ly,ar esistor
t
hathasat oleranceof8%mayv ary8%ofi tsresistancef rom i ts
actualresistancev al
ue.Tol eranceofar esistorisnor mal ly
specifi
edi nper centage. "

The1stcol
orbandont
her
esi
stori
ndi
cat he1stsi
est gni
fi
cant

79
valueor1stdigi
toftheresist
orsresist
anceandt he2ndcolor
bandi ndi
cates2ndsi
gnifi
cantvalueor2nddigitoftheresi
stors
resi ance.The3rdcol
st orbandist hedecimal mult
ipl
ierandthe
4thcolorbandindi
catestheresistor
stolerance.

The1stand2ndcol
orbandstogethermakeupa2di gitnumber
andthe3rdcol
orbandormul t
ipl
i
erismulti
pli
edwiththis2di
git
numbertoobtaint
heresist
ancev al
ueoftheresi
stor
.

I he4thcol
ft orbandort
oler
ancebandislef
tblank,iti
s
consi
deredasthe3bandresi
storandt
hetolerancefort
he3
bandresi
stori
sassumedtobe20%.

Resistorsthatar
emanufactur
edf ormi
li
tar
yusemayal
so
i
ncludeanext rabandcal
led5thbandwhi
chindi
cat
esr
esist
or
fai
l
ur erate.

Exampl
e:

I
ft hecolorsona4bandresi
storisint
hisor
der:br
own, gr
een,
redandv iol
et(asshowni
nfigur
e).Theval
uesofcolorbandswil
l
bel i
kethis:Br
own=1, Gr
een=5, Red=102or100,Viol
et=
0.10%.

80
I
nthecol
orcodet
abl
e,br
ownhasav
alueof1whi
chi
sthe1st

digitandgreenhasav al
ueof5whi chistheseconddigi
t.The
fi
rstandsecondcolorbandsaregroupedt oget
hertomakeupa
twodi tnumber15.The3rdcol
gi orbandr edhasav al
ueof100.
Thisvalueismult
ipl
i
edwi tht
hetwodi gitnumberI
.e.,
15x100=
1500ohms.Vi ol
etspecif
iest
hatthetolerancei
s0.10%.

Ther
efor
e,theresistorcol
orcodedwi
thbr
own-
green-
red-
viol
et
woul
dhav earesistanceof1500ohmswit
hatol
eranceof±
0.
10%.

5bandcol
orcoder
esi
stor

A5bandcol orcoder esi

storhas4col orbandsonl
eftsideand
onecolorbandonrightside.The4col orbandsonleftsi
deare
ver
yclosetoeachot herandt he5thcolorbandonr
ightsidei
s
81
separ
atedf
rom t
hef
ir
st4bandswi
thsomespace.

The4colorbandsont heleftsi
dearegroupedtoget
hert o
repr
esentt
her esi
stancevalueofaresi
storandthe5thcol
or
bandontherightsi
dei ndi
catesthet
oler
anceoftheresistor
.

 The1stcol
orbandi ndi
catesthe1stsignif
icantvalueor1st
di
gitoftheresi
storsvalue.
 The2ndcolorbandindicat he2ndsi
est gni
ficantvalueor2nd
di
gitoftheresi
storvalue.
 The3rdcol
orbandi ndi
catesthe3rdsignifi
cantvalueor3rd
di
gitoftheresi
storsvalue.
 The4thcol
orbandi sthedecimalmul tipl
i
er .
 The5thcol
orbandi ndi
catestheresistorstoler
ance.

The1st,
2ndand3rdcolorbandst
ogethermakeupa3di gi
t
numberandthe4thcolorbandormul t
ipl
i
erismult
ipl
i
edwi t
hthi
s
3digi
tnumbertoobt ai
ntheresi
stancevalueoft
heresi
stor
.

Exampl
e:

I
fthecol
orsona5bandr
esi
stori
sint
hisor
der
:br
own,
green,

82
red,
blueandvi
olet(
asshowni
nfi
gure).Theval
uesofcol
or
bandswil
lbeli
kethi
s:Br
own=1,Green=5, Red=2, ue=106,
bl
Viol
et=0.10%.

I
nthecol
orcodet
abl
e,br
ownhasav
alueof1whi
chi
sthe1stdi
git
,gr
eenhasa
v
alueof5whi
chi
stheseconddi
gitandr
edhasav
alueof2whi
chi
sthe3rddi
git
.
Thef
ir
st,
secondandt
hir
dcol
orbandst
oget
hermakeupat
hreedi
gitnumber152.
The4thcol
orbandbl
uehasav
alueof106.Thi
sval
uei
smul
ti
pli
edwi
tht
het
hree
di
gitnumber152I
.e.
,152x106=152MΩ.Vi
oletspeci
fi
est
hatt
het
oler
ancei
s0.
10%.

Ther
efor
e,t
her
esi
storcol
orcodedwi
thbr
own-
green-
red-
blue-
viol
etwoul
dhav
ea
r
esi
stanceof152MΩwi
that
oler
anceof±0.
10%.

6bandcol
orcoder
esi
stor

83
A6bandcol
orcoder
esi
storconsi
stsof6col
orbands.The4col
orbandsont
he
l
eftsi
dear
egr
oupedt
oget
hert
orepr
esentt
her
esi
stor
sresi
stancev
alue.The5th
col
orbandont
her
ightsi
der
epr
esentt
het
oler
anceoft
her
esi
st he6thcol
orandt or
bandr
epr
esent
stheTCR(
Temper
atur
eCo-
eff
ici
entofResi
st .
ance)

 The1stcol
orbandi
ndi
cat he1stsi
est gni
fi
cantv
alueoft
her
esi
stor
sval
ue.
 The2ndcol
orbandi
ndi
cat he2ndsi
est gni
fi
cantv
alueoft
her
esi
stor
sval
ue.
 The3rdcol
orbandi
ndi
cat he3rdsi
est gni
fi
cantv
alueoft
her
esi
stor
sval
ue.
 The4thcol
orbandi
sthedeci
mal
mul
ti
pli
er.
 The5thcol
orbandi
ndi
cat
est
her
esi
stor
stol
erance.
 The6thcol
orbandi
ndi
cat
est
heTCR (
Temper
atur
eCo-
eff
ici
entof
Resi
stance)
.

The1st,
2nd,
and3rdcol
orbandst
oget
hermakeupa3di
gitnumberandt
hef
our
th
col
orbandi
smul
ti
pli
edwi
tht
his3di
gitnumbert
ogett
her
esi
stancev
alueoft
he
r
esi
stor
.

Exampl
e:

I
fthecol
orsona6bandr
esi
stori
sint
hisor
der
:gr
een,
brown,
viol
et,
black,
gol
d
andor
ange.Thev
aluesofcol
orbandswi
l
lbel
i
ket
his:
Green=5,
Brown=1,
Viol
et
=7,
Black=100,
Gol
d=5%,
Orange=15ppm.

84
I
nthecol
orcodet
abl
e,gr
eenhasav
alueof5whi
chi
sthe1stdi
git
,br
ownhasa
v
alueof1whi
chi
stheseconddi
gitandv
iol
ethasav
alueof7whi
chi
sthe3rddi
git
.
Thef
ir
st,
secondandt
hir
dcol
orbandst
oget
hermakeupat
hreedi
gitnumber517.
The4thcol
orbandbl
ackhasav
alueof100.Thi
sval
uei
smul
ti
pli
edwi
tht
het
hree
di
gitnumber517I
.e.
,517x100=517ohms.Gol
dspeci
fi
est
hatt
het
oler
ancei
s5%and

or
angespeci
fi
est
hatt
heTCRi
s15ppm.

Ther
efor
e,t
her
esi
storcol
orcodedwi
thgr
een-
brown-
viol
et-
black-
gol
d-or
angewoul
dhav
ea

r
esi
stanceof517ohmswi
that
oler
anceof5%andTCR(
Temper
atur
eCo-
eff
ici
entofResi
stance)

of15ppm.

WhatisTCR? Therateatwhichtheresistanceofther
esi
stor
changeswi
thchangeintemperatur
eiscal l
edTCR( Temper
atur
e
Co-
effi
cientofResi
stance).

85
Howt
oreadordecoder
esi
storcol
orcodes

Theplacementoft hecol
orbandsont heresistorisvery
i
mpor tant.Generall
y,t
hecol
orbandspl acedcl osesttothel ead
orendoft heresistori
sconsi
deredast hefir
stband.Thenextt o
thefi
rstbandi ssecondbandandsoon.Anot herwayi stheextra
spacebet weent hetwobands(3rdand4thbands)al soindicates
thereadingdirecti
on.

I
fyoufeeldi
ff
icul
ttofi
ndther
esi
stanceoft
heresist
orbyusi
ng
i
tscol
orbands,youcandir
ect
lyf
indther
esi
stancebyusi
ng
ohmmeterormulti
meter.

Howt
oremembercol
orcodesont
her
esi
stor
?

I
fy ouf i
nddiff
icul
ttoremembert
hecolorcodesontheresi
stor
,
uset hesemnemoni cstoremembert
hem easil
y.Thebol
dlett
ers
representscolornames.

Somemnemoni
cst
hatar
eeasyt
orememberi
ncl
ude:

 B.
B.ROYofGr eatBri
tai
nhasaVer yGoodWat chmadeof
GoldSi
lver
 ByeByeRosieOffYouGoBirmingham ViaGreatWest
ern
 ByeByeRosieOffYouGoBr i
stolVi
aGreatWest er
n
 Bett
erBuyResist
orsOrYourGridBiasVolt
agesGoWest

Capaci
tor

86
Whati
sacapaci
tor
?

Capaci
tor
sar
ethemostwi
del
yusedel
ect
roni
ccomponent
saf
terr
esi
stor
s.Wef
indcapaci
tor
sin

t
elev
isi
ons,
comput
ers,
andal
lel
ect
roni
cci
rcui
ts.Acapaci
tori
sanel
ect
roni
cdev
icet
hatst
ores

el
ect
ri
cchar
georel
ect
ri
cit
ywhenv
olt
agei
sappl
i
edandr
eleasesst
oredel
ect
ri
cchar
ge

whenev
err
equi
red.

Capaci
toract
sasasmal
lbat
ter
ythatchar
gesanddi
schar
gesr
api
dly
.Anyobj
ect
,whi
chcan

st
oreel
ect
ri
cchar
ge,
isacapaci
tor
.Capaci
tori
sal
sosomet
imesr
efer
redasacondenser
.

Whati
sael
ect
ri
cchar
ge?

El
ect
ri
cchar
gei
sthebasi
cpr
oper
tyofpar
ti
clessuchasel
ect
ronsandpr
otons.Thi
sel
ect
ri
c

char
gecausest
hem t
oexper
ienceanat
tract
iveorr
epul
siv
efor
cewhenpl
acedi
nan

el
ect
romagnet
icf
iel
d.

El
ect
ri
cchar
gesar
eoft
wot
ypes:
posi
ti
veandnegat
ive.El
ect
ronshav
enegat
ivechar
geand

pr
otonshav
eposi
ti
vechar
ge.

Li
kegr
avi
tat
ional
ener
gypr
esentar
oundt
hepl
anet
sli
keEar
th,
elect
ri
cal
ener
gyi
spr
esentar
ound

t
hechar
gedpar
ti
cl
essuchasel
ect
ronsandpr
otons.Howev
er,
thechar
gedpar
ti
clesexer
tfor
ce

onl
yupt
oasmal
ldi
stancear
oundt
hem andbey
ondt
hatt
heycannotexer
tfor
ce.Ther
egi
onup

t
owhi
cht
hechar
gedpar
ti
clesexer
tfor
cei
scal
l
edel
ect
ri
cfi
eld.I
fwepl
aceanychar
gedpar
ti
cle

wi
thi
nthi
sregi
on,
itwi
l
lexper
ienceaf
orce.Thi
sfor
cemayber
epul
siv
eorat
tr
act
ive.

