■ FREQUENCY TRANSLATION AND MIXING

It is often desirable to translate a bandpass signal to a new center frequency. Frequency

translation is used in the implementation of communications receivers as well as in a number of
other applications. The process of frequency translation can be accomplished by multiplication
of the bandpass signal by a periodic signal and is referred to as mixing. A block diagram of
a mixer is given in Figure 3.18. As an example, the bandpass signal 𝑚(𝑡) cos(2𝜋𝑓1 𝑡) can be
translated from 𝑓1 to a new carrier frequency 𝑓2 by multiplying it by a local oscillator signal
of the form 2 cos[2𝜋(𝑓1 ± 𝑓2 )𝑡]. By using appropriate trigonometric identities, we can easily
show that the result of the multiplication is
𝑒(𝑡) = 𝑚(𝑡) cos(2𝜋𝑓2 𝑡) + 𝑚(𝑡) cos(4𝜋𝑓1 ± 2𝜋𝑓2 )𝑡 (3.80)
The undesired term is removed by filtering. The filter should have a bandwidth at least 2𝑊
for the assumed DSB modulation, where 𝑊 is the bandwidth of 𝑚(𝑡).
A common problem with mixers results from the fact that two different input signals can
be translated to the same frequency, 𝑓2 . For example, inputs of the form 𝑘(𝑡) cos[2𝜋𝑓1 ± 2𝑓2 )𝑡]
are also translated to 𝑓2 , since
2𝑘(𝑡) cos[2𝜋(𝑓1 ± 2𝑓2 )𝑡] cos[2𝜋(𝑓1 ± 𝑓2 )𝑡] = 𝑘(𝑡) cos(2𝜋𝑓2 𝑡)
+𝑘(𝑡) cos[2𝜋(2𝑓1 ± 3𝑓2 )𝑡] (3.81)
In (3.81), all three signs must be plus or all three signs must be minus. The input frequency
𝑓1 ± 2𝑓2 , which results in an output at 𝑓2 , is referred to as the image frequency of the desired
frequency 𝑓1 .
To illustrate that image frequencies must be considered in receiver design, consider the
superheterodyne receiver shown in Figure 3.19. The carrier frequency of the signal to be
demodulated is 𝑓𝑐 , and the intermediate-frequency (IF) filter is a bandpass filter with center
frequency 𝑓IF , which is fixed. The superheterodyne receiver has good sensitivity (the ability to
detect weak signals) and selectivity (the ability to separate closely spaced signals). This results
because the IF filter, which provides most of the predetection filtering, need not be tunable.
Thus, it can be a rather complex filter. Tuning of the receiver is accomplished by varying the

Bandpass Figure 3.18

m(t) cos ω 1t e(t) filter m(t) cos ω 2t Mixer.
× Center
frequency
ω2

2 cos (ω 1 ± ω 2)t

Local
oscillator

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 3.5 Frequency Translation and Mixing 137

Radio- Intermediate-
frequency frequency Output
(RF) filter × (IF) filter Demodulator
and and
amplifier amplifier

Local
oscillator

Figure 3.19
Superheterodyne receiver.

frequency of the local oscillator. The superheterodyne receiver of Figure 3.19 is the mixer of
Figure 3.18 with 𝑓𝑐 = 𝑓1 and 𝑓IF = 𝑓2 . The mixer translates the input frequency 𝑓𝑐 to the IF
frequency 𝑓IF .
As shown previously, the image frequency 𝑓𝑐 ± 2𝑓IF , where the sign depends on the
choice of local oscillator frequency, also will appear at the IF output. This means that if we
are attempting to receive a signal having carrier frequency 𝑓𝑐 , we can also receive a signal
at 𝑓𝑐 + 2𝑓IF if the local oscillator frequency is 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓IF or a signal at 𝑓𝑐 − 2𝑓IF if the local
oscillator frequency is 𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓IF . There is only one image frequency, and it is always separated
from the desired frequency by 2𝑓IF . Figure 3.20 shows the desired signal and image signal for

Desired
signal
f
ƒ1 = ƒ c
Local
oscillator
f
ƒ1 + ƒ 2 = ƒ LO
Signal at
mixer
output
f
ƒ 2 = ƒ lF 2 ƒ1 + ƒ 2
Image
signal
f
ƒ1 + 2ƒ 2 = ƒ c + 2ƒ lF
Image
signal at
mixer output
f
ƒ 2 = ƒ lF 2 ƒ 1 + 3ƒ 2
Passband
of lF f ilter

Figure 3.20
Illustration of image frequencies (high-side tuning).

