chapt

er1
El
ect
ri
cit
y
El
ect
ri
ccurr
ent:i
tistheamountofel
ect
ri
cchar
ges
fl
owi
ngthr
oughapart
icul
arar
eaofaconduct
ori
nuni
t
ti
me.
I
tisal
sodef
inedast
her
ateoff
lowofel
ect
ri
cchar
ges.
I=Q/
T
SIuni
tofcur
renti
samper
e
Coul
ombi
stheSIuni
tofel
ect
ri
cchar
ge
I
A=I
C/I
S
Currenti
ssai
dtobeoneamper
eifonecoul
ombof
chargefl
owsthr
oughuni
tar
eaofaconduct
ori
none
second
1Mi
l
li
amper
e( =10-3 A
mA)
-
6
1Mi
croamper
e(1MA)=10 A
Ammet eristhei nst
rumentusedtomeasur ecur r
ent.
It
i
salway sconnect edinseri
eswitht
hecircuitsothat
thewholecurrentwi l
lfl
owt hr
oughi
t.Forthatital
ways
shouldhavev erylowresist
ancesothatitdoesnot
dist
urbthecur r
entflowingthr
oughthecircuit.
Fi
gur
eref
ert
extf
igur
e12.
1
El
ect
ri
cpot
ent
ial
El
ectr
icpotent
ial
atapointi
nanel
ectr
icfi
eldi
sdef
ined
astheworkdonei nmov
ingauni
tposi
tiv
echargef
rom
i
nfi
nit
ytothatpoint.
Pot
ent
ial
Dif
fer
ence
Potenti
aldi
ff
erenceatapointi
sdef i
nedasthework
doneinmov i
ngaunitposit
ivechargefr
om onepointt
o
anotherpoi
nt.
Iti
sdenotedbythelett
erVanditsSIuni
t
i
sv olt
.
V=wor
kdone/
quant
it
yofchar
gemov
ed.
V=W/
Q
1V=1J/
1c
Potent
ialdi
ff
erenceissai
dtobe1v ol
tif1joul
eof
workisdonetomov eachargeofonecoulombf r
om
onepointtoanotherpoi
nt.
Vol
tmet
er
Voltmeterist
heinst
rumentusedt omeasur epotential
dif
ference.
Iti
salwaysconnectedi nparal
lelacr
osst he
twopoi nt
swhosepot ent
ialdif
ferenceistobe
measur edandithasahi ghresistancesothatittakes
onlynegli
gibl
ecurr
entfrom thecircuit
.
3.
Ohm '
slaw(r
elat
ionbet
weenIandV)
i
tstatesthatatconst
anttemperatur
ethecurr
ent
f
lowingthroughaconductorisdir
ectl
ypropor
ti
onal
to
t
hepot enti
aldi
ffer
enceappli
edacrossit
sends.
I
fIi
sthecur
rentandvi
stheP.
D,t
henaccor
dingt
othe
Ohm'
slaw
I∝V
V ∝I
V=R×Iwher eRisaconstantofpr
opor
ti
onal
i
tycal
l
ed
r
esi
stanceoft
heconduct
or.
R=V/I,
V=P.
D,I=Cur
rent
,R=Resi
stance
V=I
R
I=V/
R. I=V/R
R=V/I
1.cur
rentcur
renti
sdi
rect
lypr
opt
oPD.
2.cur
renti
sinv
ersel
ypr
opor
ti
onal
toR.
Sostrengt
hofelect
ri
ccurrentt
hroughacircui
t
dependsonpotenti
aldi
ff
erenceandresi
stance
I
fV doubl
edIi
sdoubl
ed(
vicev
ersa)
.
I
fRdoubl
edIi
shal
ved.
Conduct
ors:substanceswhi
chall
owelectr
iccur
rent
tofl
owthroughthem fr
eel
yarecal
ledconduct
ors
Insul
ators:t
hesearesubst
anceswhichdonotal
l
ow
Eelect
riccur
rentt
oflowthr
oughthem.Eg.gl
ass,
ebonit
eet c
St
ati
cel
ect
ri
cit
y:el
ect
ri
cchar
gest
hatr
emai
nsatr
est
Cur
rentel
ect
ri
cit
y:char
geswhi
char
einmot
ion.
Resistor
s:subst
anceswhichhav
ecompar
it
ivel
yhi
gh
resi
stancearecall
edresi
stor
s
eg:Al l
oysli
kenichr
ome,mangani
net
c.t
hey
reducesthecur
renti
ntheci
rcui
t
Resistanceissai
dtobe1Ω ( Ohm)whenpotenti
al
di
fferenceof1v ol
tisappl
iedattheendsofa
conduct orandacurr
entof1amper efl
owsthr
oughit
.