87
Theel
ect
ri
cal
ener
gyorel
ect
ri
cchar
gepr
esentar
oundt
hechar
gedpar
ti
clei
srepr
esent
edbyt
he

el
ect
ri
cli
nesoff
orce.Thedi
rect
ionoft
heseel
ect
ri
cli
nesoff
orcei
sdi
ff
erentf
orposi
ti
vechar
ge

andnegat
ivechar
ge.Forposi
ti
vechar
ge,
theel
ect
ri
cli
nesoff
orcebegi
nfr
om t
hecent
eroft
he

char
gedpar
ti
cl
eandf
lowsawayf
rom i
t.Fornegat
ivechar
ge,
theel
ect
ri
cli
nesoff
orcebegi
ns

awayf
rom t
hechar
gedpar
ti
cleandmov
etowar
dsi
tscent
er.I
nel
ect
roni
cs,
hol
eisconsi
der
edas

t
heposi
ti
vechar
ge.

Whent
henegat
ivechar
gedpar
ti
cle(
elect
ron)i
spl
acedwi
thi
ntheel
ect
ri
cfi
eldofposi
ti
vel
y

char
gedpar
ti
cl
e(pr
oton)
,itget
sat
tract
ed.Ont
heot
herhand,
whent
heposi
ti
vel
ychar
ged

par
ti
cle(
prot
on)i
spl
acedwi
thi
ntheel
ect
ri
cfi
eldofanot
herpr
oton,
itget
srepel
l
ed.I
nsi
mpl
e

wor
ds,
opposi
teel
ect
ri
cchar
gesat
tracteachot
herandsameel
ect
ri
cchar
gesr
epel
eachot
her
.

Const
ruct
ionofacapaci
tor

Thebasi
cconst
ruct
ionofal
lcapaci
tor
sissi
mil
ar.Theconst
ruct
ionofcapaci
tori
sver
ysi
mpl
e.A

capaci
tori
smadeoft
woel
ect
ri
cal
l
yconduct
ivepl
atespl
acedcl
oset
oeachot
her
,butt
heydonot

t
oucheachot
her
.Theseconduct
ivepl
atesar
enor
mal
l
ymadeofmat
eri
alssuchasal
umi
num,

br
ass,
orcopper
.

88
Theconduct
ivepl
atesofacapaci
tori
ssepar
atedbyasmal
ldi
stance.Theempt
yspacebet
ween

t
hesepl
atesi
sfi
l
ledwi
thanon-
conduct
ivemat
eri
alorel
ect
ri
cinsul
atorordi
elect
ri
cregi
on.The

non-
conduct
ivemat
eri
alorr
egi
onbet
weent
het
wopl
atesmaybeanai
r,v
acuum,
glass,
li
qui
d,or

sol
i
d.Thi
snon-
conduct
ivemat
eri
ali
scal
l
eddi
elect
ri
c.

Thet
woconduct
ivepl
atesoft
hecapaci
torar
egoodconduct
orsofel
ect
ri
cit
y.Ther
efor
e,t
heycan

easi
l
ypasst
heel
ect
ri
ccur
rentt
hrought
hem.Theconduct
ivepl
atesoft
hecapaci
toral
sohol
d

t
heel
ect
ri
cchar
ge.I
ncapaci
tor
s,t
hesepl
atesar
emai
nlyusedt
ohol
dorst
oret
heel
ect
ri
cchar
ge.

Adi
elect
ri
cmat
eri
alormedi
um i
sthepoorconduct
orofel
ect
ri
cit
y.Theycannotpassel
ect
ri
c

cur
rentt
hrought
hem.I
ncapaci
tor
s,t
hedi
elect
ri
cmedi
um ormat
eri
albl
ockt
hef
lowofchar
ge

car
ri
ers(
especi
all
yel
ect
rons)bet
weent
heconduct
ivepl
ates.Asar
esul
t,t
heel
ect
ri
cchar
ges

t
hatt
ryt
omov
efr
om onepl
atet
oanot
herpl
atewi
l
lbet
rappedwi
thi
nthepl
atebecauseoft
he

st
rongr
esi
stancef
rom t
hedi
elect
ri
c.

I
fwepl
acet
heconduct
ivemedi
um bet
weent
hesepl
ates,
theel
ect
ri
cchar
gesf
loweasi
l
yfr
om

onepl
atet
oanot
herpl
ate.Howev
er,
elect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowbet
weent
hepl
atesi
snotdesi
rabl
e.I
t

i
ndi
cat
est
hef
ail
ureofcapaci
tor
.

89
Weknowt
hatel
ect
ri
ccur
renti
sthef
lowofchar
gecar
ri
erswher
easel
ect
ri
cfor
ceorel
ect
ri
cfi
eld

i
sthepr
oper
tyofel
ect
ri
cchar
ges.Di
elect
ri
cmat
eri
aldoesnotal
l
owt
hef
lowofchar
gecar
ri
ers,

butt
heyal
l
owt
heel
ect
ri
cfor
ce,
elect
ri
cchar
ge,
orel
ect
ri
cfi
eldpr
oducedbyt
hechar
ged

par
ti
cles(
elect
rons)
.Asar
esul
t,whenchar
gei
sbui
l
dupont
het
wopl
ates,
ast
rongel
ect
ri
cfi
eld

i
sgener
atedbet
weent
het
wopl
ates.

Howcapaci
torwor
ks?

Capaci
torwi
thnov
olt
agesour
ce

Whennov
olt
agei
sappl
i
edt
othecapaci
tor
,thet
otal
numberofel
ect
ronsandpr
otonsi
nthel
eft

pl
ateoft
hecapaci
torar
eequal
.Weknowt
hatanyobj
ect
,whi
chhasequal
numberofel
ect
rons

andpr
otonsi
ssai
dtobeel
ect
ri
cal
l
yneut
ral
.Hence,
thet
otal
char
geoft
hel
eftpl
atecancel
sout

andbecomesel
ect
ri
cal
l
yneut
ral
.Ther
efor
e,t
hel
eftpl
ateoft
hecapaci
tori
ssai
dtobeel
ect
ri
cal

neut
ral
.

Ont
heot
herhand,
ther
ightpl
ateal
sohasequal
numberofel
ect
ronsandpr
otons.Ther
efor
e,t
he

90
t
otal
char
geoft
her
ightpl
atecancel
soutandbecomesel
ect
ri
cal
l
yneut
ral
.

Noel
ect
ri
cchar
gemeansnoel
ect
ri
cfi
eld.Ther
efor
e,t
hecapaci
tordoesnotst
orechar
gewhen

nov
olt
agei
sappl
i
ed.

Char
gingacapaci
tor

Char
gewi
l
lbebui
l
tonanobj
ectt
hathasexcessnumberofel
ect
ronsorpr
otons.I
nor
dert
o

pr
oduceexcessnumberofel
ect
ronsorpr
otons,
weneedappl
yvol
taget
othecapaci
tor
.

Whenv
olt
agei
sappl
i
edt
othecapaci
tori
nsuchawayt
hat
,theposi
ti
vet
ermi
nal
oft
hebat
ter
yis

connect
edt
othel
eftsi
depl
ateoft
hecapaci
torandt
henegat
ivet
ermi
nal
oft
hebat
ter
yis

connect
edt
other
ightsi
depl
ateoft
hecapaci
tor
,thechar
gingofcapaci
tort
akespl
ace.

Becauseoft
hissuppl
yvol
tage,
alar
genumberofel
ect
ronsst
artmov
ingf
rom t
henegat
ive

t
ermi
nal
oft
hebat
ter
ythr
ought
heconduct
ivewi
re.Whent
heseel
ect
ronsr
eacht
her
ightsi
de

pl
ateoft
hecapaci
tor
,theyexper
ienceast
rongopposi
ti
onf
rom di
elect
ri
cmat
eri
al.Thedi
elect
ri
c

mat
eri
alormedi
um pr
esentbet
weent
hepl
ateswi
l
lst
rongl
yopposet
hemov
ementofel
ect
rons

f
rom t
her
ightsi
depl
ate.Asar
esul
t,al
argenumberofel
ect
ronsar
etr
appedorbui
l
dupont
he

r
ightsi
depl
ateoft
hecapaci
tor
.

91
Becauseoft
hegai
ningofexcessel
ect
ronsf
rom out
side,
thenumberofel
ect
rons(
negat
ive

char
gecar
ri
ers)ont
her
ightsi
depl
atewi
l
lbecomehi
ghert
hant
henumberofpr
otons(
posi
ti
ve

char
gecar
ri
ers)
.Asar
esul
t,t
her
ightsi
depl
ateoft
hecapaci
torbecomesnegat
ivel
ychar
ged.

Ont
heot
herhand,
theel
ect
ronsont
hel
eftsi
depl
ateexper
ienceast
rongat
tr
act
ivef
orcef
rom

t
heposi
ti
vet
ermi
nal
oft
hebat
ter
y.Asar
esul
t,t
heel
ect
ronsl
eav
elef
tsi
depl
ateandat
tr
act
edor

mov
edt
owar
dst
heposi
ti
vet
ermi
nal
oft
hebat
ter
y.

Thenegat
ivechar
gebui
l
dont
her
ightsi
depl
atecr
eat
esast
rongnegat
iveel
ect
ri
cfi
eld.Thi
s

st
rongnegat
iveel
ect
ri
cfi
eldal
sopushest
hel
i
kechar
gesorel
ect
ronsont
hel
eftpl
ate.

Becauseoft
hel
ossofl
argenumberofel
ect
ronsf
rom t
hel
eftsi
depl
ate,
thenumberofpr
otons

(
posi
ti
vechar
gecar
ri
ers)wi
l
lbecomehi
ghert
hant
henumberofel
ect
rons(
negat
ivechar
ge

car
ri
ers)
.Asar
esul
t,t
hel
eftsi
depl
ateoft
hecapaci
torbecomesposi
ti
vel
ychar
ged.Thus,
bot
h

t
heconduct
ivepl
atesofacapaci
torar
echar
ged.

92
Theposi
ti
veandnegat
ivechar
gesont
hebot
hpl
atesexer
tfor
ceoneachot
her
.Howev
er,
theydo

nott
oucheachot
her
.

Becauseoft
heexcessnumberofel
ect
ronsononepl
ateandshor
tageofel
ect
ronsonanot
her

pl
ate,
apot
ent
ial
dif
fer
enceorv
olt
agei
sest
abl
i
shedbet
weent
hepl
ates.Ast
hecapaci
tor

cont
inuest
ochar
ge,
thev
olt
agepr
oducedbet
weent
hepl
atesi
ncr
eases.

Thev
olt
agepr
oducedbet
weent
hepl
atesopposest
hesour
cev
olt
age.Asar
esul
t,whent
he

capaci
tori
sful
l
ychar
ged(
vol
tagebet
weent
hepl
atesi
sequal
tot
hesour
cev
olt
age)
,the

capaci
torst
opschar
ging.Becauseatt
hispoi
nt,
theener
gyofsour
cev
olt
ageandt
hecapaci
tor

v
olt
agear
eequal
.Asar
esul
t,t
heel
ect
ronsorel
ect
ri
cfi
eldont
her
ightsi
depl
ater
epel
sthe

el
ect
ronscomi
ngf
rom t
hev
olt
agesour
ce.

