‫الجامعة األسمرية اإلسالمية‬

‫كلية الهندسة الكهربائية والحاسوب‬

‫قسم هندسة اإلتصاالت‬

‫مقرر أنظمة اتصاالت ‪2‬‬

‫المحاضرة الرابعة‬
‫‪HF Radio and LOS Communication‬‬
‫‪Part 4‬‬
‫إعداد‪ :‬فتحي البكوش‬
‫فصل الخريف ‪2020/2021‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬
 Outlines

• Design of LOS Microwave.

• Setting performance requirements.
• Site selection and preparation of a path profile.
• Carrying out a path analysis.

2
 Design of an LOS microwave
The design of an LOS microwave link involves five basic
steps:
1. Setting performance requirements.
2. Site selection and preparation of a path profile to determine
antenna tower heights.
3. Carrying out a path analysis, also called a link budget.
4. Physically running a path/ site survey.
5. Installing equipment and testing the system before to cutting it
over to carry traffic.

3
 1. Setting performance requirements

• The system requirements must be set based on the output

of the far-end receiver of the several links.
• The requirements should be based on existing standards,
Such as “Telcordia Notes on the Networks” or ITU-R
Organization.
• For any digital links, a threshold floor must be decided
based on the standard used.

4
 2. Site selection and preparation of a path profile to
determine antenna tower heights.

2.1 Site Selection.

• In this step we will select operational sites where we will
install and operate radio equipment.
• After site selection, we will prepare a path profile of each link
to determine the heights of radio towers to achieve “line of
sight.” The sites are selected using large topographical maps.
• There will be two terminal sites, where the system begins and
ends.
• Along the way, repeater sites will be required.

5
 2. Site selection and preparation of a path profile to
determine antenna tower heights.
2.2 Calculation of Tower Heights.
• LOS microwave antennas are mounted on towers, and the
towers must be high enough to overcomes obstacles in the
path.
• The path designer should consider using natural terrain for
terminal sites, and should also consider leasing space on
the top of tall buildings.
• In the design we have to identify obstacles and their height.
• Calculate earth curvature (EC) (or earth bulge). This is
maximum at midpath.
• Calculate the Fresnel zone clearance for each obstacle.
• Add a value of additional height for vegetation such as trees; add a
growth factor. 6
 2. Site selection and preparation of a path profile to
determine antenna tower heights.
2.2 Calculation of Tower Heights:
• So The earth curvature (EC) value (h) at any point in the path may be calculated by the
formula(s):
𝒉 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟕𝒅𝟏 𝒅𝟐 (h in feet; d in miles) and , 𝒉 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟖𝒅𝟏 𝒅𝟐 (h in
meters; d in km)
where d1 is the distance from the “transmit” site to the obstacle and, d2 is the distance from that
obstacle to the receive site.
• The previous equations is used for a ray beam that is a straight line (i.e., no bending).

• If the beam to be bent either toward or away from the earth. So

𝟎.𝟔𝟔𝟕 𝒅𝟏 𝒅𝟐
𝒉𝒇𝒕 = (𝒅𝟏 𝑨𝒏𝒅 𝒅𝟐 in mi)
𝑲
𝟎.𝟎𝟕𝟖 𝒅𝟏 𝒅𝟐
𝒉𝒎 = (𝒅𝟏 𝑨𝒏𝒅 𝒅𝟐 in km)
𝑲
• If the factor K is greater than 1, the ray beam is bent toward the earth and the radio horizon is
greater than the optical horizon. If K is less than 1, the radio horizon is less than the optical
horizon.
• For general system planning purposes, K = 4/3 may be used.
• The value of h or earth curvature must be added to obstacle height in the path-profile.
7
 2. Site selection and preparation of a path profile to
determine antenna tower heights.
2.2 Calculation of Tower Heights.
• Fresnel zone is an elliptically shaped area formed in the
region between transmitter and receiver of LOS.
• Any obstacle within this volume. For example building,
weaken the transmitted signal even if there is a direct LOS
between transmitter and receiver.
• The first Fresnel zone radius may be calculated from the following
formula:
𝒅𝟏 𝒅𝟐
𝑹𝐟𝐭 = 𝟕𝟐. 𝟏
𝑭𝑫
where F is the frequency in gigahertz, 𝑑1 is the distance from
transmit antenna to obstacle (statute miles), 𝑑2 is the distance from
path obstacle to receive antenna (statute miles), and D = 𝑑1 + 𝑑2 .
For metric units:
𝒅𝟏 𝒅𝟐
𝑹𝐦 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟑
𝑭𝑫
where F is the frequency (the microwave transmitter operating
frequency) in GHz, and 𝑑1 , 𝑑2 , and D are in now kilometers with R
in meters.
8
 2. Site selection and preparation of a path profile to
determine antenna tower heights.