Resist
ance:I
tist
heproper
tyofasubstancedueto
whichitopposesthef
lowofcur
rentthroughi
t.
R=V/
I
1Ω=1V/
1A
Resi
stanceofaconduct
orisal
sodefi
nedast
her
ati
o
ofpot
ential
dif
fer
encetothecur
rent
.
Fact
orsonwhi
chr
esi
stanceofaconduct
ordepends
upon
Resi
stanceofaconduct
ordependsupon
1.l
engt
h:Resi
stancei
sdi
rect
lypr
opor
ti
onal
tol
engt
h.

i
e.asl
engthincr
easesr
esi
stanceal
soi
ncr
easesand
v
iceversa.
2.Areaofcrosssect
ion:
Resi
stanceisi
nv er
sel
y
proport
ionaltoar
ea.ie.
whenareaisdoubled
resi
stancebecomeshal v
edandv i
ceversa.
R ∝1/
A
Resi
stanceisalsoi
nver
sel
ypr
opor
ti
onal
tot
he
di
amet ersquar
e.
D2
R ∝1/
i
e.asdi
amet
eri
sdoubl
edr
esi
stancebecomesone
f
ourth.
3.Natureofthemat er
ial
:
Resistanceofamat eri
ali
s
diff
erentfordi
ff
erentmat er
ial
s.Al
loyshavemor e
resist
ancecompar edtopuremet als.
Resi
stanceof
nichromei smorethanthatofcopperwi r
eofsame
l
engt handarea.
4.Temperat
ure:
Astemperat
urei
ncreasest
he
resi
stanceofpur
emetalsal
soincr
eases.
R∝L
R∝1/
A
R∝L/
A
R=ρL/
A
Wher
eρi sthe const
antofpropor
tional
it
y call
ed
r
esi
sti
vit
yoftheconductor
.I
tisal
so call
ed speci
fi
c
r
esi
stance.
ρ=RA/
L
I
fA=1andL=1wegetρ=R
Resisti
vi
ty ofa subst
ance is numer
ical
l
y equalt
o
resi
stanceofarodofthatsubst
ancewhichis1metr
e
l
ongand1squar emetr
einareaofcr
osssect
ion.
The
SIuni
tofResi
sti
vi
tyi
sohm metr
e.
Resi
sti
vi
tyofasubstancedoesnotdependonl ength
orthi
ckness.
Itdepends onl
y on t
he nat
ure oft he
mater
ialandt
hetemperat
ure.
Ast emper
atur
eincr
easesthefreeel
ect
ronspresentin
themet al
smov efasterand theycol
li
dewi th each
otherduet owhichtheresi
stanceoft heconductor
i
ncreases.
Theresi
stanceofal
l
oysar
eal
mostunaf
fect
edbyt
he
temper
ature.
1.
Thoughsil
verisabestconductorofel
ect
ri
cit
yiti
s
notusedf
orelect
ri
cal
transmi
ssi
on.Why?
I
tisbecausei
tisv
erycost
ly.
2.
We use alumini
um and copper f
or El
ect
ri
cal
tr
ansmi
ssi
on.Why
?
I
tisbecausetheyareverygoodconduct
orsast
hey
hav
elowresi
sti
vit
yandarecheapert
hansi
l
ver.
3.Why ar
e all
oyslike ni
chr
ome used i
n el
ect
ri
cal
heat
ingappl
i
ances?
Itisbecauseal l
oysdoesnotox i
dizeorbur
nev enat
very high temperature.
Itis also havi
ng ver
y high
resist
ivi
tyduet owhichi tproduceslot
sofheatwhen
currentflows through it.
So itcan be keptredhot
withoutburningorbreaki
ngi nair
.
Combi
nat
ionofr
esi
stor
s
Resi
stor
sinser
ies
Fi
gur
etext
bookpage.
Whent woormoreresist
orsar
econnect
edendtoend
consecut
ivel
ytheyaresaidt
obeinseri
esconnect
ion.
I
nthecaseofser
iesconnect
ion,
samecur
rentf
lows
t
hrougheachr
esi
stor.
Thepot ent
ialdif
fer
enceorv olt
ageacrosseach
resi
storswill
notbeequal butthetot
al pot
enti
al
diff
erencewillbeequalt
ot hesum ofthepotenti
al
diff
erenceofindivi
dual
resistor
s.
LetR1,R2andR3betheresist
anceofthr
eer esi
stor
s
connectedinser
iesandletVbet hevol
tageofthe
batt
eryappli
edattheendsoft hecombinat
ion.
LetV1,V2andV3bet
hepot
ent
ial
dif
fer
enceacr
osseach
resi
storsR1,
R2andR3.