Therefore,tofur
thercharget hecapacitor
,weneedt oincr
ease
thevoltagetoahi gherl
evel.Whenv olt
ageappli
edtothe
capacitorisincr
easedtoahi gherlevel
.Thechargeagainstar
ts
buil
dingont heconductiv
epl atesoft hecapacit
orunti
litr
eaches
thenewv ol
tagelevel
.Whent hev olt
ageproducedbetweenthe
plat
esr eachesthenewsour cev olt
agelevel
,i
tagainstops
charging.

Capaci
tor
sar
edesi
gnedandmanuf
act
uredt
ooper
ateatacer
tai
nmaxi
mum v
olt
age.I
fthe

v
olt
ageappl
i
edt
ocapaci
torexceedsi
tsmaxi
mum v
olt
age,
theel
ect
ronsst
art
smov
ingbet
ween

t
hepl
ates.Thi
swi
l
lresul
tinper
manentdamageofacapaci
tor
.

Di
schar
gingacapaci
tor

I
ftheext
ernal
vol
tagesour
ceconnect
edt
othecapaci
tori
sremov
ed,
thecapaci
torr
emai
ns

char
ged.Howev
er,
whent
hecapaci
tori
sconnect
edt
oanyel
ect
ri
cdev
icesuchasel
ect
ri
cbul
b

t
hroughaconduct
ivewi
re,
itst
art
sdi
schar
ging.

93
Whent
hecapaci
tori
sconnect
edt
oanel
ect
ri
cbul
bthr
oughaconduct
ivewi
re,
theel
ect
rons

t
rappedont
her
ightsi
depl
atest
art
sfl
owi
ngt
hrought
heci
rcui
t.Weknowt
hatel
ect
ri
ccur
renti
s

t
hef
lowofchar
gecar
ri
ers(
freeel
ect
rons)
.Ther
efor
e,whent
hef
reeel
ect
ronsorel
ect
ri
ccur
rent

r
eachest
hel
i
ghtbul
b,i
tgl
owswi
thhi
ghi
ntensi
ty.

Theel
ect
ronst
hatst
art
edf
lowi
ngf
rom t
her
ightsi
depl
atet
hrought
heconduct
ivewi
ref
inal
l
y

r
eacht
hel
eftsi
depl
ateandf
il
lthehol
esoft
hel
eftsi
depl
ate.Asar
esul
t,t
hechar
geont
hel
eft

si
depl
ateandr
ightsi
depl
atest
art
sdecr
easi
ng.Thi
sdecr
easest
hei
ntensi
tyofel
ect
ri
cbul
b,

becauset
heel
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowi
ngt
hrought
heel
ect
ri
cbul
bdecr
eases.

94
Fi
nal
l
y,t
hechar
gest
oredont
hel
eftpl
ateandt
her
ightpl
atei
scompl
etel
yrel
eased.Asar
esul
t,

t
hebul
bwi
l
ltur
nof
f,becausenoel
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowst
hrought
hebul
b.Thus,
thechar
gest
ored

ont
hel
eftpl
ateandr
ightpl
ateoft
hecapaci
tori
sdi
schar
ged.

Capaci
torci
rcui
tsy
mbol

Theci
rcui
tsy
mbol
ofabasi
ccapaci
tori
sshowni
nthebel
owf
igur
e.Thecapaci
torsy
mbol
is

r
epr
esent
edbydr
awi
ngt
wopar
all
ell
i
nescl
oset
oeachot
her
,butnott
ouchi
ng.I
tconsi
stsoft
wo

t
ermi
nal
s.Theset
ermi
nal
sar
eusedt
oconnecti
ntheci
rcui
t.

Capaci
tance

Theabi
l
ityofacapaci
tort
ost
oreel
ect
ri
cchar
gei
scal
l
edcapaci
tance.Capaci
tor
swi
thhi
gh

capaci
tancewi
l
lst
orel
argeamountofel
ect
ri
cchar
gewher
east
hecapaci
tor
swi
thl
ow

capaci
tancewi
l
lst
oresmal
lamountofel
ect
ri
cchar
ge.

Thecapaci
tanceofacapaci
torcanbecompar
edwi
tht
hesi
zeofawat
ert
ank:
thel
argert
he

wat
ert
ank,
themor
ewat
eri
tcanst
ore.I
nthesi
mil
arway
,thel
argert
hecapaci
tance,
themor
e

el
ect
ri
cchar
georel
ect
ri
cit
yitcanst
ore.

Thecapaci
tanceofacapaci
tori
smai
nlydependsont
hesi
zeoft
hepl
atesf
aci
ngeachot
her
,the

spaci
ngbet
weent
woconduct
ivepl
ates,
andt
hedi
elect
ri
cconst
antoft
hemat
eri
albet
weent
he

pl
ates.

Thecapaci
tanceofacapaci
tori
sdi
rect
lypr
opor
ti
onal
tot
hesi
zeofconduct
ivepl
atesand

i
nver
sel
ypr
opor
ti
onal
tot
hedi
stancebet
weent
wopl
ates.

95
I
not
herwor
ds,
thecapaci
torwi
thl
argeconduct
ivepl
atesst
oresl
argeamountofel
ect
ri
cchar
ge

wher
east
hecapaci
torwi
thsmal
lconduct
ivepl
atesst
oressmal
lamountofel
ect
ri
cchar
ge.On

t
heot
herhand,
thecapaci
torwi
thl
argesepar
ati
ondi
stancebet
weent
hepl
ateshasl
ow

capaci
tance(
lowchar
gest
orage)wher
east
hecapaci
torwi
thsmal
lsepar
ati
ondi
stancebet
ween

t
hepl
ateshashi
ghcapaci
tance(
highchar
gest
orage)
.

Thecapaci
tanceofacapaci
tori
smeasur
edi
nfar
ad.I
tisr
epr
esent
edbyasy
mbol
F.Far
adi
s

namedaf
tert
heEngl
i
shphy
sici
stMi
chael
Far
aday
.A1f
aradcapaci
torchar
gedwi
th1coul
omb

ofel
ect
ri
cchar
gehasapot
ent
ial
dif
fer
enceorv
olt
ageof1v
oltbet
weeni
tspl
ates.

Onef
aradi
sver
ylar
geamountofcapaci
tance.Hence,
inmostcasesweusev
erysmal
luni
tof

capaci
tance.Themostcommonsubuni
tsofcapaci
tanceweuset
odayar
emi
crof
arad(
µF)
,nano

f
arad(
nF)
,pi
cof
arad(
pF)
,andf
emof
arad(
fF)
.

1mi
crof
arad=10-6f
arads

1nanof
arad=10-9f
arads

1pi
cof
arad=10-12f
arads

1f
emof
arad=10-15f
arads

Char
geonacapaci
tor

Theel
ect
ri
cchar
gest
oredbyt
hecapaci
tori
sdependsont
hev
olt
ageappl
i
edt
othecapaci
tor
.

I
fhi
ghv
olt
agei
sappl
i
edt
othecapaci
tor
,lar
geamountofchar
gei
str
ansf
err
edt
othecapaci
tor

pl
ates.Asar
esul
t,capaci
torst
oresl
argeamountofchar
ge.

Ont
heot
herhand,
ifl
owv
olt
agei
sappl
i
edt
othecapaci
tor
,onl
yasmal
lamountofchar
gei
s

t
ransf
err
edt
othecapaci
torpl
ates.Asar
esul
t,capaci
torst
oresonl
yasmal
lamountofchar
ge.

Howev
er,
thecapaci
tanceoft
hecapaci
torr
emai
nsconst
ant
.Wecannoti
ncr
easet
he

96
capaci
tanceofacapaci
tor
.

Ther
elat
ionshi
pbet
weent
hechar
ge,
vol
tageandcapaci
tancecanbemat
hemat
ical
l
ywr
it
teni
n

t
hreef
orms:

Fi
xedcapaci
tor
Capacit
orisanelect
roni
cdevi
cethatst
oresel
ectr
iccharge.
Whenv olt
ageisappl
iedtot
hecapacit
or,i
tst
oreselect
ri
ccharge.
Thischargest
oragemaybef i
xedorvari
abl
edependsupont he
ty
peofcapacitor
.

Capaci
tor
sar
emai
nlycl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
wot
ypes:

 Fi
xedcapaci
tor
s
 Var
iabl
ecapaci
tor
s

I
nthi
stut
ori
al,
fixedcapaci
tor
sar
eexpl
ained.

Fi
xedcapaci
tor

Fi
xedcapaci
torisat ypeofcapacit
orwhichprov
idesfi
xed
amountofcapacitance(capaci
tancemeansabil
it
ytostor
e
el
ect
ri
ccharge).Inotherwords,fi
xedcapaci
tori
sat y
peof
97
capaci
torthatst
oresf
ixedamountofel
ect
ri
cchar
gewhi
chi
s
notadj
ustable.

Fi
xedcapaci
torsareclassi
fi
edint
odiff
erentt
ypesbasedonthe
di
elect
ri
cmat er
ial
usedt oconst
ructt
hem.Thediff
erentt
ypesof
fi
xedcapaci
torsare:

 Papercapaci
tor
 Pl
ast
iccapaci
tororpl
ast
icf
il
m capaci
tor
 Cer
ami
ccapaci
tor
 Mi
cacapaci
tor
 El
ect
rol
yti
ccapaci
tor
 Super
capaci
tor

 Papercapaci
tor

Papercapacitorisatypeofcapacitorwhichusespaperast he
diel
ectri
ctostoreelect
riccharge.I
tconsist
sofpapersheetsand
al
umi num sheets.Thepapersheetiscoveredwi t
hwaxoroi lt
o
prot
ectitfrom harmfuloutsi
deenvironment.Papercapaci
tors
arefi
xedt y
peofcapaci tor
sthatmeanst heyoffermixed
capacit
ance.

98
Thepapercapacitorismadebypl acingpapersheetbetween
twoaluminum sheets.Thepapersheetpl acedbetweenthe
aluminum sheet
sact sasdiel
ectr
icandt healuminum sheets
actsaselectr
odes.Paperispoorconduct orofelect
ri
cit
y.
Therefor
e,paperdoesnotal l
owflowofel ectr
iccurr
entbetween
twoelectr
odes(aluminum sheet
s) .Howev er
,thepapersheet
all
owselectri
cfi
eldbetweent woel ect
rodes.

Papersheet sandaluminum sheetsareroll

edt ogetherinthe
form ofcyl
inderandwi r
eleadsareattachedt obothendsoft he
aluminum sheets.Theenti
recyli
nderisthencoat edwi t
hwaxt o
protecti
tfrom moistur
e.Papercapacitorsareusedi nhigh
volt
ageandhi ghcurrentappl
icat
ions.Readf ullar
ti
cle..
..
..

 Pl
ast
iccapaci
tororpl
ast
icf
il
m capaci
tor

Plasti
ccapacit
ori
satypeofcapacitorwhi
chusesplasti
cf i
l
m as
thedielect
ri
ctost
oreel
ectri
ccharge.Inpl
asti
ccapaci
tors,
polypropyl
ene,
pol
yest
er,pol
yphenyl
enesulfi
deandpolyethyl
ene
99
terepht
halatearecommonl yusedasdielectr
ics.I
npl asti
c
capacit
ors,plast
icsheetsareusedtoconstructdiel
ect r
icand
aluminum orzincsheetsareusedconstructtheelectrodesof
thecapacitor.Pl
asti
ccapacitor
sarewidelyusedint hecircui
ts
wher el
owl ossandhighinsulat
ionresi
stanceisrequired.

