EKT 450

Mobile Communication System

Chapter 2: Mobile Radio

Propagation Characteristics

Dr. Azremi Abdullah Al-Hadi

School of Computer and Communication Engineering
azremi@unimap.edu.my

1
Introduction
• The mobile radio channel places fundamental
limitations on the performance of wireless
communication systems.
• Paths can vary from simple line-of-sight to
ones that are severely obstructed by buildings,
mountains, and foliage.
• Radio channels are extremely random and
difficult to analyze.
• The speed of motion also impacts how rapidly
the signal level fades as a mobile terminals
moves about. 2
Interferences
• Interference from other service providers.
• Interference from other users (same network) :
• Co-channel interference due to frequency
reuse.
• Adjacent channel interference due to
Base/Mobile Station design limitations &
large number of users sharing finite
bandwidth.

3
Propagation Models
Predicting the average received signal strength at
a given distance from the base station +
variability of the signal strength in close
proximity to a particular location.

4
Small-scale and Large-scale Fading

Figure 4.1 Small-scale and large-scale fading.

Small-scale Fading
• Characterize rapid fluctuations of the
received signal strength over very short travel
distance or short time duration.
• Sum of many contributions from different
directions.
• Random phases – sum on contributions
varies – obey Rayleigh Distribution.
• Variation as much as 30 - 40dB when the
mobile station is moved only a fraction of
wavelength.
6
Large-scale Fading
• Predict mean signal strength for an arbitrary
large Base-mobile station separation distance.
• As mobile station moves away from base
station over much larger distances, the local
average received signal will gradually decrease.
• Typically, local average received power is
calculated by averaging signal measurements
over a measurement track of 5 λ to 40 λ.

7
Line-of-Sight (LOS)

Line Of Sight (LOS) Non Line Of Sight (NLOS)

8
Line-of-Sight (LOS)
• LOS is the direct propagation of radio waves
between antennas that are visible to each other.
• The received signal is directly received at the
receiver the effects such as reflection, diffraction
and scattering doesn’t affect the signal reception
that much.
• Radio signals can travel through many non-
metallic objects, radio can be picked up through
walls. This is still LOS propagation.
• Examples would include propagation between a
satellite and a ground antenna or reception of
television signals from a local TV transmitter.
9
Free Space Propagation Model
Predict received signal strength when the base
and mobile stations have a clear unobstructed
LOS path between them – e.g. satellite and
microwave line-of-sight radio links.
Friis free space equation:
𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡 𝐺𝐺𝑡𝑡 𝐺𝐺𝑟𝑟 𝜆𝜆2
𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 (𝑑𝑑) =
4𝜋𝜋 2 𝑑𝑑 2 𝐿𝐿
4𝜋𝜋𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝐺𝐺 = 2 𝜆𝜆 = =
𝜆𝜆 𝑓𝑓 𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐 10
Friis Free Space Equation
• Pt = Transmitted power
• Pr(d) = Received power
• Gt = Transmitter antenna gain
• Gr = Receiver antenna gain
• d = transmit-receive separation distance (m)
• L = System loss factor related to propagation system losses
(antennas, transmission lines between equipment and
antennas, atmosphere, etc.)
L = 1 for zero loss
• Ae = Effective antenna aperture
The equation shows that the received power falls off as the
square of transmit-receive separation distance, d2

11
Free Space Propagation Model
• Isotropic radiator = an ideal antenna which radiates
power with unit gain uniformly in all directions –
reference antenna gains in wireless systems.
Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP)= PtGt
represents max. radiated power available from transmitter
in the direction of maximum antenna gain compared to
isotropic radiator.
• Practically:
Effective Radiated Power (ERP)= PtGt
max. radiated power as compared to half-wave dipole
antenna.
12
Free Space Propagation Model
• Path Loss (PL) – signal attenuation as a positive
quantity measured in dB  difference (in dB) between
the effective transmitted power and the received power
• With antenna gain, PL =
𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡 𝐺𝐺𝑡𝑡 𝐺𝐺𝑟𝑟 𝜆𝜆2
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 10 log = −10 log
𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 4𝜋𝜋 2 𝑑𝑑 2

• Antenna gains are excluded, PL =

𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡 𝜆𝜆2
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 10 log = −10 log
𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 4𝜋𝜋 2 𝑑𝑑 2
13
Free Space Propagation Model
• In practice, power can be measured at ‘d0’ and predicted at
‘d’ using the relation, d ≥ d0 ≥ df .
d0

d
• Where df is Fraunhofer (far-field) distance, which complies:

2𝐷𝐷2 D is the largest physical linear

𝑑𝑑𝑓𝑓 = dimension of the antenna.
𝜆𝜆
Therefore, the received power in free space at a distance greater
than d0 is given by:
2
𝑑𝑑0
𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 (𝑑𝑑) = 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 (𝑑𝑑0 )
𝑑𝑑
14
Free Space Propagation Model
• In mobile communication systems, Pr may vary by many
orders of magnitude, over a typical coverage area of several
square kilometers – often dBm or dBW units are used.
• If Pr is in units of dBm:

2
𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑0 𝑑𝑑0
𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑 dBm = 10 log + 20 log
0.001 W 𝑑𝑑

The reference distance d0 for practical systems using low-gain

antennas in the 1-2 GHz region is typically:
– 1 m in indoor environment
– 100m or 1000m in outdoor environments

15
Example 1 solution

Find the far-field distance for an antenna with

maximum dimension of 1 m and operating
frequency of 900 MHz.

