INSTITUTE OF ENGLISH

FACULTY OF PHILOLOGY

UNIVERSITY OF SILESIA

KAROLINA GEORGINA MUSIAŁ

STUDENT’S NUMBER

310440

COMPARATIVE TRANSLATION ANALYSIS OF SLAVIC ELEMENTS IN

THE WITCHER 3: WILD HUNT

BA THESIS

SUPERVISOR: DR ARKADIUSZ BADZIŃSKI

SOSNOWIEC 2019
 INSTYTUT JĘZYKA ANGIELSKIEGO

WYDZIAŁ FILOLOGICZNY

UNIWERSYTET ŚLĄSKI

KAROLINA GEORGINA MUSIAŁ

NUMER ALBUMU

310440

ANALIZA PORÓWNAWCZA PRZEKŁADU ELEMENTÓW SŁOWIAŃSKICH W

GRZE WIEDŹMIN 3: DZIKI GON

PRACA DYPLOMOWA LICENCJACKA

PROMOTOR: DR ARKADIUSZ BADZIŃSKI

SOSNOWIEC 2019
Słowa kluczowe: translation of idioms, translation of proper names, Slavic mythology, video
game translation, comparative analysis
( maks. 5)

Oświadczenie autora pracy

Ja, niżej podpisany/-a:

imię (imiona) i nazwisko: Karolina Georgina Musiał
autor pracy dyplomowej pt.
„Comparative translation analysis of Slavic elements in The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt”
„Analiza porównawcza przekładu elementów słowiańskich w grze Wiedźmin 3: Dziki Gon”

Numer albumu: 310440

Student/-ka Wydziału Filologicznego Uniwersytetu Śląskiego w Katowicach
(Nazwa wydziału/jednostki dydaktycznej)
kierunku studiów
filologia angielska
specjalności*
tłumaczeniowa z językiem japońskim
*(wypełnić, jeśli dotyczy)

Oświadczam, że ww. praca dyplomowa:

• została przygotowana przeze mnie samodzielnie1,

• nie narusza praw autorskich w rozumieniu ustawy z dnia 4 lutego 1994 r. o prawie
autorskim i prawach pokrewnych (tekst jednolity Dz. U. z 2006 r. Nr 90, poz. 631, z
późn. zm.) oraz dóbr osobistych chronionych prawem cywilnym,
• nie zawiera danych i informacji, które uzyskałem/-am w sposób niedozwolony,
• nie była podstawą nadania dyplomu uczelni wyższej lub tytułu zawodowego ani mnie,
ani innej osobie.

Oświadczam również, że treść pracy dyplomowej zamieszczonej przeze mnie w Archiwum

Prac Dyplomowych jest identyczna z treścią zawartą w wydrukowanej wersji pracy.

Jestem świadomy/-a odpowiedzialności karnej za złożenie fałszywego oświadczenia.

…………………………………… ………………………………….
Data

1
uwzględniając merytoryczny wkład promotora (w ramach prowadzonego seminarium dyplomowego)
 1

Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 4

CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................ 6

1.1 Origins & definition of translation ........................................................................ 6

1.2 Translation procedures .......................................................................................... 8

1.2.1 Literal translation ....................................................................................... 9

1.2.2 Transference ............................................................................................ 10

1.2.3 Naturalization .......................................................................................... 11

1.2.4 Cultural equivalence ................................................................................ 11

1.2.5 Functional equivalence ............................................................................ 12

1.2.6 Synonymy ................................................................................................ 12

1.2.7 Through-translation ................................................................................. 13

1.2.8 Shifts or transpositions ............................................................................ 13

1.2.9 Modulation............................................................................................... 14

1.2.10 Compensation ........................................................................................ 14

1.2.11 Paraphrase .............................................................................................. 15

1.2.12 Other procedures .................................................................................... 15

1.2.13 Couplets ................................................................................................. 16

1.3 Equivalence in translation .................................................................................... 16

1.4 Translation of proper names ................................................................................ 18

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1.5 Translation of idioms and fixed expressions ........................................................ 20

1.6 Competence in translation .................................................................................... 22

1.7 Similarities & differences of localization and translation .................................... 24

CHAPTER TWO...................................................................................................................... 25