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138 Chapter 3 ∙ Linear Modulation Techniques

Table 3.1 Low-Side and High-Side Tuning for AM Broadcast Band with 𝒇𝐈𝐅 = 455 kHz

Tuning range
Lower frequency Upper frequency of local oscillator
Standard AM 540 kHz 1600 kHz
broadcast band
Frequencies of 540 kHz -- 455 kHz 1600 kHz -- 455 kHz 13.47 to 1
local oscillator 85 kHz 1145 kHz
for low-side tuning
Frequencies of 540 kHz + 455 kHz 1600 kHz + 455 kHz 2.07 to 1
local oscillator = 995 kHz = 2055 kHz
for high-side tuning

a local oscillator having the frequency

𝑓LO = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓IF (3.82)
The image frequency can be eliminated by the radio-frequency (RF) filter. A standard IF
frequency for AM radio is 455 kHz. Thus, the image frequency is separated from the desired
signal by almost 1 MHz. This shows that the RF filter need not be narrowband. Furthermore,
since the AM broadcast band occupies the frequency range 540 kHz to 1.6 MHz, it is apparent
that a tunable RF filter is not required, provided that stations at the high end of the band are not
located geographically near stations at the low end of the band. Some inexpensive receivers
take advantage of this fact. Additionally, if the RF filter is made tunable, it need be tunable
only over a narrow range of frequencies.
One decision to be made when designing a superheterodyne receiver is whether the
frequency of the local oscillator is to be below the frequency of the input carrier (low-side
tuning) or above the frequency of the input carrier (high-side tuning). A simple example based
on the standard AM broadcast band illustrates one major consideration. The standard AM

Figure 3.21
2ƒ lF Relationship between 𝑓𝑐
Image signal Desired signal and 𝑓𝑖 (a) low-side tuning
and (b) high-side tuning.

ƒ
ƒ i = ƒ LO – ƒ lF ƒ LO ƒ c = ƒ LO + ƒ lF
(a)

2ƒ lF

Desired signal Image signal

ƒ
ƒ c = ƒ LO – ƒ lF ƒ LO ƒ i = ƒ LO + ƒ lF
(b)
 3.6 Interference in Linear Modulation 139

broadcast band extends from 540 kHz to 1600 kHz. For this example, let us choose a common
intermediate frequency, 455 kHz. As shown in Table 3.1, for low-side tuning, the frequency
of the local oscillator must be variable from 85 to 1600 kHz, which represents a frequency
range in excess of 13 to 1. If high-side tuning is used, the frequency of the local oscillator
must be variable from 995 to 2055 kHz, which represents a frequency range slightly in excess
of 2 to 1. Oscillators whose frequency must vary over a large ratio are much more difficult to
implement than are those whose frequency varies over a small ratio.
The relationship between the desired signal to be demodulated and the image signal
is summarized in Figure 3.21 for low-side and high-side tuning. The desired signal to be
demodulated has a carrier frequency of 𝑓𝑐 and the image signal has a carrier frequency of 𝑓𝑖 .
Example Problem
A superheterodyne receiver uses an IF frequency
of 455 kHz. The receiver is tuned to a transmitter having
a carrier frequency of 1100 kHz. Give two permissible
frequencies of the local oscillator and the image frequency
for each. Repeat assuming that the IF frequency is
2500 kHz.

IF frequency
of 455 kHz
For high-side tuning we have
fLO = fi + fIF = 1120 + 455 = 1575 kHz
fIM AGE = fi + 2fIF = 1120 + 910 = 2030 kHz
For low-side tuning we have

fLO = fi − fIF = 1120 − 455 = 665 kHz

fIM AGE = fi − 2fIF = 1120 − 910 = 210 kHz

IF=2500kHz

For high-side tuning

fLO = fi + fIF = 1120 + 2500 = 3620 kHz

fIM AGE = fi + 2fIF = 1120 + 5000 = 6120 kHz
For low-side tuning
fLO = fi − fIF = 1120 − 2500 = −1380 kHz
fLO = 1380 kHz
fIM AGE = fi − 2fIF = 1120 − 5000 = −3880 kHz
fLO = 3880 kHz