2.2 Calculation of Tower Heights.

• The calculation of the Fresnel zone clearance, and the 0.6 of
the value calculated is added to the obstacle height in
addition to earth curvature.
• Now the three basic increment factors that must be added
to obstacle heights are now available — earth curvature
(earth bulge), Fresnel zone clearance, and trees and growth
(T&G).

9
 3. Path Analysis or Link Budget
3.2 Approach.
A link budget is an accounting of all of the power gains
and losses from a transmitter, through a medium to the
receiver.
1. In the path analysis (link budget), we calculate the free-
space loss between the transmit antenna and receive
antenna.
2. Then we calculate the EIRP (effective isotropically radiated
power) at the transmit antenna.
3. Then we add the EIRP to the free-space loss in dB, and the
result is the isotropic receive level (IRL).
4. When we add the receive antenna gain to the IRL and
subtract the receive transmission line losses, we get the
receive signal level (RSL).
10
 3. Path Analysis or Link Budget
3.2 Approach.
1. The free-space loss between the transmitter and receiver for an isotropic antenna ( antenna that radiates
uniformly in all directions ) is:
𝑳𝒅𝑩 = 𝟗𝟔. 𝟔 + 𝟐𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝑭𝐆𝐇𝐳 +𝟐𝟎 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 𝑫 ,
where F is the frequency in GHz, and D is the path distance in statute miles.
In the metric system: 𝑳𝒅𝑩 = 𝟗𝟐. 𝟒 + 𝟐𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝑭𝐆𝐇𝒛 +𝟐𝟎 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 𝑫𝐤𝐦

2. EIRP ( Effective isotropically radiated power at the transmit antenna ) is calculated by adding decibel units: the
transmitter power output (in dBm or dBW), the transmission line losses in dB (a negative value because it is a
loss), and the antenna gain in dBi is:
𝐄𝐈𝐑𝐏𝐝𝐁𝐖 = 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬. 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫𝐝𝐁𝐖 − 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬. 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐬𝐞𝐬𝒅𝑩 + 𝐚𝐧𝐭. 𝐠𝐚𝐢𝐧𝒅𝑩

3. The IRL (Isotropic Receive Level ) is the RF power level effecting on the receive antenna. It would be the power
we would measure at the base of an isotropic receive antenna.
𝐈𝐑𝐋𝐝𝐁𝐖 = 𝐄𝐈𝐑𝐁𝒅𝑩𝑾 - 𝐩𝐚𝐭𝐡 𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐬𝒅𝑩

4. The RSL ( receive signal level )is the power level at the input port of the first active stage in the receiver. The
power level is conventionally measured in dBm or dBW.
𝐑𝐒𝐋𝐝𝐁𝐖 = 𝑰𝑹𝑳𝒅𝑩𝑾 + 𝐫𝐞𝐜. 𝐚𝐧𝐭. 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏 (dB) - 𝐫𝐞𝐜. 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬. 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐬𝐞𝐬𝐠𝐚𝐢𝐧 (dB)

11
 3. Path Analysis or Link Budget

3.2 Approach.
Calculation of receiver noise level.
• Any device, generates thermal noise.
• Thermal noise is generated naturally by thermal agitation of electrons
in a conductor.
• In communication, thermal noise has a major influence to the
quality of the receiver. The lower the thermal noise the higher
and more expensive is receiver sensitivity.

12
 3. Path Analysis or Link Budget
3.2 Approach.
Calculation of receiver noise level.
• The thermal noise power level in a 1-Hz bandwidth of a perfect receiver
operating at absolute zero. It is:

𝑷𝒏 = −228.6 dBW/Hz, 4.1

where 𝑃n is the noise power level.