2.1 Definition of video game ...................................................................................... 25

2.2 Genres of video games ......................................................................................... 25

2.2.1 Role-playing game (RPG) ....................................................................... 26

2.2.2 Adventure ................................................................................................ 26

2.2.3 Action ...................................................................................................... 26

2.2.4 Simulation ................................................................................................ 26

2.2.5 Sports ....................................................................................................... 27

2.2.6 Strategy .................................................................................................... 27

2.3 Video games as a medium ................................................................................... 27

2.4 Challenges in the translation of video games ....................................................... 29

CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................. 32

3.1 Object of the study ............................................................................................... 32

3.2 Cultural significance in The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt .............................................. 33

3.3 Names of the monsters ......................................................................................... 34

3.3.1 Literal translation ..................................................................................... 35

3.3.2 Neologization ........................................................................................... 36

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3.3.3 Transference............................................................................................. 39

3.3.4 Naturalization .......................................................................................... 39

3.3.5 Cultural equivalence ................................................................................ 40

3.3.6 Functional equivalence ............................................................................ 41

3.3.7 Couplet..................................................................................................... 41

3.4 Idioms & idiomatic expressions ........................................................................... 42

3.4.1 Equivalence in idioms ............................................................................. 43

3.4.2 Paraphrase ................................................................................................ 49

3.4.3 Other ........................................................................................................ 51

3.5 Data analysis ....................................................................................................... 52

CONCLUSIONS ...................................................................................................................... 54

REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 56

LIST OF TABLES AND CHARTS ......................................................................................... 65

SUMMARY IN ENGLISH ...................................................................................................... 66

SUMMARY IN POLISH ......................................................................................................... 67

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INTRODUCTION

It can be easily said that The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt is one of the best role-playing

games in the history of gaming. Nevertheless, its spectacular success is not confined only to

the number of prestigious awards and achievements. Moreover, The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt is an

excellent base for the comparative translation analysis of cultural content due to its rich

language and Slavic references. To elaborate, CD Projekt Red created the game that is

a reflection of Slavic myths, and, at the same time, spread this wonderful culture worldwide.

That is why, it is considered to be the Polish national pride and treasure. This thesis will attempt

to compare Polish and English versions of The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt in terms of the translation

of Slavic elements and idioms. This paper will also aim to determine whether those elements

and idiomatic expressions were preserved in the English version of the game.

The first chapter will focus mainly on the theory of translation. It will seek to provide

a consistent definition of translation and explain the differences between strategy, method and

procedure. In addition, it will introduce the methodology of Newmark, which is the basis for

the research. Subsequently, this chapter will take a closer look at equivalence. Apart from

examining the problems regarding the translation of proper names and idioms, it will discuss

the notion of competence in translation. Lastly, this chapter will analyze similarities and

differences between localization and translation.

The second chapter will concentrate on the theory of gaming, or, more accurately, it

will center around the definition of a video game and the most popular genres within the gaming

community. Moreover, this chapter will seek to tackle the problem concerning video games and

its status as a medium. Before the research, it is also important to mention challenges that lies

ahead of the translator in the video game translation.

 5

The third chapter will be dedicated to the comparative analysis of the bestiary and

chosen idiomatic expressions. The whole research will be conducted in accordance with

Newmark’s typology. As mentioned previously, the main objective of this paper is to assess

the translator’s actions in the translation of Slavic elements and idioms.

 6

CHAPTER ONE

1.1 Origins & definition of translation

The practice of translation goes far back to the ancient times. Moreover, translation

played a key role in developing and shaping languages into what are they today. The translation

of the Hebrew Old Testament into Greek, also known as Septuagint, is considered to be the first

translation in the history (Nida & Taber, 1982). Its name derives from Latin Septuāgintā (lit.

trans. seventy) and directly refers to the number of translators who have been entrusted with

this task (Lebert, 2017). The Septuagint greatly contributed to the advancement of translation

and provided us with some basic procedures of these times (Soler-Pardo, 2013). As Lebert

(2017) outlines: “it became the source text for later translations into Latin, Coptic, Armenian,

Georgian and other languages”. The first person in history who chose sense-for-sense

translation (free translation) over word-for-word translation (literal translation) was Marcus

Tullius Cicero – Roman philosopher, scholar and orator (Munday, 2008). Cicero (46BCE/1960)

stressed that in De optimo genere oratorum (lit. trans. The Best Kind of Orator) he did not

translate speeches “as an interpreter, but as an orator, keeping the same ideas and forms, or as

one might say, the ‘figures’ of thought, but in language which conforms to our usage” (p. 364).