Ty
pesofpl
ast
iccapaci
tor
s

Pl
ast
iccapaci
tor
sar
ecl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
wot
ypes:

 Fi
l
mfoi
lcapaci
tor
s
 Met
ali
zedf
il
m capaci
tor
s

Fi
l
mfoi
lcapaci
tor
s

Thef i
lmfoilcapacit
orismadebypl acingplast
icsheetbet ween
twoal umi
num sheet s.Theplast
icsheetplacedbet weenthe
aluminum sheetsact sasdiel
ect
ricandthealumi num sheets
actsaselectrodes.Theplasti
csheetsandt healumi num sheet
s
arethenroll
edi ntheform ofcyl
i
nderandwi releadsar e
attachedt
obot hendsofal uminum sheets.

Pl
ast
ici
spoorconduct
orofel
ect
ri
cit
y.Ther
efor
e,i
tdoesnot

100
al
lowflowofel
ect
ri
ccurrentbet
weenelectr
odes(al
uminum
sheet
s).Howev
er,
plast
icsheetal
lowselect
ri
cfi
eldbet
weentwo
el
ectr
odes.

Met
ali
zedf
il
m capaci
tor
s

Inmet al
i
zedfil
m capacit
ors,t
heplast
icsheetisdi
rect
lycoat
ed
withaluminum.Aluminum coatedontheplast
icactas
elect
rodesandtheplasti
csheetactasdiel
ectri
c.

Themai nadvantageofusingpl ast

iccapacit
orsovernatur
al
capaci
torsisthattheplast
icsheetisar t
if
ici
alorsy
ntheti
c.
Theref
ore,wecanabl etoincreasethicknessandheatresi
stance
oftheplast
icdiel
ectri
c.

Thevar
iousappl
i
cat
ionsofpl
ast
iccapaci
tor
sincl
udef
il
ter
s,
peak

v
olt
agedet
ect
ors,
andA/
Dconv
ert
ers.Readf
ull
art
icl
e..
..
..
..

 Cer
ami
ccapaci
tor

Cer
amiccapaci
tor
sarethemostwi del
yusedcapaci
tor
sinthe
el
ect
roni
ccir
cui
ts.Thesecapaci
tor
sareusedwhenlargechar
ge

101
st
orageandsmal
lphy
sical
sizei
srequi
red.

Inceramiccapaci
tor,cerami
cmat eri
alisusedasdielect
ri
cand
conducti
vemet al
sar eusedaselectr
odes.Ceramicmat er
ial
is
chosenasdielect
ricbecauseofitsgreatabi
li
tyt
oallow
elect
rost
ati
crepulsionandatt
racti
on.

Cerami
cdielect
ri
cispoorconduct
orofel
ect
ri
city
.Theref
ore,
it
doesnotal
lowelect
ri
ccurrentbet
weentwoelect
rodes.

However,
ceramicdi
electr
ical
lowsel
ect
ri
cfi
eldbet
weent
wo
el
ect
rodes.Readful
lart
icl
e..
..
..
..
..

 Mi
cacapaci
tor

Mi
cacapaci
tor
sar
ethest
abl
e,r
eli
abl
eandhi
ghpr
eci
sion

102
capacit
ors.Thesecapaci
torsar
eav ai
labl
efrom l
owv ol
tagesto
highvolt
ages.Micacapacit
orsareusedintheappli
cati
ons
wherehighaccuracyandlowcapacitancechangeovertheti
me
i
sdesired.Thesecapacit
orscanwor keff
ici
entl
yathigh
fr
equencies.

Ty
pesofmi
cacapaci
tor
s

Mi
cacapaci
tor
sar
ecl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
wot
ypes:

 St
ackedmi
cacapaci
tor
s
 Si
l
ver
edmi
cacapaci
tor
s

St
ackedmi
cacapaci
tor
s

Thest ackedmicacapacit
orsaremadeoft
hinmicasheet
s
placedoneov eranot
herandeachmicasheetwouldbe
separatedbythinmetalsheet
sofal
uminum orcopper
.

103
Theenti
reuniti
sthenenclosedinaplast
iccasetoprotecti
t
fr
om moistur
eandmechani caldamage.Micasheet
spl aced
betweenthemetalsheet
sact sasdi
elect
ri
candmet alsheets
actsasel
ectr
odes.

Si
l
ver
edmi
cacapaci
tor

Insil
veredmi cacapaci
tor
,themicasheetisdir
ect
lycoatedwit
h
sil
ver.Thi
scanbedonebyusi ngscr
eeningtechni
que.Readful
l
art
icl
e...
..
..
..
.

 El
ect
rol
yti
ccapaci
tor

Anelectr
olyt
iccapacit
ori
sat ypeofcapacit
orwhichuses
el
ectrol
yteasoneofi t
selectrodestoachievel
argecapaci
tance.
El
ectrol
yti
ccapacitor
saremai nl
yusedwhenhighcharge
st
orageinsmal lv
olumeisr equir
ed.

104
Elect
roly
ticcapaci
torconsistsoftwoaluminum foi
ls(anodeand
cathode),al
uminum oxidelayer,anel
ectr
olyt
icpaperandliqui
d
elect
rol
yte.Theli
quidelectrol
ytecont
ainsatomsormol ecules
thathavegainedorlostelectr
ons.

Inelectr
olyti
ccapacitor,theanodeandcat hodearef requentl
y
constructedusingpur ealuminum foil
.Theanodeal umi num f
oil
i
scoat edwi t
hat hi
nl ayerofinsulati
ngaluminum oxidel ay
er.
Thisinsulat
ingaluminum oxi delayeract
sasdi el
ectri
coft he
electr
olyt
iccapacitor
.Thecat hodeandoxidecoatedanodear e
separatedbyanel ectrol
y ti
cpaper.Theelect
rolyt
icpaperi s
soakedwi thli
quidelectrolyt
e.

Thecat
hodeiscov
eredwit
hverythi
ninsul
ati
ngoxidel
ayer
whichi
snat
ural
lyf
ormed.However,
thi
soxidelay
erisver
ythi
n

105
compar
edt
otheoxi
del
ayerofanode.Readf
ull
art
icl
e..
..
..
..
.

 Super
capaci
tor

Supercapacit
orscanst orel
argeamountofelect
ri
ccharge
compar edtotheelectrol
yti
candallothert
ypesofconv
enti
onal
capacit
ors.Supercapacit
orsarealsoknownasultr
acapaci
tor
s
orelect
ricdoublelayercapaci
tor
s.

Super
capacit
orconsist
softwoel ectr
odes,separat
orand
el
ectr
oly
te.Theelect
rol
yteisthemi xt
ureofnegativ
eionsand
posi
ti
veionsdissol
vedinwater.Thetwoelectrodesofthe
super
capaci
torareseparat
edbyasepar ator.

Theleftsi
deelect
rodemakescontactwit
hthelef
tsidel
iqui
d
elect
rol
ytesi
milar
ly;
theri
ghtsideel
ect
rodemakescontactwith
theri
ghtsidel
iqui
delect
rol
yte.Twoopposit
echargesar
ebuilds

106
att
her egi
onwher eel
ect
rodesurf
aceandl
iquidel
ectr
oly
te
makescontact.Theseopposi
techar
gesar
er epr
esent
edastwo
el
ectr
icchargelayer
s.

Onechar gelayerisformedont heel ect

rodesurfacewi t
hone
pol
arityandanot herchargelayerisformedinthel i
quid
el
ectrolyt
eneart heelectr
odesur facewithoppositepolari
ty.
Theset wochar gelayersaresepar at
edbyamonol ayerofwater
molecules.Thesol ventorwatermol ecul
eswhi chseparates
oppositechargesact sasthedielectri
c.Readfullart
icl
e..
..
..
..
..
..

Cer
ami
ccapaci
tor
Cer
ami
ccapaci
tor
sar
ethemostwi
del
yusedcapaci
tor
sint
heel
ect
roni
cci
rcui
ts.These

capaci
tor
sar
emai
nlyusedwher
esmal
lphy
sical
sizeandl
argechar
gest
oragei
srequi
red.We

knowt
hatcapaci
tori
susedt
ost
oret
heel
ect
ri
cchar
ge.Thet
echni
queusedt
ost
oreel
ect
ri
c

char
gei
ssamei
nal
lcapaci
tor
sbutt
hemat
eri
alusedt
oconst
ructt
hecapaci
tori
sdi
ff
erent
.

Const
ruct
ionofcer
ami
ccapaci
tor

I
nacer
ami
ccapaci
tor
,cer
ami
cmat
eri
ali
susedt
oconst
ructt
hedi
elect
ri
candconduct
ivemet
als

ar
eusedt
oconst
ructt
heel
ect
rodes.Di
elect
ri
cist
hei
nsul
ati
ngmat
eri
alpl
acedbet
weent
he

el
ect
rodesofacapaci
tor
.

107
Cer
ami
cmat
eri
ali
schosenasdi
elect
ri
cbecauseofi
tsgr
eatabi
l
ityt
oal
l
owel
ect
rost
ati
c

at
tr
act
ionandr
epul
si
on.Al
so,
cer
ami
cmat
eri
alsar
epoorconduct
orsofel
ect
ri
cit
y.Ther
efor
e,

t
heydonotal
l
owf
lowofel
ect
ri
cchar
gest
hrought
hem.Ont
heot
herhand,
elect
rodesoft
he

cer
ami
ccapaci
torar
egoodconduct
orsofel
ect
ri
cit
y.Ther
efor
e,t
heyeasi
l
yal
l
owel
ect
ri
ccur
rent

t
hrought
hem.

Di
ff
erentshapesofcer
ami
ccapaci
tor

Cer
ami
ccapaci
tor
sar
eav
ail
abl
eint
hef
oll
owi
ngshapesorf
orms:

 Cer
amicdisccapacitor
 Cer
amictubularcapaci
tor
 Mul
til
ayercer
ami ccapaci
tor(
MLCC)

Cer
ami
cdi
sccapaci
tor

108
Thecer
ami
cdi
sccapaci
tor
sar
emadebycoat
ingsi
l
veronbot
hsi
desoft
hecer
ami
cdi
sc.The

cer
ami
cdi
scact
sast
hedi
elect
ri
candsi
l
vercoat
edonbot
hsi
desoft
hedi
scact
sasel
ect
rodes.

Forl
owcapaci
tance,
asi
ngl
ecer
ami
cdi
sccoat
edwi
thsi
l
veri
susedwher
easf
orhi
gh

capaci
tancemul
ti
plel
ayer
sar
eused.

Thel
eadsmadeofcopperar
eat
tachedt
othecer
ami
cdi
scbyusi
ngsol
der
ingt
echni
que.A

pr
otect
ivecoat
ingi
sappl
i
edt
othecer
ami
cdi
sccapaci
tort
opr
otecti
tfr
om heat
.

Thear
eaofacer
ami
cdi
scordi
elect
ri
candspaci
ngbet
weent
hesi
l
verel
ect
rodesal
so

det
ermi
nest
hecapaci
tanceoft
hecer
ami
cdi
sccapaci
tor
.Themai
ndi
sadv
ant
ageofusi
ng

cer
ami
cdi
sccapaci
tori
sit
shi
ghcapaci
tancechangewi
thsl
i
ghtchangei
ntemper
atur
e.

Cer
ami
ctubul
arcapaci
tor

Ast
henamesuggest
s,cer
ami
ctubul
arcapaci
tori
sahol
l
owcy
li
ndr
ical
cer
ami
cmat
eri
al.The

i
nnerandout
ersur
facesoft
hehol
l
owcy
li
ndr
ical
cer
ami
cmat
eri
alar
ecoat
edwi
tht
hesi
l
veri
nk.

Thehol
l
owcy
li
ndr
ical
cer
ami
cmat
eri
alact
sast
hedi
elect
ri
candt
hesi
l
veri
nkcoat
edoni
nner

andout
ersur
facesact
sasel
ect
rodes.