.
I
nseri
esconnecti
ontotal
vol
tagei
sequal
tot
hesum
ofi
ndi
vidual
vol
tages.
V=V1+V2+V3
Accor
dingt
oOhm'
sLaw
V=I
R,V1=I
R1,V2=I
R2,V3=I
R3
Ther
efor
eV=V1+V2+V3
I
R=I
R1+I
R2+I
R3
 I
R=I(
R1+R2+R3)
R=(
R1+R2+R3)
Resi
stor
sinpar
all
el
Fi
gur
etext
bookpage.
Whent woormoreresist
orsareconnect
edbetween
thesamet wopoi
ntsthentheyaresai
dtobeinparal
lel
connecti
on.
I
nthecaseofparal
l
elconnecti
ont
hepotent
ial
di
ff
erenceacr
osseachresi
storwi
l
lbethesame.
Thecurr
entflowingthrougheachresi
storwillbe
dif
fer
entbutthetotalcurr
entfl
owingthrought he
cir
cui
twil
lbeequal tothesum ofcurr
ent sfl
owi ng
thr
oughtheindiv
idualresi
stor
.
LetR1,R2andR3betheresi
stanceofthr
eeresi
stor
s
connectedinpar
all
elandVbet hevol
tageappl
ied
acrosstheendsofthecombinati
on.
LetI1,I2andI3bethecur
rentf
lowi
ngt
hrougheach
resi
st orR1,R2andR3.
I
nparall
elconnect
iontot
alcurr
entisequaltothesum
ofcur
rentsfl
owingthr
oughindiv
idualr
esist
ors.
i
e.I
=I1+I
2+I
3Accor
dingt
oOhm'
slaw,V=I
R
I
=V/
R,I
1=V/
R1,I
2=V/
R2,I
3=V/
R3
V/
R=V/
R1+V/
R2+V/
R3
V/
R=V(
1/R1+1/
R2+1/
R3)
1/
R=(
1/R1+1/
R2+1/
R3)
I
ncaseoft
wor
esi
stor
sconnect
edi
npar
all
el
1/
R=1/
R1+1/
R2
I
fR1=R2=r
1/
R=1/
r+1/
r
1/
R=2/
r
R=r
/2
I
ncaseoft
wor
esi
stor
sconnect
edi
nser
ies
R=R1+R2
I
fR1=R2=r
R=r
+r
R=2r
Di
sadv
ant
agesofser
iesconnect
ion
I
foneoftheappl
i
ancest opworki
ngduetosome
def
ectot
herappl
iancesalsost
opsworki
ng.
Al
ltheappl
iancesar
eoperat
edbyasi
ngl
eswitch
sothatt
heycannotbet
urnedonorof
fsepar
atel
y.
Allt
heappli
ancesdonotgetthesamevol
tageas
suppli
edbythepowersupplyl
ine.
Sot
heygetless
vol
tageandglowslessbr
ightl
y.
Over
all
resist
anceoft
hecircui
tincr
easestoomuch
duetowhichcurr
entf
rom powersupplyl
ineisl
ow.
 Samecur r
entfl
owsthroughallt
heappli
ances.
So
appl
iancesofdi
ffer
entpowerrati
ngscannotdraw
suff
ici
entamountofcurrentf
orit
sproperworking.
Advant
agesofpar
all
elconnect
ion(
usedi
ndomest
ic
wir
ing)
Evenifoneoftheappl
i
ancest
opwor
kingot
her
appl
iancesconti
nuest
owork.
Eachappl i
ancewill
behav i
ngi
tsownswi t
chso
thatitcanbeturnedonoroffsepar
atel
ywithout
affecti
ngotherappli
ances.
Al
ltheappl
ianceswil
lbegett
ingt
hesamevolt
age
asissuppl
i
edbyt hepowersuppl
yli
neandi
tglows
br
ight
ly.
Theover
allr
esist
ancewil
lbereducedduetowhi
ch
cur
rentt
hroughtheci
rcui
twil
lbeincr
eased.
Allt
heappli
anceswil
lbegetti
ngsuf
fi
cientamount
ofcur
rentr
equir
edfori
tsproperwor
king.

Rheostat
:Iti
sadev i
ceusedt
ochanget hecurr
ent
fl
owingthroughtheci
rcui
twi
thoutchangi
ngthe
vol
tagesource.
El
ect
ri
cpower
:el
ect
ri
cpoweri
stheel
ect
ri
cal
wor
k
doneperuni
tti
me.I
tsSIuni
tiswat
t
P=W/
t,1W=1J/
1s
WeknowV=W/
Q i
e.W=VQ
P=VQ/
t(Q=I
T,I
=Q/
t)
P=VI 1W=1Vx1A
Powerissai
dtobeonewat ti
fadev
iceisoper
atedata
pot
enti
aldif
fer
enceof1v
oltandi
tcarr
iesacurr
entof1
ampere.