Cicero’s approach was met with a great interest and skepticism throughout the centuries. It

ushered in a never-ending debate “whether to translate literally of freely” (Newmark, 1988, p.

45). St Jerome was another scholar and translator who decided to reject word-for-word

translation and admitted to using Cicero’s typology during translation of the Bible to Latin:

“now I not only admit but freely announce that in translating from the Greek – except of course

in the case of the Holy Scripture, where even the syntax contains a mystery – I render not word-

for-word, but sense-for-sense” (St Jerome, 395 CE/1997, p. 25). It is also worth mentioning that

the translation studies emerged as an independent field of study in the second half of

the twentieth century (Munday, 2008). The grammar-translation method became widespread in
 7

secondary schools in various countries. At first, this method was applied to classical languages

such as Greek or Latin and then it proved to be useful whilst translating modern languages.

The grammar-translation method “concentrated on learning the grammatical rules of the target

language and then carrying out a literal translation” (Soler-Pardo, 2013, p. 6). However,

the method was abandoned for the sake of communicative approach in the 1960s. (Soler-Pardo,

2013). This approach puts emphasis on the student’s natural ability to acquire languages. Its

main goal was to “replicate ‘authentic’ language learning conditions in the classroom”

(Munday, 2008, p. 8). The following years brought more systematic and linguistic-oriented

approaches. The prime examples of these times are works by Jean-Paul Vinay and Jean

Darbelnet, Eugene Nida, Alfred Malblanc and George Mounin. Nowadays, one of the main

characteristics of the translation field is its diversity. To clarify, there are many different

approaches and definitions of translation introduced by various scientists.

According to Munday (2008) translation is in fact a very broad term because it can

refer to the general field of study, the product (completed, translated text) or the process

(the act of translating). “The process of translation between two different written languages

involves the translator changing an original written text (the source text or ST) in the original

verbal language (the source language or SL) into a written text (the target text or TT) in

a different verbal language (the target language or TL)” (Munday, 2008, p. 5). There is a close

similarity between the definition provided by Munday and Jakobson's definition of interlingual

translation. Interlingual translation, as Jakobson (1959/2004) asserts, is “an interpretation of

verbal signs by means of some other language” (p. 139). In other words, interlingual translation

occurs when translating one language into another and from the perspective of translation

studies it is the most used and traditional form of translation (Munday, 2008). Jakobson

differentiates two other types of translation i.e. intralingual and intersemiotic. Intralingual

translation, also known as rewording involves processes of translation within one language.
 8

Whereas intersemiotic translation focuses on translating the text into the medium such as

television, books or music (Munday, 2008). In comparison, Newmark (1981) sees translation

as “a craft consisting in the attempt to replace a written message and/or statement in one

language by the same message and/or statement in another language” (p. 7). Newmark stresses

that translation may result in loss of meaning by overtranslation (adding too much unnecessary

information) and undertranslation (omitting important information). The use of the word "craft"

implies that translator's job covers a wide scope of responsibilities, thus he works on four levels

of translation.

. . . translation is first a science, which entails the knowledge and verification of

the facts and the language that describes them- here, what is wrong, mistakes of truth,
can be identified; secondly, it is a skill, which calls for appropriate language and
acceptable usage; thirdly, an art, which distinguishes good from undistinguished
writing and is the creative, the intuitive, sometimes the inspired, level of
the translation; lastly, a matter of taste, where argument ceases, preferences are
expressed, and the variety of meritorious translations is the reflection of individual
differences (Newmark, 1988, p. 6).

1.2 Translation procedures

Firstly, it is crucial to clarify what is meant by translation strategy, procedure and

method. These terms are often used synonymously within the field of translation which may be

confusing. As claimed by Jaaskelainen (1999) translation strategy is “a series of competencies,

a set of steps or processes that favor the acquisition, storage, and/or utilization of information”

(p. 71). Jaaskelainen implies that as a strategy we can consider any processes that help us with

translation, provide satisfactionary solutions and preserve the message. On the other hand,

Lörscher (1991) identifies translation strategy as “potentially conscious procedure for solving

a problem faced in translating a text, or any segment of it” (p. 8). To put it differently, strategy

can be defined as ways of dealing with problems that occur during translation's process.
 9

Following Lörscher’s train of thought, consciousness is an indispensable element of strategy.