• And the thermal noise level of a perfect receiver operating at room

temperature using the following formula:

𝑷𝐧 = −228.6 dBW/Hz + 10 log 290 (K) = −204 dBW/Hz. 4.2

The value, 290 K (kelvins), is room temperature, or about 17° C or 68° F.

13
 3. Path Analysis or Link Budget

3.2 Approach.
• Noise figure simply tells us how much noise has been added to a
signal while passing through a device.
• Noise figure (dB) is the difference in signal-to-noise ratio between
the input to the device and the output of that same device.
• We can convert noise figure (dB) to noise temperature in kelvins
with the following formula:

NFdB = 10 log ( 1 + 𝑇𝑒 Τ290), 4.3

where NF is the noise figure of a device and 𝑻𝒆 is the effective noise

temperature of a device.

14
 3. Path Analysis or Link Budget

3.2 Approach.
Example: Suppose the noise figure of a device is 3 dB. What is the
noise temperature?
NFdB =10 log ( 1 + 𝑇𝑒 Τ290)
3 dB = 10 log ( 1 + 𝑇𝑒 Τ290)
0.3 = log ( 1 + 𝑇𝑒 Τ290)
1.995 =1 + 𝑇𝑒 Τ290
We round 1.995 to 2; thus
2-1 =𝑇𝑒 Τ290
𝑇𝑒 = 290K.

15
 3. Path Analysis or Link Budget
3.2 Approach.

• The thermal noise level of a receiver is a function of the receiver noise figure and
its bandwidth.
• The thermal noise power level of a device operating at room temperature is:
𝑃n = -204 dBW/Hz + NFdB + 10 log BWHz 4.4
where BW is the bandwidth of the device in Hz.

Example: A microwave receiver has a noise figure of 8 dB and its bandwidth is 10 MHz.
What is the thermal noise level (sometimes called the thermal noise threshold (the
sensitivity) )?
𝑃n = -204 dBW/Hz + NFdB + 10 log BWHz
𝑃n = - 204 dBW/Hz + 8 dB + 10 log ( 10 × 106 )
𝑃n = - 204 dBW/Hz + 8 dB + 70 dB = -126 dBW.

16
 3. Path Analysis or Link Budget

3.2 Approach.
𝑬𝐛
Calculation of ൗ𝑵𝟎 in digital radio systems.
• signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) is widely used in analog
transmission systems as one measure of signal quality.
• In digital systems the basic measure of transmission quality is
bit error rate (BER). With digital radio links, we will introduce
and employ the ratio 𝑬𝐛ൗ𝑵𝟎 as a measure of signal quality. Given
a certain modulation type, we can derive BER from an
𝑬𝐛
ൗ𝑵𝟎 curve.
• 𝑬𝐛ൗ𝑵𝟎 means energy per bit per noise spectral density ratio.
17
 3. Path Analysis or Link Budget
3.2 Approach.
Calculation of 𝑬𝐛ൗ𝑵𝟎 in digital radio systems.
• In communications, noise power spectral density, or simply noise density (𝑁0 ) is
the power spectral density of noise per unit of bandwidth. It is unit is watts per
hertz. It is commonly used in link budgets as 𝐸bൗ𝑁0 .
• 𝑵𝟎 is simply the thermal noise in 1 Hz of bandwidth or:
𝑵𝟎 = -204 dBW/Hz + NFdB. 4.5
NF, as used above, is the noise figure of the receiver.
Example: Suppose a receiver has a noise figure (NF) of 2.1 dB. What is its thermal
noise level in 1 Hz of bandwidth? In other words, what is 𝑵𝟎 ?
𝑵𝟎 = -204 dBW/Hz + NFdB.
𝑵𝟎 = -204 dBW+2.1 dB = -201.9 dBW/Hz .

18
 3. Path Analysis or Link Budget
• 3.2 Approach.
Calculation of 𝑬𝐛ൗ𝑵𝟎 in digital radio systems.

• We defined 𝑁0 previously, and 𝐸b is the signal energy per bit. We apply this to the
receive signal level (RSL).

