Diode

Introduction: Semiconductor
 Materials that permit flow of
electrons are called conductors (e.g.,
gold, silver, copper, etc.).
 Materials that block flow of
electrons are called insulators (e.g.,
rubber, glass, Teflon, mica, etc.).
 Materials whose conductivity falls
between those of conductors and
insulators are called
semiconductors.
 Semiconductors are “part-time”
conductors whose conductivity can
be controlled.
 Cont’d….
 Germanium(Ge) and Silicon(Si) are example of
semiconductor materials that are neither
conductor nor insulators.
 Their electrical conductivity is between that of a
conductor and insulator.
 When isolated germanium and silicon atoms
have four valence electrons(i.e. electrons in the
outer orbit).
Doping
 For a semiconductor material to have the
properties needed to work in electronic
components, impurities are usually added.
 The impurities cause the material to conduct
currents in certain ways.
 The addition of an impurity to a semiconductor is
called doping.
 Sometimes the impurity is called a dopant.
 Donor impurities
 When an impurity contains an excess of electrons, the
dopant is called a donor impurity.
 Adding such a substance causes conduction mainly by
means of electron flow, as in a metal like copper.
 When a substance with pentavalent impurities such as
phosphrus,arsenic or antimony is added to a
semiconductor, the material conducts by means of
electron flow.
 The excess electrons are passed from atom to atom when
a voltage exists across the material
 A material with a donor impurity is called an N type
semiconductor, because electrons have negative charge.
Acceptor impurities
 If an impurity has a deficiency of electrons, the
dopant is called an acceptor impurity.
 When a substance with trivalent impurities such
as aluminium, boron, gallium, or indium is added
to a semiconductor, the material conducts by
means of hole flow.
 A hole is a missing electron.
 A material with an acceptor impurity is called a
P-type semiconductor, because holes have
positive charge.
 Majority and Minority charge carriers
 Charge carriers in semiconductor materials are either:-
electrons, which have a unit negative charge, or
holes, having a unit positive charge.
 In any semiconductor material, some of the current is in
the form of electrons passed from atom to atom in a
negative-to-positive direction.
 Some current occurs as holes that move from atom to
atom in a positive-to-negative direction.
 In an N-type semiconductor, most of the current flows as
electrons passed from atom to atom.
 The flow of current in a P-type material is better imagined
as a flow of electron absences, not electrons.
 Cont’d….
 The absences, called “holes,” move in a direction
opposite that of the electrons.
 When the two types of material are brought together, the
P-N junction develops properties that make the
semiconductor materials truly useful as electronic
devices.
 The N-type semiconductor is represented by the short,
straight line in the symbol, and is called the cathode.
 The P-type semiconductor is represented by the arrow,
and is called the anode.
Diode
 A diode is a two- terminal electronic component
that conducts current primarily in one direction.
 This effect is used for rectification when the
positive part of an AC-signal can pass while a
negative part is blocked.
 It has low (ideally zero) resistance in one
direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in
the other.
Diode
 A diode is a semiconductor device which conducts
only in one direction.
 A diode has two different terminals.
 The positive electrode is called anode and the
negative electrode is called cathode.

Symbol of diode
What's a diode made from?
 Diode is made from Semiconductors
 The energy levels of a semiconductor can be
modified so that a material (e.g. silicon or
germanium) that is normally an insulator will
conduct electricity.
Material Example Resistivity (𝞨-cm)
Conductor Copper 1.56x
Semiconductor Silicon -
Insulator Ceramics -
How do we turn a semiconductor into a
conductor?
 By doping it!
 Doping is a process where impurities are added to
the semiconductor to lower its resistivity.
 Silicon has 4 electrons in its valence level
 We add atoms which have a different number of
valence shell electrons, 3 or 5 to a piece of silicon.
Phosphorus(P), Arsenic(As), Antimony(Sb) have 5
valence electrons
Boron(B), Aluminum (Al), Indium(In) have 3
valence electrons
Cont’d…..
 N-type silicon:
• Adding atoms which have 5 valence electrons
makes the silicon more negative.
• The majority carriers are the excess electrons.
 P-type silicon
• Adding atoms which have 3 valence electrons
makes the silicon more positive.
• The majority carriers are "holes".
• A hole is the lack of an electron in the valence
shell.
Cont’d….

 How do we make a diode?