Lörscher’s definition of strategy seems to overlap with Newmark’s idea of procedure. As

opposed to Lörscher, Newmark (1988) draws a clear distinction between procedures and

methods. Newmark notes that, “while translation methods relate to whole texts, translation

procedures are used for sentences and the smaller units of language” (p. 81).

According to Molina and Albir (2002), strategies and methods are two separate

concepts. Molina and Albir point out that strategies “are related to the mechanisms used by

translators throughout the the whole translation process to find a solution to the problems they

find” (Molina & Albir, 2002, p. 507). While the term method “refers to the way a particular

translation process is carried out in terms of the translator’s objective, i.e., a global option that

affects the whole text” (Molina & Albir, 2002, p. 507). In short, methods affect the way in

which the text will be translated.

Consequently, I choose translation procedures introduced by Newmark because my

thesis focuses on translation of proper names and idioms.

1.2.1 Literal translation

Literal translation is identified as “the direct transfer of a SL text into a grammatically

and idiomatically appropriate TL text in which the translators’ task is limited to observing

the adherence to the linguistic servitudes of the TL” (Vinay & Darbelnet, 1958/1995, p. 33).

Vinay and Darbelnet (1958/1995) point out that literal translation is most common between two

languages within the same family e.g. French and Italian, especially when their culture is

remarkably similar.

According to Newmark (1988) literal translation is the most important and basic

procedure both in communicative and semantic translation. It ranges from “one word to one

word, group to group, sentence to sentence and collocation to collocation” (Newmark, 1988, p.
 10

69). Literal translation is also the point at which translation begins. However, literal translation

becomes more challenging above world level and usually cannot be applied whenever

translation problem appears (Newmark, 1988). Then again, Newmark (1988) maintains that

Literal translation above the word level is the only correct procedure if the SL and TL
meaning correspond, or correspond more closely than any alternative; that means that
the referent and the pragmatic effect are equivalent, i.e. that the words not only refer
to the same „thing” but have similar associations (p. 70).

The translator may divert from literal translation under the following conditions:

“when faced with SL general words for which there are no “satisfactory” one-to-one TL

equivalents even though one is over-translating” (Newmark, 1988, p. 76), when literal version

is incorrect and lastly, when “texts of vocative or informative type are badly written”

(Newmark, 1988, p. 76).

1.2.2 Transference

Transference, also referred to as transcription, is the procedure that involves

transferring a word from the source language to the target language. In such manner, the word

changes into a “loan word” (Newmark, 1988). Newmark indicates that “in principle, the names

of SL objects, inventions, devices, processes to be imported into the target language community

should be creatively, preferably “authoritatively”, translated, if they are neologisms, although

brand names have to be transferred” (p. 81). In addition, amongst other things that are usually

transferred Newmark lists names of living and dead people, geographical and topographical

names, names of magazines and newspapers, plays, films, street names, addresses, names of

private companies, names of public institutions and untranslated literary compositions.

Newmark's transference corresponds to the term of pure borrowing or Stylistique

comparée du français et de l’anglai borrowing first introduced by Vinay and Darbelnet in 1958

(Molina & Albir, 2002). Pure borrowing can be described as taking word or expression directly
 11

from another language without applying any changes (Molina & Albir, 2002). Waliński (2015)

indicates that the main reason of using this procedure is technological progress e.g. tablet,

laptop, joystick in Polish, and in the case when “the concept discussed in the source text is

relatively unknown to the target audience” (p. 58).

1.2.3 Naturalization

Naturalization is concerned with adapting the word in the source language to

natural pronunciation and morphology of the target language (Newmark, 1988). Another name

for naturalization suggested by Molina and Albir (2002) is naturalized borrowing.

Naturalization may be a perfect solution when it comes to the translating of culture-

bound elements or proper names. For instance, Hercules was rendered into Herkules in

accordance with Polish pronunciation. However, this procedure has its drawbacks. Fictional

names that suggest distinctive qualities or traits of a character i.e. charactonyms cannot be

translated by means of naturalization.

1.2.4 Cultural equivalence

The idea of cultural equivalence is to a find word in the target language with the most

akin meaning that could replace cultural word in the source language. However, they are not

completely accurate, thus translation use of cultural equivalents has its limitations (Newmark,

1988).