Commer
cial
uni
tofpoweri
ski
l
owat
t.
1KW=1000W
Agai
nP=VI
, (
V=I
R)
P=I
R xI
2
P=IR
p=VI (
I=V/
R)
P=V x V/
R
2
P=V/
R
Agai
n,
Elect
ri
cpower
=wor
kdonebyEC/
ti
met
aken
Wor
kdonebyEC=El
ect
ri
cal
ener
gyconsumed
Power
=El
ect
ri
cener
gy/
ti
me
El
ect
ri
cener
gy=powerxt
ime=Wat
txhour
(Joul
es)
Rel
ati
onbetweenSIuni
tandcommer
cial
uni
tof
el
ectr
ical
ener
gy
1ki
l
owat
thour=1000W x60x60sec
6x106Joul
=3. es
Onejoul
e(watthour
)ist heamountofel
ect
ri
calener
gy
consumedwhenanel ectri
calappl
i
ancehav
ingapower
rat
ingof1wat
tisoperatedforonehour.
Onekil
owatthouristheamountofel ect
ri
calener
gy
consumedwhenanel ect
ri
calappli
ancehavi
ngapower
rat
ingof1kil
owattisoperatedfor1hour.
Heat
ingef
fectofel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
Whencur rentpassesthroughahighresi
stancewire
l
ikenichromet heresi
stancewirebecomesv er
yhot
and giv
es outl ar
ge amountofheat .
Thi
si s cal
l
ed
heat
ingeffectofel
ect
ri
ccur r
ent
.
Asr esi
stancewir
eoffersresi
stancetothef l
ow of
curr
ent,workmustbedonebythecurr
entcont
inuousl
y
tokeepitsel
ffl
owi
ng.
Thewor kdonew byacur rentIt omoveanelect
ri
c
chargeQ againstapotent
ialdif
fer
enceV t
hrougha
resi
stanceRforti
metsecisgivenby
W=VQ.(
V=W/
Q)
Accor
dingt
oOhm'
slawweknow
V=I
R
Weknowcur
rentI=Q/
t
Q=I
t
Subst
it
uti
ngt
hev
aluesweget
W =VQ
 =I
RxI
T
2
W=IRt
Assumingthatall
theel
ect
ri
cal
ener
gyorthewor
k
doneisconvert
edint
oheatwecanwri
te
2
H=IRT
Thi
sequat
ioni
sknownasJoul
e'
slawofheat
ing.
Accordi
ngtojoul
e'
slawofheati
ngtheheatpr
oduced
i
nar esi
stancewi
reisdi
rect
lypr
oport
ional
to
2
1.Thesquar
eoft
hecur
rentI
2.r
esi
stanceoft
hewi
re.(
R),
and
3.Thet
imeoff
lowofel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
(t)
.
Appl
i
cat
ionsofheat
ingef
fectofel
ect
ri
ccur
rent
Iti
susedinwor
kingofelect
ri
calheat
ingdevices
suchasir
onboxelect
ri
cheatersroom heat
ersetc.
Int
hisdevi
cenichromeisusedasheat i
ngel ementas
i
tis hav i
nghighresi
sti
vityandhi ghmel t
ingpoint.So
l
otsofheatwil
lbeproducedandi tdoesnotmel teasil
y
andtheheati
ngelementglows.Butt heconnectingwire
i
smadeupofcopperwi r
ehav i
ngl owr esi
stiv
ityandso
i
tdoesnotglow
I
tisusedi
nel
ect
ri
cbul
bforgi
vi
ngoutl
i
ght
.
Highresi
stancetungst
enhav
inghi
ghmelt
ingpoi
ntis
usedhere.
Soi tbecomesr
edHotandgl
owsgiv
ingout
l
i
ght
.
I
ft hebul
bisfi
ll
edwithoxygent ungst
enwouldBurnup
quickl
y.
So to prev
entt hi
s,inertgas li
ke ar
gon or
nit
rogenisfi
l
ledinsidesot hatitprol
ongstheli
feof
tungst
en
I
ti s also used in elect
ricfuse forprot
ect
ing
householdwiresandelectr
ical
appli
ances.
Fuse:I
tisashortlengthofthi
nTi
npl
atedcopperwi
re
havi
ng l ow mel
ti
ng pointbutitshoul
d have hi
gh
resi
stancethant
hecircui
t.
Iti
sasafet
ydevi
ceusedtobr
eakt
heci
rcui
tifexcess
curr
entf
lowst
hroughi
t.