109
Mul
ti
lay
ercer
ami
ccapaci
tor(
MLCC)

Themul
ti
lay
ercer
ami
ccapaci
tor(
MLCC)i
smadeofmul
ti
plel
ayer
sofcer
ami
cmat
eri
aland

conduct
iveel
ect
rodespl
acedoneabov
etheot
her
.Theconduct
iveel
ect
rodesar
epl
aced

bet
weeneachl
ayerofcer
ami
cmat
eri
al.I
nMLCC,
themul
ti
plel
ayer
sofcer
ami
cmat
eri
alact
sas

di
elect
ri
c.

Themul
ti
plel
ayer
sofcer
ami
candel
ect
rodesar
econt
act
edv
iat
het
ermi
nal
sur
faces.I
nthi
sway
,

mul
ti
plel
ayer
sofcer
ami
cmat
eri
alandel
ect
rodesar
econst
ruct
ed.SomeMLCCscont
ain

hundr
edsofcer
ami
clay
ersandel
ect
rodes,
eachl
ayeronl
yaf
ewmi
cromet
erst
hick.

Thecapaci
tanceofeachl
ayeri
nMLCCi
ssame.Thet
otal
capaci
tanceofMLCCi
sobt
ainedby

mul
ti
ply
ingt
hecapaci
tanceofonel
ayerbyt
otal
numberofl
ayer
s.

Forexampl
e,i
feachl
ayerhascapaci
tanceof2pFandt
otal
lay
ersi
ntheMLCCar
e50.Thet
otal

110
capaci
tancei
sequal
to100pF.

Tot
alcapaci
tanceofMLCC=2pF×50=100pF

Thecapaci
tanceoft
heMLCCsi
ncr
easesbyr
educi
ngt
hespacebet
weent
hecer
ami
cdi
elect
ri
c

l
ayer
s.

Appl
i
cat
ionsofcer
ami
ccapaci
tor
s

Thev
ari
ousappl
i
cat
ionsofcer
ami
ccapaci
tor
sincl
ude:

 Tonecompensat i
on
 Automati
cv olumecont r
olf
il
ter
ing
 Antennacoupling
 Resonantci
rcuit
 Volumecont r
ol RFbypass
 Li
ghtingbal
lasts

Adv
ant
agesofcer
ami
ccapaci
tor

 Highstabil
i
ty
 Lowlosses
 Highcapacitance
 Smallsize

Pl
ast
icf
il
m capaci
tor
I
nfi
l
m capaci
tor
s,pl
ast
icf
il
misusedt
oconst
ructt
hedi
elect
ri
candal
umi
num orzi
nci
susedt
o

const
ructt
heel
ect
rodesoft
hecapaci
tor
.Fi
l
m capaci
tor
sar
eal
soknownaspl
ast
icf
il
m

capaci
tor
sorf
il
m di
elect
ri
ccapaci
tor
s.Pl
ast
icf
il
m capaci
tor
sar
emai
nlyusedi
nci
rcui
tswher
e

111
l
owl
ossandhi
ghi
nsul
ati
onr
esi
stancei
srequi
red.

Pl
ast
icf
il
m capaci
tordef
ini
ti
on

Pl
ast
icf
il
m capaci
tori
sacapaci
tort
hatusespl
ast
icf
il
m ast
hedi
elect
ri
candal
umi
num orzi
nc

ast
heel
ect
rodest
ost
oreel
ect
ri
cchar
ge.

Whati
sdi
elect
ri
c?

Di
elect
ri
cist
hei
nsul
ati
ngmat
eri
alpl
acedbet
weent
heel
ect
rodesofacapaci
tor
.Di
elect
ri
c

mat
eri
alsar
echosenbasedont
hei
rabi
l
ityt
oal
l
owel
ect
rost
ati
cat
tr
act
ionandr
epul
sion.Good

di
elect
ri
cmat
eri
alsar
epoorconduct
orsofel
ect
ri
cit
y.Howev
er,
theyal
l
owt
heel
ect
rost
ati
cfi
eld.

I
npl
ast
icf
il
m capaci
tor
s,pol
yest
er,
pol
ypr
opy
lene,
pol
yet
hyl
enet
erepht
hal
ate,
andpol
ypheny
lene

sul
fi
dear
ecommonl
yusedasdi
elect
ri
cs.

Ty
pesofpl
ast
icf
il
m capaci
tor
s

Fi
l
m capaci
tor
sar
ecl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
wot
ypes:

 Fi
l
m- f
oilcapaci
tor
s
 Metal
li
zedfil
m capaci
tor
s

Fi
l
m-f
oil
capaci
tor
s

Thef
il
m-f
oil
capaci
tori
smadeoft
wopl
ast
icf
il
msorsheet
s;eachi
slay
eredwi
tht
hinal
umi
num

met
alf
oil
orsheet
.Thepl
ast
icsheet
sandal
umi
num sheet
sar
ethenr
oll
edi
nthef
orm ofa

cy
li
nderandwi
rel
eadsar
eat
tachedt
othebot
hendsofal
umi
num sheet
s.Pol
yest
er,

pol
ypr
opy
lene,
pol
yet
hyl
enet
erepht
hal
ate,
andpol
ypheny
lenesul
fi
dear
ecommonl
yusedas

di
elect
ri
cinf
il
m capaci
tor
s.I
npl
ast
icf
il
m capaci
tor
s,al
umi
num sheet
sact
sasel
ect
rodesand

pl
ast
icsheet
sact
sasdi
elect
ri
c.

112
Met
all
i
zedf
il
m capaci
tor
s

I
nmet
all
i
zedf
il
m capaci
tor
s,t
heal
umi
num sheetorf
oil
isr
epl
acedbyal
ayerofmet
alv
acuum

deposi
tedont
hef
il
mlay
er.Themostcommonl
yusedmet
all
ayeri
sal
umi
num orzi
nct
hati
s

ext
remel
ythi
n.

Thepl
ast
icf
il
mlay
ersmadeofsy
nthet
icmat
eri
alactasdi
elect
ri
candt
heal
umi
num l
ayer
sact

asel
ect
rodes.Themaj
oradv
ant
ageoff
il
m di
elect
ri
ccapaci
tor
sov
ernat
ural
diel
ect
ri
ccapaci
tor
s

i
sthatt
hepl
ast
icf
il
missy
nthet
icorar
ti
fi
cial
.Ther
efor
e,wecanabl
etoi
ncr
easet
hicknessand

heatr
esi
stanceoft
hedi
elect
ri
c.I
not
herwor
ds,
wecanchanget
het
hicknessandheatr
esi
stance

oft
hepl
ast
icf
il
m capaci
tor
.

Appl
i
cat
ionsoff
il
m capaci
tor
s

Thev
ari
ousappl
i
cat
ionsoff
il
m capaci
tor
sincl
ude:

113
  A/Dconvert
ers
 Fi
lt
ers
 Motorrun
 Peakvolt
agedetect
ors

Adv
ant
agesoff
il
m capaci
tor
s

 Highst
abil
it
y
 Lowcost
 Lowlossesevenathi
ghf
requenci
es

Papercapaci
tor
Theelect
ronicdevi
cewhichstoresenergyinthefor
m ofelect
ri
c
fi
eldi
scalledcapaci
tor
.Thischargestorageorenergyst
orage
canbedonebyusi ngvari
oustypesofcapacitor
s.Paper
capaci
tor
sar eoneofthem.

Theconst r
ucti
onofpapercapacit
ori
ssimil
art
ot heplast
ic
capacit
or.Inpapercapaci
tor
,paperi
susedasdielect
ri
cinst
ead
ofplast
ic.

Papercapacitorisacapacit
orthatusespaperast hediel
ect
ric
tostoreelectr
icchar
ge.Itconsi
stsofaluminum sheetsand
papersheets.Thepapersheetiscoveredorsoakedwi thoil
or
waxt oprotectitf
rom out
sideharmfulenvi
ronment .

Papercapaci
tor
sar
ethefi
xedty
peofcapacit
orsthatmeans
thesecapaci
tor
spr
ovi
desfi
xedcapaci
tance(
capacit
ance

114
meansabili
tytoholdorstoreel
ectr
icchar
ge).I
not herwor
ds,
thepapercapaci
torisatypeoffi
xedcapacit
orthatstor
esfi
xed
amountofelectr
iccharge.

Ty
pesofpapercapaci
tor
sbasedonconst
ruct
ion

Papercapaci
tor
sar
ecl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
wot
ypesbasedont
hei
r
const
ructi
on:

 Papersheetcapaci
tor
 Metal
izedpapercapaci
tor

Papersheetcapaci
tor

Thepapersheetcapaci
tori
smadebyt aki
ngtwoormore
al
uminum sheetsandplaci
ngapapersheetbetweent
hem.The
paperpl
acedbetweenthealuminum sheetsact
sasdi
elect
ri
c
andthealumi
num sheetsactsasel
ectrodes.

Thepapersheeti
spoorconduct
orofel
ect
ri
cit
ysoi
tdoesnot

115
all
owf l
owofel ectr
iccur
rentorelectr
icchar gesbetweentwo
aluminum sheets.However,t
hepapersheetal l
owselectr
icf
iel
d
throughit
.Therefore,
thepapersheetpl acedbetweent he
aluminum sheetsactsbarr
ierfortheelectri
ccurrent
.

Thepapersheet sandalumi num sheetsarerol

l
edi ntheform of
cyli
nderandwi r
el eadsareattachedtobothendsoft he
al
umi num sheets.Theentirecyli
nderist
hencoat edwithwaxor
plast
icresi
ntopr otecti
tfrom moi st
urei
ntheair.Thepaper
sheetcapacit
orsar eusedinthehi ghvol
tageandhi ghcurr
ent
appli
cati
ons.

Met
ali
zedpapercapaci
tor

I
nmet al
i
zedpapercapaci
tor
,thepaperi
scoatedwi
ththi
nlay
er
ofzi
ncoral
uminum.Thepapercoatedwithzi
ncoral
uminum i
s

116
r
oll
edi
ntheform ofcyl
inder
.Theentir
ecyli
nderisthencoat
ed
wi
thwaxorplast
icresi
ntoprotecti
tfrom moi
sture.

Thezi ncoraluminum coatedont hepaperactsaselectr

odes
andt hepaperactsasdielectr
ic.Papercapacit
orsthatar
emade
ofzincar eeasi
lydest
royedduet othechemi calacti
on.
Therefore,al
uminum i
swi delyusedfortheconst r
ucti
onofpaper
capacitors.

Thesi zeofmet ali

zedpapercapaci
torisverysmallcompar edto
thepapersheetcapaci t
or.Inmetal
izedpapercapacitor,
the
aluminum isdirectl
ycoatedonthepaper.Theref
ore,aluminum
l
ay erofmet al
izedpapercapaci
tori
sv erythi
ncompar edtot he
aluminum layerofpapersheetcapacit
or.

Themaindisadvantageofusingpapercapacit
orisiteasil
y
absor
bsmoi st
ure(watervapor)f
rom theairwhichdecreases
thei
nsul
ati
onr esi
stanceofthediel
ect
ric.

Appl
i
cat
ionsofpapercapaci
tor
s

 Hi
ghvol
tageappl
icat
ions
 Hi
ghcur
rentappl
i
cati
ons

117
 Mi
cacapaci
tor
Weknowt hatcapacit
orsstoreelectri
cchar ge.Thischarge
storagecanbedonebyusi ngdi f
ferentt ypesofcapacitors.Mi
ca
capaci t
orsareoneoft hem.Mi cacapaci torsarethestable,
rel
iableandhi ghpreci
sioncapacitors.Thesecapaci tor
sar e
availabl
efrom lowv ol
tagestohighv oltages.Thecapaci t
ance
valuesoft hemicacapacitorsrangingfr om 20pFt o10µF.