16
Example 2 solution

If a transmitter produces 50W of power,

express the transmit power in units of:
a) dBm,
b) dBW.

If 50W is applied to a unity gain antenna (for

both base and mobile stations) with a 900 MHz
carrier frequency, find:
c) the received power in dBm at a free space
distance of 100 m from the antenna. Find also
Pr (10km) ?
17
Basic Propagation Mechanisms
• Reflection
• Diffraction
• Scattering
• In urban areas, there is no direct line-of-sight
path between:
• the transmitter and the receiver, and where
the presence of high- rise buildings causes
severe diffraction loss.
• Multiple reflections cause multi-path fading.
18
Basic Propagation Mechanisms
• Multipath propagation:
– Signal arrives at receiver through different paths.
– Paths could arrive with different gains, phase & delays.
– Small distance variation can have large amplitude variation.
• Physical phenomena behind multipath propagation
– Reflection (R), Diffraction (D), Scattering (S)

19
Basic Propagation Mechanisms
• Reflections arise when the plane waves are
incident upon a surface with dimensions that are
very large compared to the wavelength.
• Diffraction occurs according to Huygens's
principle when there is an obstruction between
the transmitter and receiver antennas, and
secondary waves are generated behind the
obstructing body.
• Scattering occurs when the plane waves are
incident upon an object whose dimensions are on
the order of a wavelength or less, and causes the
energy to be redirected in many directions.
20
Reflection from Smooth Surface

21
Typical Electromagnetic Properties

22
Reflection Coefficients

23
Power-Electric Field Relation
• In free space, power flux density Pd is:

𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡 𝐺𝐺𝑡𝑡 𝐸𝐸 2 𝐸𝐸 2

𝑃𝑃𝑑𝑑 = = = = W/m2
4𝜋𝜋𝑑𝑑 2 4𝜋𝜋𝑑𝑑 2 𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝜂𝜂

• Equation to relate electric field (units of V/m) to

received power (units of Watts):

𝐸𝐸 2 𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡 𝐺𝐺𝑡𝑡 𝐺𝐺𝑟𝑟 𝜆𝜆2 𝐸𝐸 2 𝐺𝐺𝑟𝑟 𝜆𝜆2

𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑 = 𝑃𝑃𝑑𝑑 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 = 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 = = W
120𝜋𝜋 4𝜋𝜋 2 𝑑𝑑 2 480𝜋𝜋2

24
Ground Reflection (Two-Ray) Model
Friis free space equation is in most cases inaccurate
when used alone. Hence, the more useful geometric
optics-based propagation model is:

25
Ground Reflection (Two-Ray) Model
• Consider both direct and ground reflected
propagation path between base and mobile
stations.

• Reasonably accurate for predicting large-scale

signal strength over distances of several km,
especially for mobile radio systems that use tall
towers (height ≥ 50m) and in LOS microcell
channels in urban environments.
26
Ground Reflection (Two-Ray) Model
1. The total received E-field, Etot is the result of the
direct LOS component, ELOS and the ground
reflected component, Eg.

2. If E0 is the free space E-field at a reference

distance d0 from the transmitter, then for d>d0,
the free space propagating E-field is:

𝐸𝐸0 𝑑𝑑0 𝑑𝑑
𝐸𝐸 𝑑𝑑, 𝑡𝑡 = cos 𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐 𝑡𝑡 −
𝑑𝑑 𝑐𝑐
27
Ground Reflection (Two-Ray) Model
3. The direct wave that travels a distance d’:
𝐸𝐸0 𝑑𝑑0 𝑑𝑑′
𝐸𝐸𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑑𝑑′, 𝑡𝑡 = cos 𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐 𝑡𝑡 −
𝑑𝑑′ 𝑐𝑐
4. The reflected wave that travels a distance d’’:
𝐸𝐸0 𝑑𝑑0 𝑑𝑑′′
𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔 𝑑𝑑′′, 𝑡𝑡 = Γ cos 𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐 𝑡𝑡 −
𝑑𝑑′′ 𝑐𝑐
5. Laws of reflection in dielectrics
𝜃𝜃𝑖𝑖 = 𝜃𝜃0 𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔 = Γ𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖 𝐸𝐸𝑡𝑡 = 1 + Γ 𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖

28
Ground Reflection (Two-Ray) Model
6. The resultant electric field, is the vector sum of
ELOS and Eg. (Note: Assume perfect horizontal E-
field polarization and ground reflection, i.e. Γ┴= -
1 and Et = 0.)