• Put a piece of N type silicon next to a piece of
P type silicon.
 What do we use diodes for?
• turn AC into DC (voltage rectifier)
 Cont’d….
 The most common kind of diode in modern
circuit design is the semiconductor diode,
although other diode technologies exist.
 When placed in a simple battery-lamp circuit, the
diode will either allow or prevent current
through the lamp, depending on the polarity of
the applied voltage.
 Cont’d….
 When the polarity of the battery is such that
electrons are allowed to flow through the diode,
the diode is said to be forward-biased.
 Conversely, when the battery is backward" and
the diode blocks current, the diode is said to be
reverse-biased.
 A diode may be thought of as like a switch:
“closed" when forward-biased and “open" when
reverse-biased.
Cont’d….

Figure : Diode operation:

(a) Current flow is permitted; the diode is forward
biased.
(b) Current flow is prohibited; the diode is reversed
biased.
Cont’d….
 Diode behaviour is analogous to the behaviour of
a hydraulic device called a check valve.
 A check valve allows fluid flow through it in only
one direction.
 Like check valves, diodes are essentially
“pressure-"operated (voltage-operated) devices.
 The essential difference between forward-bias
and reverse-bias is the polarity of the voltage
dropped across the diode.
Cont’d…..
Cont’d….

Figure : Diode circuit voltage measurements:

(a) Forward biased.
(b) Reverse biased.
 Diode: How does it works?
 When a diode is connected to
a battery as shown, electrons
from the N-side and holes
from the P-side are forced
toward the center by the
electrical field supplied by
the battery.
 The electrons and holes
combine causing the current
to pass through the diode.
 When a diode is arranged in
this way, it is said to be
forward biased.
Diode: How it doesn’t work
 When a diode is connected
to a battery as shown, holes
in the P-side are forced to
the left while electrons in
the N-side are forced to the
right.
 This results in an empty
zone around the PN-
junction that is free of
charge carries creating a
depletion region.
 cont’d….
 This depletion region
acts as an insulator
preventing current
from flowing through
the diode.
 When a diode is
arranged in this way, it
is said to be reverse
biased.
cont’d….
 cont’d….
 Conversely, if a forward-biasing voltage is applied
across the P-N junction, the depletion region
collapses becoming thinner.
 The diode becomes less resistive to current
through it. In order for a sustained current to go
through the diode; though, the depletion region
must be fully collapsed by the applied voltage. This
takes a certain minimum voltage to accomplish,
called the forward voltage.
 For silicon diodes, the typical forward voltage is
0.7 volts, nominal. For germanium diodes, the
forward voltage is only 0.3 volts.
Cont’d….
Types of Diode
 Some types of diode:-
Zener diode
Schottky diode
Light emitting diode(LED)
Photodiode
Zener diode
 Zener diode is an ordinary PN junction diode
 Usually operated in reverse biased condition
 A diode which is connected in reverse biased
direction is not biased practically.
 The PN junction of zener diode is highly doped.
That means the concentration of impurity is
increased.

Anode Cathode

Symbol of zener diode

Zener diode
 Zener diodes is special type of diode designed to operate in
the reverse bias direction and is used to stabilize or
regulate a voltage.
 Zener diodes conduct not only in forward direction but
also in reverse direction when the applied voltage is larger
then the zener voltage.
 This effect is used to stabilize voltages.
 Zener diodes are part of a power supply.
 The zener diode is used whenever a constant voltage is
required
 It is possible to build a special type of diode that can
handle breakdown without failing completely. This type of
diode is called a zener diode.
Cont’d….
 When forward-biased, zener diodes behave much
the same as standard rectifying diodes.
 In reverse bias mode, they do not conduct until
the applied voltage reaches or exceeds the so-
called zener voltage, at which point the diode is
able to conduct substantial current, and in doing
so will try to limit the voltage dropped across it to
that zener voltage point.
 So long as the power dissipated by this reverse
current does not exceed the diode's thermal
limits, the diode will not be harmed.
Cont’d….
 Zener diodes are designed to be operated in
reverse-bias mode, providing a relatively low,
stable breakdown, or zener voltage at which they
being to conduct substantial reverse current.
 A zener diode may function as a voltage
regulator by acting as an accessory load, drawing
more current from the source if the voltage is too
high, and less if it is too low.
Cont’d….
 cont’d….
Different zener diodes
 Cont’d….
 The zener diode is used in reverse-biased mode
with a resistor in series.
 The resistor is always needed to limit the current.
 The voltage drop across the zener-diode is stable
within the diode limits and is as high as the diode
specification. Diodes from 2.4 V to 100 V exist.
 The most common ones are for voltages between
2.7 V and 15 V.
 The power rating of zener diodes ranges from 500
mW to 2 W
Schottky diodes
 Schottky diodes are constructed of a metal -to-N
junction rather than a P-N semiconductor
junction.
 Also known as hot-carrier diodes.
 It have no depletion region and unipolar device
Cont’d....
Anode cathode