• 𝐸b is the signal energy associated with each user data bit; it is equal to the signal power
divided by the user bit rate.

• The RSL represents the total power (in dBm or dBW) entering the receiver front end.

• We want the power carried by just 1 bit.

• For example, if the RSL were 1 watt, and the signal was at 1000 bps, the energy per bit
would be 1/ 1000 or 1 mW per bit.

19
 3. Path Analysis or Link Budget
3.2 Approach.
Calculation of 𝑬𝐛ൗ𝑵𝟎 in digital radio systems.

• However, In radio work it is easier to do the division logarithmically because we work with
decibels. Then we define 𝑬b as:
𝑬𝐛 = 𝐑𝐒𝐋𝐝𝐁𝐦 𝐨𝐫 𝐝𝐁𝐖 - 10 log (bitrate) 4.6

• Example using typical values. The RSL into a certain receiver was −89 dBW and bit rate
was 2.048 Mbps. What is the value of 𝐸b ?
𝑬𝐛 = 𝐑𝐒𝐋𝐝𝐁𝐦 𝐨𝐫 𝐝𝐁𝐖 - 10 log (bit rate)
𝐸b = -89.9 dBW - 10 log (2.048 × 106 )
𝐸b = -89.9 dBW – 63.11 dB = -152.11 dBW.

20
 3. Path Analysis or Link Budget

• 3.2 Approach.
𝑬𝐛
We can now develop a formula for ൗ𝑵𝟎 .
𝑬𝐛
ൗ𝑵𝟎 = 𝐑𝐒𝐋𝐝𝐁𝐖 - 10 log (bit rate) – ( - 204 dBW + 𝐍𝐅𝐝𝐁 ). 4.7

Simplifying we obtain:

𝑬𝐛
ൗ𝑵𝟎 = 𝐑𝐒𝐋𝐝𝐁𝐖 - 10 log (bit rate) + 204 dBW - 𝐍𝐅𝐝𝐁 . 4.8

21
 3. Path Analysis or Link Budget

• 3.2 Approach.
Some notes on 𝑬𝐛ൗ𝑵𝟎 and its use.
𝑬𝐛
• ൗ𝑵𝟎, for a given BER, will be different for different types of modulation
(e.g., FSK, PSK, QAM, etc.).
• When working with 𝑬𝐛 , we divide RSL by the bit rate.
• There is a theoretical 𝑬𝐛ൗ𝑵𝟎 and a practical 𝑬𝐛ൗ𝑵𝟎.
• The practical is always a greater value than the theoretical, greater by the
modulation implementation loss in dB, which compensates for system
imperfections.

22
 3. Path Analysis or Link Budget
3.2 Approach.
• To meet the bandwidth requirements, digital LOS microwave will
commonly use some form of quadrature amplitude modulation
(QAM), and as a minimum at the 64-QAM level, or 128-QAM, 256-
QAM, or 512-QAM. The theoretical bit packing capabilities are 6 bits/
Hz, 7 bits/ Hz, 8 bits/ Hz, and 9 bits/ Hz, respectively. Figure 4.1
compares bit error rate (BER) performance versus 𝑬𝐛ൗ𝑵𝟎 for various
QAM schemes.

23
 3. Path Analysis or Link Budget
3.2 Approach.
• As M increases (e.g., M = 64), for
a given error rate, 𝑬𝐛ൗ𝑵𝟎
increases. Figure 4.4 illustrates a
family of 𝑬𝐛ൗ𝑵𝟎 curves for various
M-QAM modulation schemes
plotted against BER.