𝐸𝐸𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝐸𝐸𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 + 𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔

𝐸𝐸0 𝑑𝑑0 𝑑𝑑′ 𝐸𝐸0 𝑑𝑑0 𝑑𝑑′′

𝐸𝐸𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑑𝑑, 𝑡𝑡 = cos 𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐 𝑡𝑡 − + (−1) cos 𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐 𝑡𝑡 −
𝑑𝑑′ 𝑐𝑐 𝑑𝑑′′ 𝑐𝑐

29
Ground Reflection (Two-Ray) Model
7. By image method, the path difference between
the LOS and the ground reflected paths:

Δ = 𝑑𝑑 ′′ − 𝑑𝑑 ′ = ℎ𝑡𝑡 + ℎ𝑟𝑟 2 + 𝑑𝑑 2 − ℎ𝑡𝑡 − ℎ𝑟𝑟 2 + 𝑑𝑑 2

8. When d is very large compared to ht+hr , the Δ

can be simplified using a Taylor series
approximation:
2ℎ𝑡𝑡 ℎ𝑟𝑟
Δ = 𝑑𝑑 ′′ − 𝑑𝑑 ′ ≈
𝑑𝑑

9. Therefore: 2𝜋𝜋Δ Δ𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐 Δ 𝜃𝜃Δ

𝜃𝜃Δ = = 𝜏𝜏𝑑𝑑 = =
𝜆𝜆 𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐 2𝜋𝜋𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 30
Image Method
Ground Reflection (Two-Ray) Model
10. The electric field (at the receiver) at a distance d
from the transmitter (please refer reference book
@ pg. 122-124):
𝐸𝐸0 𝑑𝑑0 𝜃𝜃Δ
𝐸𝐸𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 (𝑑𝑑) = 2 sin
𝑑𝑑 2

11. If it satisfies:
20𝜋𝜋ℎ𝑡𝑡 ℎ𝑟𝑟 20ℎ𝑡𝑡 ℎ𝑟𝑟
𝑑𝑑 > ≈
3𝜆𝜆 𝜆𝜆
Then, the received E-field is:
2𝐸𝐸0 𝑑𝑑0 2𝜋𝜋ℎ𝑡𝑡 ℎ𝑟𝑟 𝑘𝑘
𝐸𝐸𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 (𝑑𝑑) = ≈ 2 V/m
𝑑𝑑 𝜆𝜆𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 32
Ground Reflection (Two-Ray) Model
13. The received power at a distance d from the
transmitter for the two-ray ground bounce model :
ℎ𝑟𝑟 2 ℎ𝑡𝑡 2
𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 = 𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡 𝐺𝐺𝑡𝑡 𝐺𝐺𝑟𝑟
𝑑𝑑 4
14. The path loss for the two-ray model (with antenna
gains):

𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 40 log 𝑑𝑑 − 10 log 𝐺𝐺𝑡𝑡 + 10 log 𝐺𝐺𝑟𝑟 + 20 log ℎ𝑡𝑡 + 20 log ℎ𝑟𝑟

33
Example 3 solution

Consider GSM900 cellular radio system with

20 W transmitted power from Base Station
Transceiver (BTS). The gain of BTS and
Mobile Station (MS) antenna are 8 dB and 2 dB
respectively. The BTS is located 10 km away
from MS and the height of the antenna for BTS
and MS are 200 m and 3 m, respectively. By
assuming two-ray ground reflection model
between BTS and MS, calculate the received
signal level at MS.

34
Example 4 solution

A mobile is located 5 km away from a base station

and uses a vertical quarter wavelength monopole
antenna with a gain of 2.55 dB to receive cellular
radio signals. The E-field at 1km from the transmitter
is measured to be 10-3 V/m. The carrier frequency of
the system is 900 MHz. Find:
a. Length and effective aperture of the receiving
antenna.
b. The received power at the mobile using the two-
ray ground reflection model assuming the
transmitter’s height is 50m, and receiver’s height is
1.5 m above ground.

35
Diffraction
• Occurs when the radio path between sender
and receiver is obstructed by an impenetrable
body and by a surface with sharp irregularities
(edges).
• The received field strength decreases rapidly as
a receiver moves deeper into the obstructed
(shadowed) region, the diffraction field still
exists and often has sufficient strength to
produce a useful signal.
• Diffraction explains how radio signals can
travel in urban and rural environments
without a LOS path. 36
Diffraction
• The phenomenon of diffraction from Huygen's principle
- all points on a wave front can be considered as point
sources for the production of secondary wavelets, and
that these wavelets combine to produce a new wave
front in the direction of propagation.

• The field strength of a diffracted wave in the shadowed

region is the vector sum of the electric field components
of all the secondary wavelets in the space around the
obstacle.

37
Diffraction
• Due to diffraction:
• Difference between direct and diffracted path exist
 the excess path length:
ℎ2 𝑑𝑑1 + 𝑑𝑑2
Δ ≈
2 𝑑𝑑1 𝑑𝑑2
• The corresponding phase difference:
2𝜋𝜋Δ 2𝜋𝜋 ℎ2 𝑑𝑑1 + 𝑑𝑑2
𝜙𝜙 = ≈
𝜆𝜆 𝜆𝜆 2 𝑑𝑑1 𝑑𝑑2

• Diffraction parameter (Fresnel-Kirchoff) v :

2 𝑑𝑑1 + 𝑑𝑑2 𝜋𝜋 2
𝑣𝑣 = ℎ , which allows 𝜙𝜙 = 𝑣𝑣
𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆1 𝑑𝑑2 2 38
Knife-edge Diffraction Geometry

39
Knife-edge Diffraction Geometry

𝑑𝑑1 + 𝑑𝑑2
𝛼𝛼 = ℎ
𝑑𝑑1 𝑑𝑑2 40
Fresnel Zone Geometry
• The concept of diffraction loss as a function of the path
difference around an obstruction is explained by Fresnel
zones.
• Fresnel zone  successive regions where secondary
waves have a path length from the transmitter to
receiver which are nλ/2 greater than the total path
length of a LOS.