Micacapaci
torsaremost
lyusedintheappl
icat
ionswherehigh
accur
acyandlowcapacit
ancechangeoverthetimeisdesi
red.
Thesecapaci
torscanworkef
fici
ent
lyathi
ghf r
equenci
es.

Whati
smi
ca?

Micaisasili
catemi neralfoundingr anit
esandot herrocks.I
tis
fr
equentlyusedasanel ectr
icali
nsulatorinelectr
ical
appli
cati
ons.Inmicacapaci tors,micaisusedasdi el
ectr
ic
materi
al.Thisdi
electri
cmat erial
opposest heflowofelectr
ic
curr
entorelectr
iccharges.Mi caisal sousedi ntr
immer
capacit
ors.

Dif
ferentty
pesofdi elect
ri
cmat erial
sareusedi nmica
capacit
orssuchasMuscov i
teorwhi t
emi ca,r
ubyorr osemica
andambermi ca.Amongt het hr
ee, Muscovit
emi caismost
fr
equentlyusedf orconstr
ucti
ngt hediel
ectri
cofmi cacapacit
ors.

118
Mi
cacapaci
tordef
ini
ti
on

Micacapaci
tori
sareli
abl
eandhighpreci
sioncapaci
tort
hat
usesmicaasthedi
elect
ri
ctost
oreelectr
icchar
ge.

Ty
pesofmi
cacapaci
tor
s

Mi
cacapaci
tor
sar
eoft
wot
ypes:

 St
ackedmi
cacapaci
tor
s
 Si
l
veredmi
cacapaci
tor
s

Stackedmi cacapaci
tor
s(st
ackmeansar
rangementofsheet
s
oneov eranother
)

Thestackedmicacapacit
orsaremadeofthi
nmicasheet
s
arr
angedoneov eranot
herandeachmicasheetwoul
dbe
separ
atedbythinmetalsheet
sofcopperoral
uminum.

119
Theent
ir
euni
tisencl
osedi
napl
ast
iccaset
opr
otecti
tfr
om

mechani
cal
damageandmoi
stur
e.Ter
minal
sar
econnect
edat

eachendoft hemicacapacit
or.Themicasheetspl
aced
betweent hemetalsheet
sactasdiel
ectr
ict
hatopposesthef
low
ofelect
riccurr
entandcopperoralumi
num sheetsact
sas
el
ectrodes.

Si
l
ver
edmi
cacapaci
tor
s

Thesi l
v ermicacapacitorsaremadebycoat i
ngeithersideofthe
mi casheetswi t
hsilver.Thiscanbedonebyusi ngscreening
technique.Severalsi
lver-coatedmicasheetsarearrangedone
overot hertoachievethedesi redcapaci
tance.Thesil
vercoated
ont hemi caactsasel ectrodesandmi casheetsactsas
dielect
ric.

Adv
ant
agesofmi
cacapaci
tor
s

 Stabl
ecapacitance
 Operatesathightemperatur
es
 Withstandatveryhighvol
tages
 Lowl osses
 Highlyaccur
ate
 Diel
ectri
cprovidesgoodinsul
ati
on

Di
sadv
ant
agesofmi
cacapaci
tor
s

 Hi
ghcost
 Pr
operseal
i
ngi
srequi
red

120
Appl
i
cat
ionsofmi
cacapaci
tor
s

 Idealf
orhi
ghfrequencyandRFappl
i
cat
ions
 Coupli
ngcir
cuit
s
 Resonancecir
cuit
s
 RADAR
 LASER
 Space
 Fil
ter
s

El
ect
rol
yti
ccapaci
tor
Capaci
torov
erv
iew

El
ect
rol
yti
ccapaci
tor
sar
emai
nlyusedwhenhi
ghchar
gest
oragei
nasmal
lvol
umei
srequi
red.I
n

el
ect
rol
yti
ccapaci
tor
s,t
hel
i
qui
del
ect
rol
yteact
sasoneoft
heel
ect
rodes(
most
lyactascat
hode)
.

Tobet
terunder
standt
heconceptofel
ect
rol
yti
ccapaci
torf
ir
stweneedt
oknowt
hewor
kingofa

gener
alcapaci
tor
.

Acapaci
tori
sanel
ect
roni
cdev
icet
hatst
oresel
ect
ri
cchar
ge.I
tconsi
stsoft
woconduct
ive

pl
atessepar
atedbyani
nsul
ati
ngmat
eri
alcal
l
eddi
elect
ri
c.Di
ff
erentt
ypesofi
nsul
ati
ngmat
eri
als

ar
eusedf
orconst
ruct
ingt
hedi
elect
ri
cbasedont
heusage.

Theconduct
ivepl
atesoft
hecapaci
torar
egoodconduct
orsofel
ect
ri
cit
y.Ther
efor
e,t
heyeasi
l
y

al
l
owel
ect
ri
ccur
rentt
hrought
hem.Ont
heot
herhand,
adi
elect
ri
cmedi
um ormat
eri
ali
spoor

conduct
orofel
ect
ri
ci
ty.Ther
efor
e,i
tdoesnotal
l
owel
ect
ri
ccur
rentt
hroughi
t.

121
Whenv
olt
agei
sappl
i
edt
othecapaci
tori
nsuchawayt
hat
,thenegat
ivet
ermi
nal
oft
hebat
ter
yis

connect
edt
other
ightsi
depl
ateandt
heposi
ti
vet
ermi
nal
oft
hebat
ter
yisconnect
edt
othel
eft

si
depl
ate,
thecapaci
torst
art
schar
ging.

Becauseoft
hissuppl
yvol
tage,
theel
ect
ronsst
artf
lowi
ngf
rom negat
ivet
ermi
nal
oft
hebat
ter
y

andr
eacht
her
ightsi
depl
ate.Af
terr
eachi
ngr
ightsi
depl
ate,
theel
ect
ronsexper
iencest
rong

opposi
ti
onf
rom di
elect
ri
cmat
eri
albecausedi
elect
ri
cmat
eri
ali
spoorconduct
orofel
ect
ri
cit
y.

Asar
esul
t,al
argenumberofel
ect
ronsar
etr
appedatt
her
ightsi
depl
atecapaci
tor
.Howev
er,

t
hesel
argenumber
sofel
ect
ronsexer
tsf
orceorel
ect
ri
cfi
eldt
owar
dst
hel
eftsi
depl
ate.

Ther
efor
e,el
ect
ronsatt
hel
eftsi
depl
ateexper
iencear
epul
siv
efor
cef
rom excessel
ect
ronsat

r
ightsi
depl
ate.Asar
esul
t,el
ect
ronsmov
eawayf
rom l
eftsi
depl
ateandat
tr
act
edt
owar
dst
he

posi
ti
vet
ermi
nal
oft
hebat
ter
y.

Ther
efor
e,t
her
ightsi
depl
atebecomesmor
enegat
ivel
ychar
ged(
negat
ivechar
gei
sbui
l
d)

becauseoft
hegai
ningofexcessel
ect
rons.Ont
heot
herhand,
thel
eftsi
depl
atebecomesmor
e

posi
ti
vel
ychar
ged(
posi
ti
vechar
gei
sbui
l
d)becauseoft
hel
ossofel
ect
rons.Asar
esul
t,v
olt
age

i
sest
abl
i
shedbet
weent
hepl
ates.Thi
sishowt
henor
mal
capaci
torwor
ks.

122
Theel
ect
rol
yti
ccapaci
toral
sochar
gesmost
lyi
nthesi
mil
armanner
.Howev
er,
themat
eri
alused

i
nconst
ruct
ingt
heel
ect
rol
yti
ccapaci
tori
sdi
ff
erent
.

El
ect
rol
yti
ccapaci
tordef
ini
ti
on

Anel
ect
rol
yti
ccapaci
tori
sat
ypeofcapaci
tort
hatusesanel
ect
rol
yte(
ioni
cconduct
ingl
i
qui
d)as

oneofi
tsconduct
ingpl
atest
oachi
eveal
argercapaci
tanceorhi
ghchar
gest
orage.

Whati
sel
ect
rol
yte?

Anel
ect
rol
ytei
sal
i
qui
del
ect
ri
cconduct
ori
nwhi
chel
ect
ri
ccur
renti
scar
ri
edbyt
hemov
ingi
ons.

Forexampl
einourbl
ood,
elect
rol
ytesormi
ner
alscar
ryel
ect
ri
cchar
ge.Themostcommon

el
ect
rol
ytesar
esodi
um,
pot
assi
um,
chl
ori
de,
cal
cium,
andphosphor
us.

I
nel
ect
rol
ytes,
ionsar
eoft
wot
ypesnamel
yani
ons(
-)andcat
ions(
+).Ani
oni
sani
ont
hathas

mor
enumberofel
ect
ronst
hanpr
otons.Weknowt
hatel
ect
ronsar
enegat
ivel
ychar
gedand

pr
otonsar
eposi
ti
vel
ychar
ged.Becauseoft
heex
cessnumberofel
ect
ronst
hanpr
otons,
the

ov
eral
lchar
geoft
heat
om orani
onbecomesnegat
ive.Ther
efor
e,ani
onsar
ecal
l
ednegat
ivel
y

char
gedi
ons.Thesenegat
ivel
ychar
gedani
onscar
rynegat
ivechar
ge.

Ont
heot
herhand,
cat
ionhasl
essernumberofel
ect
ronst
hanpr
otons.Becauseoft
hel
esser

numberofel
ect
ronst
hanpr
otons,
theov
eral
lchar
geoft
heat
om orcat
ionbecomesposi
ti
ve.

Ther
efor
e,cat
ionsar
ecal
l
edposi
ti
vel
ychar
gedi
ons.Theseposi
ti
vel
ychar
gedcat
ionscar
ry

posi
ti
vechar
ge.

Ty
pesofel
ect
rol
yti
ccapaci
tor
s

El
ect
rol
yti
ccapaci
tor
sar
ecl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
hreet
ypesbasedont
hemat
eri
alusedt
oconst
ructt
he

di
elect
ri
c:

 Al
umi
num el
ect
rol
yti
ccapaci
tor
s

123
  Tantalum elect
rol
yticcapaci
tor
s
 Niobium electr
oly
ticcapacit
ors

I
nthi
stut
ori
alal
umi
num el
ect
rol
yti
ccapaci
tori
sexpl
ained.Theal
umi
num,
tant
alum,
andni
obi
um

el
ect
rol
yti
ccapaci
tor
swor
kinsi
mil
armanner
.Howev
er,
themat
eri
alusedf
orconst
ruct
ing

el
ect
rodesi
sdi
ff
erent
.

Al
umi
num el
ect
rol
yti
ccapaci
tor

Al
umi
num el
ect
rol
yti
ccapaci
tori
smadeoft
woal
umi
num f
oil
s,al
umi
num oxi
del
ayer
,an

el
ect
rol
yti
cpaperorpaperspacersoakedi
nel
ect
rol
yti
cli
qui
dorsol
uti
onsandl
i
qui
dorsol
i
d

el
ect
rol
yte.El
ect
rol
yti
cli
qui
dcont
ainsat
omsormol
ecul
est
hathav
elostorgai
nedel
ect
rons.

I
nal
umi
num el
ect
rol
yti
ccapaci
tor
,theanode(
+)andcat
hode(
-)ar
econst
ruct
edusi
ngpur
e

al
umi
num f
oil
.Theanodeal
umi
num f
oil
iscoat
edwi
that
hinl
ayerofi
nsul
ati
ngal
umi
num oxi
de

(
alumi
num el
ementwi
thoxy
genel
ement
).Thi
sinsul
ati
ngal
umi
num f
oil
act
sasdi
elect
ri
coft
he

el
ect
rol
yti
ccapaci
torwhi
chbl
ocksel
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
low.Thecat
hodeandoxi
decoat
edanodei
s

separ
atedbyanel
ect
rol
yti
cpaper(
whi
chi
ssoakedi
nanel
ect
rol
yti
cli
qui
d).