Symbol of schottky diode

 Schottky diodes are characterized by:
• fast switching times (low reverse-recovery
time), low heat loss.
• low forward voltage drop (typically 0.25 to 0.4
volts for a metal-silicon junction), and
 This makes them well suited for high-frequency
applications.
 Its disadvantage is leakage of current in reverse
biased.
 Light Emitting Diode (LED)

 LED is a semiconductor device which convert electrical

energy to light energy, and it has polarity.
 Two lead semiconductor device, Anode and cathode.
 Light emitting PN-junction diode.
 Visible or infrared light.
 Recall diodes act as a one way gate to current flow.
 A forward-biased PN-junction diode allows current flow
from anode to cathode.
 An LED conducts and emits light when its anode is made
more positive (approx. 1.4V) than its cathode.
 With reverse polarity, LED stops conducting and emitting
light
Cont’d……
cont’d….
 Similar to diodes, LEDs are current-dependent
devices.
 LED brightness is controlled by controlling current
through LED.
Too little current through LED,LED remains OFF.
Small current through LED, dimly lit LED.
Large current through LED, brightly lit LED.
 A resistor placed in series with LED accomplishes
current control
 Too much current through LED ,LED is destroyed.
cont’d….  Let be the supply voltage.
 Let be the required forward
bias voltage for the LED.
 Let I be the desired current
flow through LED.
 Then, the current limiting
resistance R is sized as follow:
Cont’d….
 If R is chosen smaller than
the above value, a larger
current will flow through
the LED.
 LEDs can handle only
limited current (varies
from 20mA to 100mA).
 If current through LED is
larger than the maximum
allowed value, than the
LED will be damaged.
 How LED Works?

 The light-emitting section of an LED is made by joining N-

type and P-type semiconductors together to form a PN
junction.
 When the PN junction is forward-biased, electrons in the
n side are excited across the PN junction and into the P
side, where they combine with holes.
 As the electrons combine with the holes, photons are
emitted.
 The PN-junction section of an LED is encased in an epoxy
shell that is doped with light scattering particles to
diffuse light and make the LED appear brighter.
 Often a reflector placed beneath the semiconductor is
used to direct the light upward.
How LED Works?
Cont’d….
 The LED may be made from the following
semiconductor compounds.
• Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
• Gallium Phosphide (GaP)
• Gallium Arsenide Phosphide(GaAsP)
• Silicon Carbide (SiC)
• Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN)
Advantage of LED
 Small size and light weight
 Available in different spectral colors
 Have longer life as compared to lamps
 Can be easily interfaced with other electronic circuits
 Operating speed is high (take only 1 micro second to turn ON
or OFF)
Disadvantage of LED
 Output power is affected by changes in temperature.
 Luminous efficiency of LED is low.
 LEDs get easily damaged due to over current.
Application of LED
 digital display, music player, road signal, railway signals, and
etc.
Photodiode
 All semiconductors are subject to optical charge carrier
generation.
 This is typically an undesired effect, so most
semiconductors are packaged in light blocking material.
 Photodiodes are intended to sense light (photo
detector)
 A photodiode can be used in solar cells, in photometry,
or in optical communications.
 It is operated in reverse bias.
Cont’d….
 Photodiode is a 2 lead semiconductor device that
transforms light energy to electrical energy.
 Suppose anode and cathode of a photodiode are
wired to a current meter.
• When photodiode is placed in dark, the current
meter displays zero current flow.
• When the photodiode is expose to light, it acts
a current source, causing current flow from
cathode to anode of photodiode through the
current meter.
Cont’d….
 Photodiodes have very linear light versus current
characteristics.
 Commonly used as light meters in cameras.
 Photodiodes often have built-in lenses and optical
filters.
 Photodiodes are more sensitive than photo
resistor.
Cont’d….
 Photodiode converts light energy directly
into electric current that can be measured
with meter.
 The input intensity of light and the output
current are nearly linear.
How Photodiode Works
 A thin n-type
semiconductor
sandwiched with a
thicker p-type
semiconductor.
 N-side is cathode, p-
side is anode.
 Up on illumination, a
number of photons
pass from the n-side
and into the p-side
of photodiode.
Cont’d….