41
Fresnel Zone Geometry
• Fresnel zones  concentric circles on the plane  with
loci of the origins of secondary wavelets which
propagate to the receiver, such that the total path
length increases by λ/2 for successive circles.
• Alternately constructive and destructive interference to
the total received signal.
• The radius of the n-th Fresnel zone circle is:

𝑛𝑛𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆1 𝑑𝑑2
𝑟𝑟𝑛𝑛 =
𝑑𝑑1 + 𝑑𝑑2

• Smallest circle, n = 1, so excess path length is λ/2 as

compared to LOS path.
• Circle n = 2, 3,etc have an excess path length of λ,
42
3λ/2, etc.
Fresnel Zone Geometry
• Maximum radii if the plane is midway between the
transmitter and receiver.
• Radii becomes smaller when the plane is moved toward
either the transmitter or receiver.
• ‘Shadowing’ is sensitive to the frequency and location of
obstruction with relation to the transmitter or receiver.

43
Fresnel Zone Considerations
• In mobile communication systems, diffraction loss
occurs from the blockage of secondary waves, such that
only a portion of the energy is diffracted around the
obstacle  blockage of energy from some of Fresnel
zones  only allows some energy to reach the receiver.
• Depending on geometry of obstruction, the received
energy is vector sum of the energy contributions from
all unobstructed Fresnel zones.
• If an obstruction does not block the volume contained
within the first Fresnel zone  diffraction loss is
minimal, and diffraction effects can be neglected.
• E.g. for the design of LOS microwave link, 55% of the
first Fresnel zone is kept clear.
44
Fresnel Zones for Different Knife-
edge Diffraction

Figure 4.12 Illustration of Fresnel zones for different knife-edge diffraction scenarios.

45
Multiple Knife-edge Diffraction

46
Example 5 solution

Compute the diffraction loss for the three cases

shown in Fig. 4.12. Assume λ=1/3m, d1 = 1km, d2
= 1km, and height is:
a. 25m
b. 0
c. -25m
For each of the cases, identify the Fresnel zone
within which the tip of the obstruction lies.

47
Scattering
• The medium which the wave travels consists of objects
with dimensions smaller or comparable to the
wavelength and where the number of obstacles per
unit volume is large – rough surfaces, small objects,
foliage, street signs, lamp posts.
• The actual received signal in a mobile radio
environment is often stronger than what is predicted
by reflection and diffraction models alone. This is
because when a radio wave impinges on a rough
surface, the reflected energy is spread out (diffused) in
all directions due to scattering.
• Objects such as lamp posts and trees tend to scatter
energy in all directions, thereby providing additional
radio energy at a receiver. 48
Scattering

How about rain drops? 49

Practical Link Budget Design using
Path Loss Models
• Most propagation models are derived using a
combination of analytical and empirical methods.
• Empirical model – fitting curves or analytical
expressions that recreate a set of measured data 
advantage since takes into account all known and
unknown propagation factors, through actual field
measurements.
• By using path loss to estimate received signal level
as a function of distance – possibly to predict SNR
for mobile communication system.

50
Log-distance Path Loss Model
• The average path loss for an arbitrary transmit-
receive separation is expressed by:
𝑛𝑛
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃(𝑑𝑑) ∝ or 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃(dB) ∝ 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑑𝑑0 + 10𝑛𝑛 log
𝑑𝑑0 𝑑𝑑0

51
Log-normal Shadowing Model
• Previous model does not consider the fact that the
surrounding environmental clutter may be vastly
different at two different locations having the same
transmit-receive separation.
• PL at a particular location is random and
distributed log-normally about the mean distance-
dependent value, i.e.
𝑑𝑑
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃(𝑑𝑑)[dB] = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑑𝑑0 + 𝑋𝑋𝜎𝜎 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑑𝑑0 + 10𝑛𝑛 log + 𝑋𝑋𝜎𝜎
𝑑𝑑0

and 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 (𝑑𝑑)[dBm] = 𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡 [dBm] − 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 (𝑑𝑑)[dB]

Xσ is a zero-mean Gaussian distributed random variable (dB) with
standard deviation σ (in dB)
52
Log-normal Shadowing Model
• The log-normal distribution describes the random
shadowing effects which occur over a large number
of measurement locations which have the same
transmit-receive separation, but different levels of
clutter on the propagation path  log-normal
shadowing !
• Next figure illustrates actual measured data in
several cellular radio systems and demonstrates the
random variations about the mean path loss due to
shadowing at specific transmit-receive separation.

53
Log-normal Shadowing Model

54
Outdoor Propagation Models
• Radio transmission in mobile communication system
often takes place over irregular terrains:
• Simple curved earth profile?
• Highly mountainous profile?
• Presence of trees, buildings, and other obstacles?
• Several models used for prediction – vary in terms of
approach, complexity and accuracy.

55
Outdoor Propagation Models
• The Longley-Rice model:
• Point to point communication systems (40 MHz to 100
GHz).
• Use models of two-ray ground reflection, Fresnel-Kirchoff
knife-edge, forward scatterer, far-field diffraction loss.
• Two modes – with or without terrain path profile.
• No corrections for environmental factors in the immediate
vicinity of the receiver, and multipath is not considered.