Baker (1992) stresses that the main advantage of using cultural equivalence is that “it

gives the reader a concept with which s/he can identify, something familiar and appealing”

(p. 31). The use of cultural equivalence by the translator depends on how much freedom is given

to him by the person who commissioned the translation as well as on its purpose (Baker, 1992).
 12

The procedure of cultural equivalence is commonly applied in the translation of video

games. To illustrate, video games have a lot of cultural content e.g. The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt

or The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim. In the case of The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt, the non-polish players

may be not well acquainted with Slavic folklore and its lore. Therefore, the translators rendered

some of the proper names by employing cultural equivalence. To illustrate, Slavic Borowy was

replaced with its equivalent Spriggan which originates from Cornish mythology.

1.2.5 Functional equivalence

Functional equivalence is concerned with using a culture-neutral word from the target

language in order to define specific term in the source language. Accordingly, the purpose of

this procedure is to generalize or neutralize the SL word (Newmark, 1988). Newmark considers

it the most accurate and common way of translating when it comes to cultural words.

1.2.6 Synonymy

Synonym is described by Newmark as a substitute with nearly the same meaning in

the target language to a word in the source language. “This procedure is used for a SL word

where there is no clear one-to-one equivalent, and the word is not important in the text” (p. 84).

For instance, the slang expression wise-ass was translated into mądrala because it does not

possess its direct equivalent in Polish. Moreover, Newmark notes that “synonym is only

appropriate where literal translation is not possible and because the word is not important

enough for componential analysis” (Newmark, 1988, p. 84). Synonymy is sometimes the only

right choice for the translator to translate text more accurately.

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1.2.7 Through-translation

Through-translation, also known as loan translation or calque, is a form of literal

translation of common collocations, components of compounds and names of organizations

(Newmark, 1988). Through-translation should be used only for the terms that already function

in the language.

Waliński (2015) proposes two types of calque - lexical calque and structural calque.

Lexical calque “preserves the syntactic structure of the TL, but at the same time introduces

a new mode of expression” (p. 59). Whereas structural calque is concerned with introducing

“a new construction into the language” (Waliński, 2015, p. 59). Vinay and Darbelnet

(1958/1995) point out that calques, similarly to borrowings, become fixed part of the language

after a period of time.

1.2.8 Shifts or transpositions

Newmark perceives transposition as “translation procedure involving a change in

the grammar from SL to TL” (Newmark, 1988, p. 85). It occurs when the translator replaces

part of speech with another part of speech. Newmark differentiates four types of transposition.

The first type of shift is “the change from singular to plural” (Newmark, 1988, p. 85). Type two

is applied whenever a structure typical of the source language does not exist in the target

language. “The third type of shift is the one where literal translation is grammatically possible

but may not accord with natural usage in the TL” (Newmark, 1988, p. 86) such as transition

from a verb in the source language to an adverb in the target language. The last type involves

replacing lexical gaps by grammatical structures. In addition, transposition is the only procedure

which deals with grammar (Newmark, 1988).

Transposition can occur within a particular language i.e. intralinguistically (Waliński,

2015). Waliński also states that transposed expression is sometimes different stylistically than
 14

the base expression which may significantly contribute to an improvement in the quality of

the translated text.

1.2.9 Modulation

According to Newmark (1988), modulation is the term first introduced by Vinay and

Darbelnet. Newmark directly quoted their definition of modulation which is “a variation

through a change of viewpoint, of perspective and very often of category of thought” (p. 88).

To put it another way, the idea of modulation is to preserve original meaning using different

expressions in the source language and the target language, thus excluding literary translation.

Newmark distinguishes 8 types of modulation with one addition of his own that Vinay and

Darbelnet have not taken into account, namely negated contrary. The other types mentioned by

Newmark are as follows: “part for the whole, abstract for concrete, cause for effect, one part

for another, reversal of terms, active for passive, intervals and limits and change of symbols”

(Newmark, 1988, p. 88).

1.2.10 Compensation

This procedure is obtained by compensating meanings, sound-effects, metaphors,

pragmatics effects lost during translation process in one part of a sentence with similar

expressions in another part (Newmark, 1988). In short, compensation can be adopted by

the translator to recreate the lost meaning in a text. Moreover, Newmark remarks that “puns,

alliteration, rhyme, slang, metaphor, pregnant words - all these can be compensated, if the game

is worth the candle - sometimes it isn't” (Newmark, 1991, p. 144), thus compensation requires

very careful and strategic approach.