124
Thecat
hodeal
umi
num f
oil
alsocov
eredwi
thv
eryt
hini
nsul
ati
ngoxi
del
ayerordi
elect
ri
cnat
ural
l
y

f
ormedbyai
r.Howev
er,
thi
soxi
del
ayeri
sver
ythi
ncompar
edt
otheoxi
del
ayerf
ormedonanode.

Ther
efor
e,t
heconst
ruct
ionofal
umi
num el
ect
rol
yti
ccapaci
torl
ooksl
i
ket
wocapaci
tor
s

connect
edi
nser
ieswi
thanodecapaci
tanceCA andcat
hodecapaci
tanceCK.

Thet
otal
capaci
tanceoft
hecapaci
tori
sthusobt
ainedf
rom t
hef
ormul
aoft
heser
iesconnect
ion

oft
wocapaci
tor
s.

Wher
e,C =Capaci
A tanceofanode

CK=Capaci
tanceofcat
hode

125
 Cecap=Tot
alcapaci
tanceofel
ect
rol
yti
ccapaci
tor

Weknowt
hatt
hecapaci
tanceorchar
gest
orageoft
hecapaci
tori
sdi
rect
lypr
opor
ti
onal
tot
he

sur
facear
eaoft
heconduct
ivepl
atesorel
ect
rodesandi
nver
sel
ypr
opor
ti
onal
tot
het
hicknessof

di
elect
ri
c.I
not
herwor
ds,
thecapaci
tor
swi
thl
argeel
ect
rodesst
oresl
argeamountofchar
ge

wher
east
hecapaci
tor
swi
thsmal
lel
ect
rodesst
oressmal
lamountofchar
ge.I
nthesi
mil
arway
,

t
hecapaci
tor
swi
thv
eryt
hickdi
elect
ri
cst
oressmal
lamountofchar
gewher
east
hecapaci
tor
s

wi
thv
eryt
hindi
elect
ri
cst
oresv
eryl
argeamountofchar
ge.

I
nnor
mal
capaci
tor
s,t
hedi
elect
ri
cisv
eryt
hickwhi
chr
esul
tsi
nlowcapaci
tanceperv
olume.I
n

el
ect
rol
yti
ccapaci
tor
s,t
heel
ect
rol
yteact
sast
her
eal
cat
hodewhi
chhasl
argesur
facear
eaand

t
hedi
elect
ri
cisv
eryt
hin.Ther
efor
e,becauseoft
hel
argesur
facear
eaoft
heel
ect
rodeandt
hin

di
elect
ri
c,al
argeamountofchar
gest
oragei
sachi
evedi
nel
ect
rol
yti
ccapaci
tor
s.

Theel
ect
ri
cal
conduct
ivi
tyoft
heel
ect
rol
yti
ccapaci
tori
ncr
easesast
het
emper
atur
eincr
eases

anddecr
easesast
het
emper
atur
edecr
eases.Asar
esul
t,t
hecapaci
tanceorchar
gest
orageof

t
heal
umi
num el
ect
rol
yti
ccapaci
toral
soi
ncr
easesast
het
emper
atur
eincr
easesanddecr
eases

ast
het
emper
atur
esdecr
eases.Ther
efor
e,t
hecapaci
tanceoft
heal
umi
num el
ect
rol
yti
c

capaci
tori
slar
gel
yaf
fect
edbychangei
ntemper
atur
e.

Mostoft
heel
ect
rol
yti
ccapaci
tor
sar
epol
ari
zed,
thati
sthev
olt
ageappl
i
edt
othet
ermi
nal
smust

bei
ncor
rectpol
ari
ty(
posi
ti
veconnect
edt
oposi
ti
vet
ermi
nal
andnegat
iveconnect
edt
onegat
ive

t
ermi
nal
).I
fiti
sconnect
edi
nrev
erseorwr
ongdi
rect
ion,
thecapaci
tormaybeshor
tci
rcui
ted,

t
hati
sal
argeel
ect
ri
ccur
rentf
lowst
hrought
hecapaci
torandt
hatcanper
manent
lydamaget
he

capaci
tor
.

I
npol
ari
zedcapaci
tor
s,ami
nussi
gn(
-)orpl
ussi
gn(
+)i
scl
ear
lymar
kedonanyoneoft
het
wo

l
eads.Thi
spol
ari
tymustbef
oll
owed.

Sy
mbol
ofel
ect
rol
yti
ccapaci
tor

126
Thesy
mbol
ofel
ect
rol
yti
ccapaci
tori
sshowni
nthebel
owf
igur
e.Theel
ect
rol
yti
ccapaci
tori
s

r
epr
esent
edbyt
wopar
all
elst
rai
ghtl
i
nesoronest
rai
ghtl
i
neandonecur
vedl
i
ne.

Apl
usormi
nussi
gni
swr
it
tennearanyoneoft
hel
i
nest
orepr
esentwhet
heri
tisposi
ti
veor

negat
ivet
ermi
nal
(anodeorcat
hode)
.Thev
olt
agemustbeappl
i
edt
othecor
rectt
ermi
nal
.

Ot
her
wise,
thecapaci
tormaybedamaged.

Adv
ant
agesofel
ect
rol
yti
ccapaci
tor
s

 Lar
geamountofchar
gest
oragei
sachi
eved
 Lowcost

Di
sadv
ant
agesofel
ect
rol
yti
ccapaci
tor
s

 Lar
geleakagecur
rent
 Shor
tli
fet
ime

Appl
i
cat
ionsofel
ect
rol
yti
ccapaci
tor
s

Thev
ari
ousappl
i
cat
ionsofel
ect
rol
yti
ccapaci
tor
sincl
ude:

 Fi
l
ter
s

127
  Ti
meconst
antci
rcui
ts

Super
capaci
tor
Supercapaci
torsarenormall
yusedasenergystor
agedev i
ces.
Supercapaci
torsstorel
argeamountofel
ectri
cchargecompared
totheelect
roly
ticcapaci
tor
sandallot
hertypesofconventi
onal
capacit
ors.

Thesupercapaci
torconsistsofl
argesurfacear
eaelectr
odes
andverythi
ndiel
ectri
cwhi chmakesitpossibl
etoachievever
y
l
argecapacit
ance(largechargestor
age).Super
capacit
ors
normal
lystore10to100t imesmor echargeperuni
tvolumethan
el
ectr
olyt
iccapacit
ors.

Super
capaci
tordef
ini
ti
on

Supercapaci
torisanel
ectr
oni
cdev i
cethatstorelar
geamountof
el
ectri
ccharge.Thesecapaci
tor
sarealsoknownas
ul
tracapaci
torsorel
ect
ri
cdoublelayercapaci
tors.

Howsuper
capaci
tor
sdi
ff
erf
rom conv
ent
ional
capaci
tor
s?

Themat eri
alusedtoconst ructsupercapaci t
orsdiff
erfrom the
conventi
onalcapacitors.Aconv ent
ional capaci
torconsistsof
twoconductingelectrodessepar at
edbyani nsul
atingmat er
ial
.
Theconductiveplatesofthecapaci toraregoodconduct or
sof
elect
ri
cit
ysot heyeasilyall
owel ect
riccur r
entthroughthem.On
theotherhand,diel
ectricmateri
al (
insulati
ngmat erial
)ispoor

128
conduct
orofel
ect
ri
cit
ysoi
tdoesnotal
l
owel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
thr
oughit.

Whenav olt
ageisappliedtothecapaci t
orinsuchawayt hat
, t
he
posi
tiveterminalofthebatt
eryi sconnectedtothelef
tside
el
ectrodeorpl at
eandt henegat i
veterminalofthebat
teryis
connectedtot heri
ghtsideplate,posi
ti
vechar gesbui
ldsonthe
l
eftsideelectr
odeandnegat i
v echargesbuildsonther i
ghtside
el
ectrode.

Insi
mplewords,whenvolt
agei
sappli
edtotheconventi
onal
capaci
tor
,opposi
techar
gesbui
ldsonthesurf
aceofelect
rodes.

Inconv enti
onal capacit
ors,thecapacitance(chargestorage)is
direct
lypropor t
ionaltothesur f
aceareaofeachel ectr
odeor
plateandinv erselypr
opor ti
onaltothedistancebet weenthe
electr
odes.Insi mplewor ds,thecapacitorwithlar
gesur f
ace
areaelectrodesandv er
yt hi
ndielectr
icachievesal ar
ger
capacitance( stor
eslargeamountofel ectr
iccharge)wher eas

129
thecapaci t
orswit
hsmall
surfaceareael
ectrodesandv er
yt hi
ck
dielect
ricachi
eveasmall
ercapaci
tance(storessmallamountof
electri
ccharge)
.Thisi
showtheconv ent
ionalcapaci
torsstore
electri
ccharge.

Thecapacitor
sandbat t
eri
esdifferi
ntwoway s: amountof
chargestor
ageandhowqui ckl
ytheenergy(charge)i
sdeliver
ed.
Thebatteri
escanstorelar
geamountofchar get hanthe
conventi
onalcapaci
tor
sbutt hemaindrawbackofbat ter
iesis
theycannotdeli
vert
heenergy( char
ge)veryquickl
y.

Ont heotherhand,thecapaci
torsdel
ivertheenergy(char
ge)
veryquickl
y(dischargever
yquickl
y)butthemai ndrawbackof
capacitor
sistheycannotstor
el ar
geamountofchar geas
batter
iesstor
e.

Thesetwodrawbacks(
lar
gechargest
orageanddeli
veri
ng
chargequi
ckl
y)canbeovercomebyusi
ngsupercapaci
tor
s.

Thesuper capacit
orsalsowor kj ustli
ketheconv enti
onal
capacitors.Howev er,thesuper capacit
orsdif
ferf r
om the
conv enti
onal capaci
torsi ntwoway s:t
hesupercapacitorshave
l
ar gesurfacear eaelectrodesandv er
ythindi
electri
c(separati
on
distancebet weenelect r
odesi sv er
ysmal l
)compar edtot he
conv enti
onal capaci
tors.Thismakesi tpossi
blet oachievel
arger
capacitance( lar
gerchar gestore)thantheconv enti
onal
capacitors.

Thesuper
capaci
tor
sst
oresl
argeamountofchar
geasbat
ter
ies

130
stor
eanddeli
versener
gyorchar
gev
eryqui
ckl
yasconv
ent
ional
capaci
tor
sdel
iver.

Ty
pesofsuper
capaci
tor
s

Super
capaci
tor
sar
emai
nlycl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
hreet
ypes:

 Doublel
ayercapacit
ors
 Pseudo-capacit
ors
 Hybri
dcapacitor
s

Doubl
elay
ercapaci
tor
s

Adoublelayercapaci
torconsi
stsoftwoelect
rodes,separat
or,
andelect
rol
yte.Theelect
rol
ytei
sthemi xt
ureofpositi
veions
andnegati
veionsdissolv
edinwater.Thetwoelectr
odesar e
separ
atedbyasepar ator
.

Thel
eftel
ect
rodesurfacemakescontactwit
hthel
eftsi
del
iqui
d
el
ect
rol
ytesi
milar
ly;
therightel
ect
rodesur
facemakescont
act

131
wit
ht heri
ghtsideli
quidel
ectrol
yte.Thepointatwhichthel
i
qui
d
el
ectrol
yteandelectr
odesurfacemeet swil
l f
orm acommon
boundaryforl
iqui
delectr
oly
teandi nsolubl
esoli
delectr
ode
surf
ace.