• Durkin’s model:
• Reads digital elevation map and perform site-specific
propagation computation.
• Produces signal strength contour.
• Cannot predict propagation effects due to foliage, buildings,
man-made structures.
• Not account for multipath other than ground reflection.
56
Okumura Model
• One of the most widely used models for signal
prediction in urban areas.
• Applicable for:
• frequencies ranging from 150MHz to 1920MHz.
• frequencies can be extrapolated to 3GHz.
• distances from 1km to 100km.
• base station antenna heights from 30m-1000m.
• Wholly based on measured data - no analytical
explanation
• Among the simplest & best for in terms of path loss
accuracy in cluttered mobile environment.
• Disadvantage: slow response to rapid terrain changes
• Common standard deviations between predicted and
measured path loss ≈ 10dB - 14dB.
57
Okumura Model
• Okumura developed a set of curves in urban areas
with quasi-smooth terrain.
• Developed from extensive measurements using
vertical omni- directional antennas at base and
mobile stations.
• It gives median attenuation relative to free space
(Amu).
• The model can be expressed as:

𝐿𝐿50 [dB] = 𝐿𝐿𝐹𝐹 + 𝐴𝐴𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (𝑓𝑓, 𝑑𝑑) − 𝐺𝐺(ℎ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ) − 𝐺𝐺(ℎ𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ) − 𝐺𝐺𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴

58
Okumura Model
• L50 = 50th percentile (median) value of propagation loss.
• LF = free space propagation loss.
• Amu = median attenuation relative to free space
• G(hte) = base station antenna height gain factor.
• G(hre) = mobile station antenna height gain factor.
• GAREA = gain due to the type of environment.

hte
G(hte) = 20 log 1000 m > hte > 30m
200
hre
G(hre) = 10 log hre ≤ 3m
3

G(hre) = hre 10m ≥ hre ≥ 3m

20 log
3 59
Okumura Model – Amu(f,d)

60
Figure 4.23 Median attenuation relative to free space (Amu(f,d)), over a quasi-smooth terrain
Okumura Model - GAREA

61
Okumura Model Calculation
a) calculate free-space path loss at the considered
distance and carrier frequency.
b) add median attenuation at the considered distance
and carrier frequency.
c) subtract the base and mobile station antenna gains
(see previous antenna gains formula – page 59).
d) subtract the gain due to the specific environment. The
values of Amu(fc,d) and GAREA are obtained from
Okumura empirical plots.

62
Example 6 solution

Find the median path loss using Okumura’s model

for d = 50 km, hte = 100 m, hre = 10 m in a
suburban environment. If the base station
transmitter radiates an EIRP of 1 kW at a carrier
frequency of 900 MHz, find the power at the
receiver (assume a unity gain receiving antenna).

63
Hata Model
• Empirical formulation of the graphical path loss
data provided by Okumura, and valid from 150
MHz to 1500 MHz.
• Standard formula for urban environment:
𝐿𝐿50 (𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢)[dB
= 69.55 + 26.16 log 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐
− 13.82 log ℎ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 − 𝑎𝑎 ℎ𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 + (44.9 − 6.55 log ℎ𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ) log 𝑑𝑑

• Correction factor, a(hre) is a function of the size

of the coverage area.
• Prediction from Hata compare very closely to
Okumura, as long as d exceeds 1 km.
64
Hata Model
For small to medium sized city, the correction factor is:
a(hre) Comment
(1.1log10 fc - 0.7)hre – (1.56log10 fc - 0.8) dB Medium City
8.29(log10 1.54hre)2 – 1.1 dB Large City (fc ≤ 300MHz)
3.2(log10 11.75hre)2 – 4.97 dB Large City (fc > 300MHz)

For Suburban and Rural Regions

L50 (dB) Comment
L50 (urban) - 2[log10 (fc/28)]2 – 5.4 Suburban Area
L50 (urban) - 4.78(log10 fc)2 - 18.33log10 fc - 40.98 Rural Area

65
Other Outdoor Propagation Models
• PCS extension to Hata Model :-
• Extended version of Hata Model to 2 GHz.

• Walfisch and Bertoni Model :-

• Considers the impact of rooftops and building
height by using diffraction to predict average
signal strength at street level.

• Wideband PCS Microcell Model :-

• Statistics for path loss, multipath and coverage
area were developed based on extensive
measurements made in LOS and obstructed
environments. 66
Indoor Propagation Models
• The indoor radio channel differs from the traditional
mobile radio channel:
• Distances covered are much smaller
• Variability of the environment is much greater for
a much smaller range of transmit-receive
separation.
• Propagation within buildings is strongly influenced by
• Layout of the building
• Construction material
• Building type
• Same mechanisms as outdoor: reflection, diffraction
and scattering  but much more variable.

67
Partition Losses (same floor)

68
Partition Losses (between floors)

Floor attenuation factors (FAF) between one floor of the building is

greater than the incremental attenuation caused by each additional floor. 69
Partition Losses (between floors)

After about five or six floor separations, very little additional path
loss is experienced.

70
Log-distance Path Loss Model

𝑑𝑑
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃[dB] = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑑𝑑0 + 10𝑛𝑛 log + 𝑋𝑋𝜎𝜎
𝑑𝑑0
‘n’ depends on the surroundings and building types. 71
Ericsson Multiple Breakdown Model
• Measurements in a multiple floor office building.
• Four breakpoints – also gives upper and lower bound
on the path loss.