Klaudy (2008) proposes two types of compensation: local and global. “Local

compensation is a subtype of compensation which involves the rendering of individual,

vernacular or class speech patterns by the means available in the target language” (Klaudy,
 15

2008, p. 7). For instance, the Russian accent will be rendered by translator differently in

a French work. Another case in which such compensation can be used is when the person

speaks regional or social dialect. Global compensation is “a subtype of compensation whereby

translators do not compensate for a specific item, but they compensate for compromises

imposed upon them by the fact of translation itself as an indirect, mediated type of

communication” (Klaudy, 2008, p. 12). Referring to Klaudy's definition, global compensation

is about striking a balance between losses and gains in the translated text.

1.2.11 Paraphrase

Paraphrase deals with explaining of the meaning of a part of the text but using different

words (Newmark 1988). This procedure may be especially helpful in the situation when

the translator wishes to clarify or explain something in the text (Grassilli, 2018). Moreover, it

can significantly improve the quality of the written piece. In other words, it helps to avoid

repetition and alliteration as well as shorten sentence length if needed.

1.2.12 Other Procedures

Additionally, Newmark (1988) mentions two other procedures i.e. equivalence and

adaption. He based his definition of equivalence on Vinay and Darbelnet’s point of view.

Vinay and Darbelnet (1958/1995) state that equivalence “replicates the same situation as in

the original, whilst using completely different wording” (p. 342). Equivalence can be

a particularly useful procedure when translating idioms, clichés, proverbs, nominal or adjectival

phrases and so forth (Vinay and Darbelnet, 1958/1995).

Nida (1995) emphasizes that “language is a part of culture, and in fact, it is the most

complex set of habits that any culture exhibits. Language reflects the culture, provides access

to the culture, and in many respects constitutes a model of the culture” (p. 43). Every country

possesses specific expressions that seem untranslatable in other languages, hence to translate
 16

them successfully the translator is obliged to change cultural reference in accordance with

the target language. Adaption is, therefore, the process of adjusting cultural elements in a way

that is coherent and relevant for particular language. Correspondingly, Vinay and Darbelnet

(1958/1995) compare adaption to equivalence “. . . translators have to create a new situation

that can be considered being equivalent. Adaptation can, therefore, be described as a special

kind of equivalence, a situational equivalence” (p. 38).

1.2.13 Couplets

Newmark (1988) explains that couplets, triplets and quadruplets occur when

the translator combines two, three or four procedures to deal with a single problem. “They are

particularly common for cultural words, if transference is combined with a functional or

a cultural equivalent” (Newmark, 1988, p. 91).

1.3 Equivalence in translation

As stated by Vinay and Darbelnet (1958/1995) equivalence is a translation procedure

“which replicates the same situation as in the original, whilst using completely different

wording” (p. 38). Vinay and Darbelnet list onomatopoeic expressions of animal sounds as

the classic examples of this procedure, namely English miaow and its French equivalent miaou.

Vinay and Darbelnet emphasize particular feature of equivalence: in most cases, it is not of

a syntagmatic nature and affects the whole message. Therefore, “most equivalences are fixed,

and belong to a phraseological repertoire of idioms, clichés, proverbs, nominal or adjectival

phrases” (Vinay and Darbelnet, 1958/1995, p. 38).

Nida (1964) distinguishes two different types of equivalence referred to as formal

equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Formal equivalence “focuses attention on the message

itself, in both form and content” (Nida, 1964, p. 159). What is more, Nida and Taber (1982)

remark that formal equivalence is a “quality of a translation in which the features of the form
 17

of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language” (p. 201).

Formal equivalence is connected with preserving the original wording along with a concern for

accuracy (Nida, 1964). In short, it allows the reader to comprehend as much of the text in

the source language as possible. As opposed to formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence is

dependent on “the principle of equivalent effect” (Nida, 1964, p. 159). Moreover, Nida (1964)

asserts that “a translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression,

and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own

culture” (p. 159). According to Nida and Taber (1982) “the message of the original text has

been so transposed into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like

that or the original receptors” (p. 200). To conclude, dynamic equivalence consists in

substituting expressions from the source language with more culturally appropriate ones in the

target language in order to provide a better understanding of the text. For instance, biblical

phrase Lamb of God was rendered as Seal of God in the Eskimo language because lambs are

unknown animals in northern polar region (Jamalimanesh & Rahkhoda, 2009).