 Some photons making it into N-side collide with

bound electrons within P-semiconductor, ejecting
them and creating holes.
 If these collisions are close to the PN interface,
the ejected electrons cross the junction, yielding
extra electrons on the N-side and extra holes on
the P-side.
 Segregation of +ve and -ve charges leads to a
potential difference across the PN-junction.
 When a wire is connected between the cathode
and anode, a conventionally positive current flow
from the anode to cathode.
Difference between LED and Photodiode
LED
LED is a light Emitting
device
LED is always operated in
forward bias mode
In LED emission of light is a
result of electron hole
recombination
Materials used for
constructing LEDs are:
Gallium Arsenide, Gallium
Phosphide, etc.
Photodiode
Photodiode is light detecting
device
Photodiode is always
operated in a reverse bias
mode
In photodiode photon
generates electron hole pair
Photodiodes are made up of
Silicon
Rectifiers

 Rectifiers simply consist of four diodes which are

connected in a special way.
 They are used in power supplies to convert AC into
DC. This conversion is called rectification.
 Rectifiers always have four leads: Plus (+),
minus (-), AC (~), AC (~)
Cont’d….
Testing Diodes
 Diodes can have 4 different faults.
1. Open circuit in both directions
2. Low resistance in both directions(short circuit)
3. Leaky
4. Breakdown under load
Fault Indications
Short Circuit
 Diodes can be damaged by high voltages, especially
diodes working in high voltage or high power applications
such as power supplies, and as a result will usually go
short circuit 0, when measured in either direction.
 When a diode in a power supply goes short circuit, large
currents can flow and obvious damage occurs such as
blown fuses.
 Short circuit diodes that are not obviously damaged show
0 or very low resistance in both forward and reverse
directions.
Open Circuit
 Occasionally, diodes (especially small signal diodes) may
go open circuit, and read very high resistance or infinity
(shown as 1 on digital meters) in both forward and
reverse directions.
Leaky
 Sometimes a signal diode may become "leaky". While its
forward resistance may be normal, its reverse resistance
may be lower than the expected infinity.
 Often this fault could only be measured with the diode
removed from the circuit it is working in because of the
parallel resistances of other components connected
across the diode.
Cont’d….
Testing a Diode on a Digital Meter
 Testing a diode with a Digital Meter must be done on the
"DIODE" setting as a digital meter does not deliver a current
through the probes on some of the resistance settings and
will not produce an accurate reading.
 Digital instruments have a position on the dial to measure
diodes.
 When we connect probes to each other, the multi meter
should buzz, which signals a short circuit, and display tells 0.
 When we separate the probes the buzzing stops, and a
symbol for open circuit is displayed (this can be either 0L or
1).
 Now we connect probes to the diode. Then we reverse the
diode and connect it again.
Cont’d….
Cont’d….
 If the measured diode was ok, one of the two
measurements would have shown a value which
represents a minimum voltage that could be conducted
through the diode (between 400mV and 800mV), and the
anode is the end of the diode which is connected to probe
A (red one).
 The diode is faulty if you hear a buzz (short circuit) or
some value which represents infinity.
Testing Zener diodes

 Zener diodes can be tested like a normal diode with a

Multimeter with diode-range.
 The Zener function can not be checked with a
Multimeter.
 To test the Zener function or to find out the Zener
voltage of an unknown Zener diode a test setup with a
power supply and a series resistor has to be build up.
 It is always wise to check the Zener diode function
when the electronic board is under voltage.
 With the minus lead of the voltmeter at ground the
plus lead is connected to cathode.
 The measured voltage must be the Zener voltage.
 Testing LED
 Remember that the LED only emits when it is
forward bias and the LED does not emit light
when it is reverse-biased.
 If LED does not emit light when it is forward bias
then it has developed an open circuit and should
be replaced.
 Power must be off when check the LED.
The End