72
Signal Penetration into Buildings
• Limited number of experiments – difficult to examine
exact models for penetration and difficult to compare.
• Generalizations have been made:
• Signal strength received inside a building increases with
height.
• At lower floor, the urban clutter induces high great
attenuation and reduces the level of penetration.
• At higher floor, a LOS path may exist, causing stronger
incident signal at the exterior wall of the building.
• RF penetration changes as a function of frequency and
height within the building.
• Antenna elevation pattern is also important for signal
penetration from outside the building.
• Amount of windows compared to building surface area,
presence of tinted metal in windows and angle of
incidence have strong impact on penetration loss. 73
Ray Tracing and Site Specific
Modeling
New methods of predicting radio signal coverage:
• Site Specific propagation models :
• Deterministically modelling any indoor or
outdoor propagation environment.
• Graphical Information System database :
• Building database can be drawn or digitized
using graphical software packages – able to
include accurate representation of building
and terrain features. 74
Small-Scale Fading and Multipath

• Small-scale fading (or simply fading) – rapid

fluctuations of the amplitudes, phases, or
multipath delays of radio signal – short
period of time / travel distance.
• Fading – interference between two or more
versions of the transmitted signal – arrived at
the receiver at slightly different times.
75
Small-Scale Multipath Propagation

• Multipath in radio channel creates small-scale

fading effects:
• Rapid changes in signal strength over small
travel distance or time interval.
• Random frequency modulation due to varying
‘Doppler shifts’ on different multipath signals.
• Time dispersion (echoes) due to multipath
propagation delays.
76
 Signal
Interference

Power

PT

d (Km) Frequency
77
 Signal
Interference
Large-Scale Parameters
• Distance Pathloss

Power

PT

PT+PL(d)

d (Km) Frequency
78
 Signal
Interference
Large-Scale Parameters
• Distance Pathloss
• Lognormal Shadowing

Power

PT

PT+PL(d)

d (Km) Frequency
79
 Signal
Interference
Large-Scale Parameters
• Distance Pathloss
• Lognormal Shadowing

Power

PT

PT+PL(d)

d (Km) Frequency
80
 Signal
Interference
Large-Scale Parameters
• Distance Pathloss
• Lognormal Shadowing

Power

PT

PT+PL(d)

d (Km) Frequency
81
 Signal
Interference
Large-Scale Parameters
• Distance Pathloss
• Lognormal Shadowing

Power

PT

PT+PL(d)
PT+PL(d)+X

d (Km) Frequency
82
 Signal
Interference
Large-Scale Parameters
• Distance Pathloss
• Lognormal Shadowing

Small-Scale Parameters
• Multi-Path Fading

Power

PT

PT+PL(d)
PT+PL(d)+X

d (Km) Frequency
83
 100

100
90

90
80

Distance Pathloss 80

70

Mobile Speed 3 Km/hr 70

60

PL=137.744+ 60

50
35.225log10(DKM) 50

40 40
20 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 20.7 20.8 20.9 21

30
0 10 10 20 30 40 50 60 d

15
0

Lognormal 10
-10

Shadowing 5
-20
Rapid changes in signal
Mobile Speed 3 Km/hr 0
-30
strength over a small
ARMA Correlated Shadow -5
-40
traveling distances
Model -10
-50
20 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 20.7 20.8 20.9 21

-15
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
d
10

20
0

10

-10
0

Small-Scale Fading -10 -20

-20
Mobile Speed 3 Km/hr -30
-30

Jakes’s Rayleigh Fading -40

-40

Model -50 -50

20 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 20.7 20.8 20.9 21

84 -60
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
d
Multipath Propagation Modeling
Power

Multi-Path
Components

τ0 τ1 τ2 Time

Multi-path results from reflection, diffraction, and scattering off

environment surroundings
Note: The figure above demonstrates the roles of reflection and scattering only on multi-path
85
Multipath Propagation Modeling
Power

Multi-Path
Components

τ0 τ1 τ2 Time

As the mobile receiver (i.e. car) moves in the environment, the

strength of each multi-path component varies
86
Multipath Propagation Modeling
Power

Multi-Path
Components

τ0 τ1 τ2 Time

As the mobile receiver (i.e. car) moves in the environment, the

strength of each multi-path component varies
87
Small-Scale Multipath Propagation
Fading signals occur due to reflections from
ground & surrounding buildings (clutter) as well
as scattered signals from trees, people, towers,
etc.
• often an LOS path is not available so the
first multipath signal arrival is probably
the desired signal (the one which traveled
the shortest distance)
• allows service even when Rx is severely
obstructed by surrounding clutter
88
Small-Scale Multipath Propagation
• Even stationary Tx/Rx wireless links can
experience fading due to the motion of objects
(cars, people, trees, etc.) in surrounding
environment off of which come the reflections.
• Multipath signals have randomly distributed
amplitudes, phases, & direction of arrival
• vector summation of (A∠θ) at Rx of
multipath leads to constructive/destructive
interference as mobile Rx moves in space
with respect to time
89
Small-Scale Multipath Propagation
• Received signal strength can vary by small-scale
fading over distances of a few meter (about 7 cm at
1 GHz)!
• This is a variation between, say, 1 mW and 10-6
mW.
• If a user stops at a deeply faded point, the signal
quality can be quite bad.
• However, even if a user stops, others around may
still be moving and can change the fading
characteristics.
• And if we have another antenna, say only 7 to 10
cm separated from the other antenna, that signal
could be good.
90
Factors influencing Small-Scale
Fading
1) Multipath Propagation
• # and strength of multipath signals.
• time delay of signal arrival :
• large path length differences → large differences
in delay between signals.
• urban area with many buildings distributed over
large spatial scale :
• large # of strong multipath signals with only a
few having a large time delay.
• suburb with nearby office park or shopping mall
• moderate # of strong multipath signals with
small to moderate delay times.
• rural → few multipath signals (LOS + ground
reflection).
91
Factors influencing Small-Scale
Fading
2) Speed of Mobile
• relative motion between base station & mobile
causes random frequency modulation due to
Doppler shift (fd)
• Different multipath components may have
different frequency shifts.