Baker (1992) explores equivalence in a much broader sense and differentiates

the following types: equivalence that can appear at word level and above word level,

grammatical equivalence, textual equivalence and last but not least, pragmatic equivalence.

Equivalence that can occur at word level is connected to the meaning of single words, while

equivalence above word level focuses on word combination. Bolinger and Sears (1968) define

the word as “the smallest unit of language that can be used by itself” (p. 64). Baker (1992)

acknowledges that primarily the translator needs to decode those units from the source language

by finding their direct equivalents in the target language. However, the meaning is often

“carried by units much more complex than the single word and by various structures and

linguistic devices” (Baker, 1992, p. 11) e.g. morphemes. Therefore, the translator must take into

consideration such aspects as number, gender and tense. It is also crucial to bear in mind that
 18

“there is no one-to-one correspondence between orthographic words and elements of meaning

within or across languages” (Baker, 1992, p. 11). When it comes to grammatical equivalence,

Baker (1992) stresses that the grammatical categories widely differ across languages. It is not

always possible to find direct equivalence in the target language. Hence, the translator

sometimes is forced to take a different route and not follow the text as closely as she/he wants

(Baker, 1992). Baker (1992) also points out that “differences in the grammatical structures of

the source and target languages often result in some change in the information content of

the message during the process of translation” (p. 86). To elaborate, it may result in adding or

omitting of information in the target language in the translation process. Textual equivalence

puts emphasis on information and cohesion. Cohesion is “the network of lexical, grammatical,

and other relations which provide links between various parts of a text” (Baker, 1992, p. 180).

That is to say, cohesion allows to connect words and expressions and at the same time create

a text. More importantly, it enables the translator to render and organize information in

a coherent way. Lastly, Baker (1992) mentions pragmatic equivalence and the importance of

implicature. Implicature is “a component of speaker meaning that constitutes an aspect of what

is meant in a speaker’s utterance without being part of what is said” (Horn, 2006, p. 3). To put

it differently, the speaker’s implicature may be completely different from the speaker’s

utterance. The translator’s role is to seek for the intended meaning and work out any

implicatures in the source language so as to translate the text correctly into the target language.

1.4 Translation of proper names

Translation of proper names is regarded by translators as a highly problematic task.

Newmark (1993) perceives proper names as “a translation difficulty in any text” (p. 15). When

it comes to literary texts, it is important to conclude “whether the name is real or invented”

(Newmark, 1993, p. 15). In nonliterary texts “translators have to ask themselves what if any

additional explanatory or classificatory information has to be supplied for the TL readership”

 19

(Newmark, 1993, p. 15). According to Shirinzadeh and Tengku Mahadi (2014) translation,

preservation and transference of the proper names is determined by the nature of the languages,

namely if the source and target languages belong to the same language family or if the proper

name is trans-cultural name i.e. it involves two different cultures. Sanaty Pours (2009) expresses

a similar point of view and asserts that every language possesses specific proper names, while

some of them are directly connected to their culture. Therefore, preservation of such names in

the target language may lead to problems in understanding of the readers (Shirinzadeh &

Tengku Mahadi, 2014). The other important things to consider whilst translating proper names

are figurative language and cultural references (Shirinzadeh & Tengku Mahadi, 2014).

“Knowledge of only the referential meaning of the place name without knowing what the name

connotes in American and British English would not allow the correct interpretation of

the second utterance.” (Bachman, 1990, p. 97). To clarify, the translator must be aware of all

implications that the proper name carries in order to avoid inaccurate translation.