Figure 4.1 BER performance for

several modulation types. 24
 3. Path Analysis or Link Budget

3.2 Approach
• In a wireless communication system, the link margin, measured in
dB, is the difference between the minimum expected power received
at the receiver's end, and the receiver's sensitivity (i.e., the received
power at which the receiver will stop working).
• The link margin must be positive, and should be maximized
• A system with a -negative link margin would mean the system is
insufficient to transfer data, usually this means a better receiver is
needed, with improved sensitivity
• A 15 dB link margin means that the system could tolerate an
additional 15 dB of attenuation between the transmitter and the
receiver, and it would still just barely work.
25
 3. Path Analysis or Link Budget

• To sum up this section on digital LOS microwave, we will work an

example problem.
• A digital link operates in the 7-GHz band with a link 37 km long.
The bit rate is 1.544 Mbps and the modulation is 64-QAM. The
specified BER for the link is 1 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 and the modulation
implementation loss is 2 dB. The receiver noise figure is 8 dB. The
antennas have 35-dB gain at each end, and transmission line
losses are 1.8 dB at each end. Assume the transmitter has a 1-
watt output or 0 dBW. What link margin can be expected?
26
 3. Path Analysis or Link Budget

• First turn to Figure 4.1 and derive the required 𝑬𝐛ൗ𝑵𝟎 . This is
19.5 dB; then add to this value the modulation
implementation loss of 2 dB, and the result is that the
required value for 𝑬𝐛ൗ𝑵𝟎 is 21.5 dB.

27
 3. Path Analysis or Link Budget
• 3.2 Approach
The next step is to calculate a candidate RSL value. We can calculate
𝑵𝟎 because we have the receiver noise figure.
As we know: 𝑵𝟎 = -204 dBW/Hz + 𝐍𝐅𝐝𝐁.
𝑁0 = -204 dBW + 8 dB
= -196 dBW
𝑬𝐛
ൗ𝑵𝟎 = 𝐑𝐒𝐋𝐝𝐁𝐖 - 10 log (bit rate) – ( - 204 dBW + 𝐍𝐅𝐝𝐁 ).
𝑬𝐛
𝐑𝐒𝐋𝐝𝐁𝐖 = ൗ𝑵𝟎+ 10 log (bit rate) + ( - 204 dBW + 𝐍𝐅𝐝𝐁 ).
= 21.5 + 10 log (1.544 × 106 ) - 196 dBW
= 21.5 + 61.88 dB – 196 dBW = -112.62 dBW
28
 3. Path Analysis or Link Budget

• 3.2 Approach.
We will hold this minimum RSL value for future reference, and now turn to the transmit side of the link.

• Calculate EIRP in dBW.

𝐄𝐈𝐑𝐏𝐝𝐁𝐖 = 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬. 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫𝐝𝐁𝐖 − 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬. 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐬𝐞𝐬𝒅𝑩+ 𝐚𝐧𝐭. 𝐠𝐚𝐢𝐧𝒅𝑩
EIRP𝐝𝐁𝐖 = 0 dBW − 1.8 dB + 35 dB
= +33.2 dBW

• Calculate the free-space loss (path loss):

FSL𝐝𝐁 = 𝟗𝟐. 𝟒 + 𝟐𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝑭𝐆𝐇𝒛 +𝟐𝟎 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 𝑫𝐤𝐦
FSL𝐝𝐁 = 92.4 + 20 log 37 + 20 log 7
= 92.4 + 31.36 + 16.90
= 140.66 dB

29
 3. Path Analysis or Link Budget
3.2 Approach.
• Calculate the IRL:
𝐈𝐑𝐋𝐝𝐁𝐖 = 𝐄𝐈𝐑𝐁𝒅𝑩𝑾 - 𝐩𝐚𝐭𝐡 𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐬𝒅𝑩
IRLdBW = +33.2 dBW − 140.66 dB
= −107.46 Dbw

• Calculate RSL:
𝐑𝐒𝐋𝐝𝐁𝐖 = 𝑰𝑹𝑳𝒅𝑩𝑾 + 𝐫𝐞𝐜. 𝐚𝐧𝐭. 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏 (dB) - 𝐫𝐞𝐜. 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬. 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞 𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐬𝐞𝐬𝐠𝐚𝐢𝐧 (dB)
RSL = −107.46 dBW + 35 dB − 1.8 dB
= −74.26 dBW

• Calculate the margin:

Margin = −74.26 dBW − (−112.61 dBW)
= 38.35 dB
Often we are faced with the problem of “What antenna gain will provide the margin or provide the gain
necessary to meet performance objectives?”
30
 References

• Roger L. Freeman , 2004 Telecommunication System Engineering

Fourth Edition
• Roger L. Freeman , 1999, Fundamentals of Telecommunications.

31