3) Speed of Surrounding Objects

• also influence Doppler shifts on multipath signals
• dominates small-scale fading if speed of objects >
mobile speed:
• otherwise ignored
92
Factors influencing Small-Scale
Fading
4) Transmission bandwidth of the signal (Bs)
• The mobile radio channel (MRC) is modeled as
filter with specific bandwidth (BW)
• The relationship between the signal BW & the
MRC BW will affect fading rates and distortion,
and so will determine:
a) if small-scale fading is significant.
b) if time distortion of signal leads to inter-
symbol interference (ISI).
• An MRC can cause distortion/ISI or small-scale
fading, or both.
• But typically one or the other.
93
Doppler Shift
Doppler shift of the carrier frequency:
• relative motion of the receiver and transmitter
causes Doppler shifts, fd .
• yields random frequency modulation due to
different frequency shifts on the multipath
components.
• A mobile moving with
constant velocity v
• Along path between X and Y
• Receive signals remotely from
S
• The difference in path length
travelled by the wave from S
to mobile at points X and Y is
Δl = d cosθ = vΔt cosθ
94
Doppler Shift
The phase change in the received signal due to difference
in path lengths: 2π∆l 2πv∆l
∆φ = = cos θ
λ λ
The apparent change in frequency, or Doppler shift is
given by:
1 ∆φ v
fd = . = cos(θ )
2π ∆t λ
• If mobile moving toward S, the Doppler shift is positive,
that is the apparent received frequency is increased.
• If mobile moving away from the direction of arrival of
the wave, the Doppler shift is negative, that is the
apparent received frequency is decreased.
95
Doppler Shift
• Two Doppler shifts to consider above :
• The Doppler shift of the signal when it is received at the
car.
• The Doppler shift of the signal when it bounces off the car
and is received somewhere else.
• Multipath signals will have different fd’s for constant v because
of random arrival directions!!
• Note: What matters with Doppler shift is not the absolute
frequency, but the shift in frequency relative to the bandwidth
of a channel :
• For example: A shift of 166 Hz may be significant for a
channel with a 1 kHz bandwidth.
• In general, low bit rate (low bandwidth) channels are
affected by Doppler shift.
96
Example 7
Consider a transmitter which radiates a sinusoidal carrier
frequency of 1850 MHz. For a vehicle moving 60 mph,
compute the received carrier frequency if the mobile is
moving:
(a) Directly towards the transmitter.
(b) Directly away from the transmitter.
(c) In a direction which is perpendicular to the direction
of arrival of the transmitted signal.

97
Parameters of Mobile Multipath
Channels
• Many multipath channel parameters are derived
from power delay profiles (Eq. 5-18) :
• P (τk) : relative power amplitudes of multipath
signals (absolute measurements are not needed)
• Relative to the first detectable signal
arriving at the Rx at τ0
• use ensemble average of many profiles in a
small localized area → typically 2 − 6 m
spacing of measurements → to obtain average
small-scale response.

98
Power Delay Profile
The power delay profile depicts the spatial average of
received power within the multi-path channel over a
radius that is comparable to the signal wavelength.

99
Parameters of Mobile Multipath
Channels
• The power delay profile is used to derive some
parameters that can help characterize the effect of
the wireless channel on signal communication
• Time dispersion parameters:
• Mean excess delay
• RMS delay spread
• Excess delay spread (X dB)
• Coherence bandwidth
• Frequency dispersion parameters:
• Doppler spread
• Coherence time
100
Time Dispersion Parameters
Mean Excess Delay
P(t)
∑ P(τ ) τ k k
τ= k

∑ P(τ )k
k

RMS Delay Spread

()
2
στ
= τ − τ
2

τ0 τ1 τ 2 τ3 τN t
∑ P ( τk ) τ 2
k
τ2 = k

∑ P(τ )
k
k
Power Delay Profile

Note: These delays are measured relative to the first detectable signal (multi-path component)
arriving at the receiver at τ0=0

Maximum Excess Delay (XdB) or Excess Delay Spread (XdB):

Time delay during which multi-path energy falls to X dB below the maximum
(Note that the strongest component does not necessarily arrive at τ0)
101
Time Dispersion Parameters

102
Time Dispersion Parameters
τ and στ provide a measure of propagation delay of
interfering signals:
• Then give an indication of how time smearing
might occur for the signal.
• A small στ is desired.
• The noise threshold is used to differentiate between
received multipath components and thermal noise.