Twoopposi t
echar gesarebuil
dsatther egi
onwhereelectr
ode
surf
aceandel ectr
olyt
esolut
ionmeet s.Theseopposit
echarges
arerepr
esentedast woelect
ricchargelayer
sordoubleelectr
ic
chargelay
ers.Eachelectr
odeoft hesupercapaci
torgener
ates
twoelectr
icchargelayer
s.

Onechargelayerisformedont hesurf
aceoftheelect
rodewith
onepol
arit
y( posi
ti
veornegati
v e)andanot
herchargelayeri
s
for
medintheel ectr
olyt
esolut
ionneartheelect
rodesurf
acewith
opposi
tepolari
ty(negati
veorpositi
ve)
.Thesetwochargelayer
s

132
aresepar
atedbyamonolay
er(
lay
erwi
thonemol
ecul
ethi
ck)of
solv
entorwatermol
ecul
es.

Thesolventmol eculesareclosel
yattachedtotheelect
rode
surf
aceandsepar at
et heopposit
elychargedions.Thesolv
ent
molecul
eswhi chsepar atesopposit
echar gesactasthe
diel
ect
ri
c( di
electri
cmol ecul
e).

Thesolventmolecul
esdonotall
owel
ectr
icchargest
hrough
them.Theref
ore,noelect
ri
cchar
gesf
lowinbetweenelect
rode
andelectr
oly
te.

Whenv oltageisappliedtot
hecapacitorinsuchawayt hatthe
posit
iveterminalofthebatt
eryisconnectedtothelef
tside
elect
rodeandt henegat i
veter
minalofthebatter
yisconnected
totherightsi
deel ect
rode,t
hedoublelayercapaci
torstar
ts
chargi
ng.

133
Becauseofthi
ssupplyvolt
agealar
genumberofposi t
ive
chargesar
ebuil
dont helef
tsi
deelectr
odesurf
aceandal arge
numberofnegati
vechargesarebui
ldontheri
ghtsideelect
rode
surf
ace.Thesechar
gesactast hef
ir
stlay
ercharges.

Thenegat iveionsintheelect
rolyt
eexperienceast r
ong
attracti
veforcefrom theposit
ivel
ychargedelectr
ode.Asar esul
t,
negat i
veionsmov etowardstheposi
tiv
elychargedel ectr
ode.In
thesi mil
arway ,t
heposi t
ivei
onsintheelectrol
yteexperiencea
strongat t
racti
veforcefrom t
henegativel
ychargedel ectrode.As
ar esult
,positi
veionsmov etowardsthenegat i
velycharged
electrode.

Whent hesenegat i
v eionsorpositi
veionswentcl osertothe
el
ectrode,theyexper i
encest r
ongoppositi
onf r
om t hesolvent
molecules.Hence, nochar geistr
ansfer
redf r
om electr
olyteto
el
ectrodeorel ect
rodet oelectr
oly
te.Howev er,t
heseopposi te
char
gesexer telectrostati
cforceoneachot her.Thus,alarge
amountofchar geisbui l
datthecommonboundar yofelectrode
andelectrol
yte.

Themostcommonl yusedel ect

rodemateri
alsf
ordoublel
ayer
capacit
orsorsupercapacit
orsareact
ivat
edcarbon,car
bon
aerogel
,car
bonf i
bre-cl
othandcarbonnanotubes.

Pseudo-
capaci
tor
s

Thepseudo-
capaci
tor
sstor
eelectr
icalener
gybyelect
ronchar
ge
tr
ansf
erbetweenel
ectr
odeandelectrol
yte(
elect
ronsf
rom

134
el
ect
rol
ytet
ocathodeorf
rom cathodet
oelectr
oly
te)
.Thi
scan
bedonebyRedox(r
educt
ion-
oxidati
onr
eacti
on).

Reduct
ion:
Reduct
ionoccur
swhenat
om gai
nsanel
ect
ronand
becomesmorenegati
ve.

Oxidat
ion:
Oxi
dat
ionoccurswhenat
om l
osesel
ect
ronand
becomesmoreposit
ive.

Reduction-oxi
dati
on:Reduction-oxi
dationoccurswhenoneat om
gai
ns( orlosses)anelectronandanot heratom loses(
orgains)
anelectron.Inpseudo-capacit
orsoxidati
on-reducti
onreact
ion
occursinbet weenelectr
odeandel ectrol
ytesoluti
on.

I
npseudo-
capaci
tor
s,t
hechargest
orage(capaci
tance)r
esul
ts
f
rom t
hecharget
ransf
erbet
weenelect
rol
yteandelectr
ode.

Whenv ol
tageisappl i
edtothepseudo-capaci
tor,t
hecharged
atomsori onsintheel ect
rol
ytemovetowar dstheopposit
ely
chargedelectr
ode.I nbetweenthesurf
aceoft heelect
rodeand
adjacentelect
roly
te, t
woelectr
icl
ayersorelectr
icdoublel
ayers
areformed.Theset woelect
ri
clayer
sar eseparat
edby
el
ect r
olyt
emol ecules.

Thechargedatomsi ntheel ect

rol
ytewithinthedoublel
ayeract
aselectr
ondonorsandt ransfersel
ectronstot heat
omsof
el
ectrode.Asaresult
,theat omsinelectrodebecomechar ged.
Thus,chargei
sstoredatel ectr
icdoubl
el ayers.

Thepseudo-
capaci
tor
suseconduct
ivepol
ymer
sormet
aloxi
de

135
aselectr
odes.Theamountofelectr
icchargest
oredinapseudo-
capacit
orisdir
ectlypr
opor
ti
onaltotheappli
edvolt
age.The
pseudo-capaci
tanceismeasur
edinfarads.

Hy
bri
dcapaci
tor
s

Thehy bridcapacitorsaredevelopedbyusingthetechni
quesof
doublelay ercapacitorsandpseudo-capaci
tor
s.I
nhy bri
d
capacitors,bothdoubl elay
ercapacit
anceandpseudo
capacitanceisachi eved.

Adv
ant
agesofsuper
capaci
tor
s

 Stor
esl argeamountofchar gecomparedtothe
conventionalcapaci
tor
s(Highcapacit
ance).
 Deli
versenergyorchargev eryqui
ckl
y(highpowerdensi
ty)
 Longlif
et i
me
 Lowcost
 Supercapacit
or sdonotexplodeli
kebatt
eri
esevenifi
tis
over
char ged.

Appl
i
cat
ionsofsuper
capaci
tor
s

 Fl
ashl ightappl
ications
 Solarpowerappl icati
ons
 Supercapacitorsareusedi nel
ect
ronicdevicessuchas
l
apt opcomput ers,portabl
emediaplayers,
handhel d
devices,andphot ovolt
aicsyst
emstost abi
lizethepower
supply.
 Supercapacitorsareusedast emporaryener gyst
orage

136
 devicesf orenergyharvest
ingsystems.
 Super capacit
orsareusedi ndefibr
il
lat
ors(ani
nst
rument
thatcont rol
sir
regularheartbeatbysupply
ingel
ectr
ic
currenttot hechestwall)
.

Capaci
torcol
orcode
Whati
scapaci
tor
?

Capacit
orsarethemostwidelyusedel
ectr
oni
cdev i
cesaf
ter
resi
stor
s.Capacit
orsareusedincomputer
s,t
elev
isi
onsandall
otherel
ectr
onicci
rcui
ts.

Acapacit
orisanelect
ronicdevi
cewhi chst
oreselect
ri
ccharge.
Abasi
ccapacitorconsist
softwoconduct i
veplat
essepar
ated
byaninsul
ati
ngmat er
ialormedium call
eddiel
ect
ric.

Whenv ol
tageisappli
edt othecapacitor
,oppositeel
ectric
chargeswil
lbui
ldsuponbot hplat
esoft hecapacit
or.Inother
words,whenvoltagei
sappl i
edt othecapacitor
,thecapacitor
star
tschargi
ng.Asar esult
,potent
ialdif
ferencegenerates
betweentwoplates.

Thecapacitorchargesuntilt
hepot ent
ialdi
ff
erenceorvol
tage
betweentheplatesislessthant heext
ernalvolt
age.I
fthe
potent
ial
differ
enceorv olt
agebet weentwopl at
esbecomes
equaltotheexternalvol
tage,thecapacit
orstopschargi
ng.

Theabi
l
ityofacapaci
tort
ost
oreel
ect
ri
cchar
gei
scal
l
ed

137
capaci
tance.Capaci
tanceofacapacit
orismeasuredinfar
ads.
Thecapacitanceofthecapaci
tori
smai nl
ydependsonthearea
oftheconductiv
eplatesandthedi
stancebetweenconduct
ive
plat
es.

Thecapacitorsmadeofl argesurfacear
eaplat
eswithsmall
separat
iondistancewil
lstorelar
geamountofelectr
icchar
ge.
Ontheot herhand,thecapacit
orsmadeofsmal lsur
facear
ea
plat
eswi t
hlargeseparati
ondistancewil
lst
oreverysmall
amountofel ectr
icchar
ge.

Whati
scol
orcode?

Generall
y,coder ef
erstorepresentat
ionofinformationin
dif
ferentform byusingsignal
s, symbolsandletter
sf orthe
purposeofsecr ecy.Here,t
hesy mbolsorsignalsactascodes.
I
nt hesimilarway ,
incapacit
orsweusedi ff
erentcolorsascodes
tospecifythecapacitance(i
nfor mat
ion)ofthecapaci t
or.Her
e,
thediff
erentcolorscoatedont hecapacitoractsascodes.

Thecol
orcodesar
eusednotonl
yincapaci
tor
sbutalsoi
not
her
el
ect
roni
ccomponent
ssuchasresi
stor
sandinduct
ors.

Specifyi
ngthev al
uesofel ectr
oni ccomponentssuchas
capacitor
s,resi
storsandi nduct or
sbyusingthecolorcodes
print
edont hem iscalledelect
r oniccol
orcodesyst
em.Thi s
system wasdev elopedint heear l
y1920sbytheradio
manuf actur
esassoci ati
onwhi chisnowpar tofEl
ectroni
c
Industr
iesAlli
ance( EI
A).

138
Col
orcodi
ngi
ncapaci
tor

Incolorcodingtechnique,thecapacitancev al
ueismarkedon
thecapaci t
orsbodybyusi ngcolors.Thecol orspai
ntedonthe
capacitorsbodyarecal l
edcolorbands.Al lt
hecolorbands
paintedont hecapacitor
sbodyar eusedt oindi
catet
he
capacitancevalueandcapaci t
ancet oler
ance.Eachcolorpai
nted
ont hecapacitorsbodyrepresentsadi ff
erentnumber.

Thecolorcodesusedtorepresentthecapacitanceval
uesand
capacit
ancetol
erancei
ssimilartothatusedtor epr
esent
resi
stanceval
uesandresi
stancet ol
erance.General
ly,
the
capacit
orsaremarkedwit
hf ourormor ecolorbands.

4col
orbandcapaci
tor

Ina4colorbandcapacitor,
the1stand2ndcolorbandscoat
edon
thecapaci
torrepr
esentsthe1stand2nddigi
tsofthecapaci
tors
capaci
tance.The3rdcol
orbandr epresent
sthedecimalmulti
pli
er
and4thcol
orbandr epr
esentstoler
ance.

139
Forexampl e,i
fthecol
orsona4colorbandcapaci
tori
sinthis
order:yel
low,brown,r
edandgr
een.Thev al
uesofcol
orbandwi l
l
belikesthis:
Yellow=4,Br
own=1,Red=100or102andGr een=
5%.

140