103
Time Dispersion Parameters

104
Coherence Bandwidth
• Analogous to the delay spread parameters in the time domain,
coherence bandwidth is used to characterize the channel in the
frequency domain.
• The RMS delay spread and coherence bandwidth are inversely
proportional to each other.
• A statistical measure of the range of frequencies over which the
channel is can be considered to be “flat” (i.e., a channel which
passes all spectral components with approximately equal gain and
linear phase)
Coherence Bandwidth over Coherence Bandwidth over
which the frequency correlation which the frequency correlation
function is 0.9 function is 0.5

1 1
BC = BC =
50σ τ 5σ τ
105
Coherence Bandwidth
• Amplitude correlation → multipath signals have close
to the same amplitude → if they are then out-of-phase
they have significant destructive interference with each
other (deep fades).
• A flat fading channel is both “good” and “bad” :
• Good: The mobile radio channel is like a band-pass
filter and passes signals without major attenuation
from the channel.
• Bad: Deep fading can occur.
• So, the coherence bandwidth is “the range of
frequencies over which two frequency components have
a strong potential for amplitude correlation.”

106
Example 8
Calculate the mean excess delay, RMS delay spread, and
the maximum excess delay (10 dB) for the multipath
profile given. Estimate the 50% coherence bandwidth of
the channel. Would this channel be suitable for GSM
service without the use of an equalizer?
Pr (τ)

0 dB -
-10 dB -
-20 dB -
-30 dB -
τ (μs)
0 1 2 5 107
 Frequency Dispersion Parameters
• Doppler spread and coherence time are parameters which describe
the time varying nature of the channel.
• Doppler spread BD is a measure of spectral broadening due to the
Doppler shift associated with mobile motion.
• Coherence time is a statistical measure of the time duration over
which the channel impulse response is essentially invariant.

Coherence Time is inversely Coherence Time over which

proportional to Doppler the time correlation
spread function is 0.5
1 9
TC ≈ TC ≈
fm 16πf m
where fm is the maximum Doppler shift given by fm=v/λ
9 1 0.423
=
A Common Rule: TC =
16πf m f m fm 108
109
Fading Effects due to Multipath
Time Delay Spread
• Time dispersion due to multipath causes the
transmitted signal to undergo either flat or frequency
selective fading.

110
Flat fading vs Freq. Selective fading
P(t)
Flat Fading Power Delay Profile

BS << BC TS >> σ τ
A Common Rule of Thumb: τ 0 τ1 τ N t
Symbol Time (Digital Communication) TS
TS > 10 σt  Flat fading

1 0 1 + Minimal
Wireless
Channel ISI
+
τ0
τa
τN
111
Flat fading
Flat fading vs Freq. Selective fading
Frequency P(t)
Power Delay Profile

Selective Fading
BS > BC TS < σ τ
A Common Rule of Thumb: τ0 τ1 τ2 τ3 τN t

TS < 10 σt  Freq. Selective Fading Symbol Time (Digital Communication) TS

1 0 1 + Significant
Wireless
Channel ISI
+

τ0 τa τN

113
Frequency Selective fading
Flat fading vs Freq. Selective fading
• A channel is called frequency selective fading because
different frequencies within a signal are attenuated
differently by the mobile radio channel.
– Note: The definition of flat or frequency selective
fading is defined with respect to the bandwidth of
the signal that is being transmitted.
• Bc and στ are related quantities that characterize
time-varying nature of the mobile radio channel for
multipath interference from frequency and time
domain perspectives.
• However, Bc and στ do NOT characterize the time-
varying nature of the mobile radio channel due to the
mobility of the mobile and/or surrounding objects.
115
Fading Effects due to Doppler
Spread
• Depending on how rapidly the transmitted baseband
signal changes as compared to the rate of change of
the channel.

116
Slow fading vs Fast fading
Power Delay Profile P(τ0,t)
P(t) P(τ0,TC)
P(τ0,2TC)

P(τ0,3TC)
P(τ0,KTC)

τ0 t
0 TC 2TC 3TC KTC t

• Consider a wireless channel comprised of a single path component.

• The power delay profile reflects average measurements
• P(τ0) shall vary as the mobile moves

Fast Fading Slow Fading

TS > TC BS < BD TS << TC BS >> BD
Frequency dispersion
(time selective fading)

117
Two Independent Fading Issues

118
Assignment 2 – Q1
If a particular modulation provides suitable BER
performance whenever στ / TS ≤ 0.1, determine the smallest
symbol period TS that maybe sent through RF channels in (a)
indoor and (b) outdoor, without using equalizer. Estimate the 90%
and 50% correlation coherence bandwidth for both channels.

Pr (τ) Pr (τ)
(a) indoor (b) outdoor
0 dB - 0 dB -
-10 dB - -10 dB -
-20 dB - -20 dB -
-30 dB - -30 dB -
τ (ns) τ (μs)
0 50 75 100 0 5 10 119
Assignment 2 – Q2
If a baseband binary message with a bit rate Rb = 100
kbps is modulated by an RF carrier using BPSK,
(a) Find the range of values required for the rms delay
spread of the channel, such that the received signal is
a flat-fading signal (Note: Ts = 1 / Rb)
(b) If the modulation carrier frequency is 5.8 GHz, what
is the coherence time of the channel, assuming a
vehicle speed of 13 m/s?
(c) Is the channel in (b) is ‘fast’ or ‘slow’ fading?
120