As Newmark maintains (1988), first names and surnames are usually transferred on

condition that they do not have any connotations in the text. This procedure aims to preserve

people’s nationality. Proper names in imaginative literature often have their own connotations

and are usually translated, unless the translator wants to emphasize nationality of the character

(Newmark 1988). The best translation method of proper names suggested by Newmark (1988)

is first to “translate the word that underlies the SL proper name into the target language, and

then to naturalise the translated word back into a new SL proper name” (p. 215). However,

translation of the proper names in fictional works goes beyond that. The translator must take

into account charactonyms and their common stems. Charactonyms are proper names

“expressing the characteristics of the bearer” (Kalashnikov, 2006) such as Thumbelina which

refers to the size of heroine in Hans Christian Andersen's fairy tale. Whereas common stems

are “names or their part which resemble in its form an ordinary word” (Kalashnikov, 2006) e.g.
 20

Blockhead. Charactonyms may be treated similarly as non-fictional proper names by means of

transcription or transliteration but it subsequently results in a loss of their connotations

(Kalashnikov, 2006). Therefore, if the names are “are part of the writer's intention they are

rendered according to their inner form, which is placed in the common stem of the character's

name” (Kalashnikov, 2006). On the other hand, Guyennet (2018) proposes several options to

choose from. The translator can transfer the names in their original form, translate them literally

or partially literally or create completely new names that will have the same connotations

(Guyennet, 2018). In video games, it means creating new puns and references to places or things

depending on what the translator's desired effect is (Guyennet, 2018).

1.5 Translation of idioms and fixed expressions

Idioms and fixed expressions are an essential part of every language, mainly because

they preserve its local and cultural color (Adelnia and Vahid Dastjerdi, 2011). In every part of

the world, people express meaning in a different way due to their ideologies, thus the large

number of idiomatic expressions (Shojaei, 2012). When it comes to the translation of idioms,

the translator is required to have a broad knowledge of the source language and the target

language, their cultures, “as well as being able to identify and cope with the contingent

problems in the process of finding an efficient equivalent for the inter-lingual idiomatic pairs”

(Shojaei, 2012, p. 1220).

Adelnia and Vahid Dastjerdi (2011) state that idioms are “linguistic expressions or

lexical items representing objects, concepts or phenomena of material life particular to a given

culture” (p. 879). On the other hand, Newmark (1988) treats idioms as extended metaphors and

emphasizes that they have two purposes. The first purpose is referential i.e. cognitive purpose

described as “a mental process or state, a concept, a person, an object, a quality or an action

more comprehensively and concisely than is possible in literal or physical language”

 21

(Newmark, 1988, p. 104). The next purpose referred to as pragmatic or aesthetic is meant to

delight, appeal to the senses, revive interest and surprise (Newmark, 1988). In Baker's (1992)

terms, idioms are “are frozen patterns of language which allow little or no variation in form

and, in the case of idioms, often carry meanings which cannot be deduced from their individual

components” (p. 76) in contrast to collocations which are flexible patterns. Baker (1992)

supports her definition by listing five conditions that apply to idioms: the word order cannot be

changed, the words cannot be omitted, no words can be added, the words cannot be replaced in

any way and finally, the grammatical structure of an idiom must remain unchanged. As Baker

(1992) states “the first difficulty that a translator comes across is being able to recognize that

s/he is dealing with an idiomatic expression” (p. 78). Baker (1992) explains that there are many

types of idioms and the most recognizable are: idioms which “include expressions which violate

truth conditions” (p. 78) such as when pigs fly, idioms which are grammatically incorrect e.g.

blow someone to kingdom come and those idioms which start with like e.g. like a drowned rat.

To conclude “the more difficult an expression is to understand and the less sense it makes in

a given context, the more likely a translator will recognize it as an idiom” (Baker, 1992, p. 78).

Adelnia and Vahid Dastjerdi (2011) divide idioms into colloquialisms, proverbs, slang, phrasal

verbs, and allusions.

The next step after recognizing an idiomatic expression is to choose accurate procedure

or strategy to deal with it (Adelnia and Vahid Dastjerdi, 2011). Shojaei (2012) suggests

strategies introduced by Baker (1992) and these are translation by omission, translation by

paraphrase, “using an idiom of similar meaning and form” (Baker, 1992, p. 85) along with

“using an idiom of similar meaning but dissimilar form” (Baker, 1992, p. 88).

Baker (1992) categorizes four main difficulties in the translation of idioms. Firstly, “an

idiom or fixed expression may have no equivalent in the target language” (p. 81). As

mentioned previously, every country expresses meaning by different means such as single word,
 22

fixed expression or an idiom. For instance, 猫 を かぶる (neko wo kaburu; lit. trans.: to wear

a cat on one’s head) is an idiom characteristic only for Japanese language which means hiding

your claws, pretending to be nice or being a harmless person. Baker (1992) stresses that “it is

unrealistic to expect to find equivalent as a matter of course” (p. 81). Secondly, “an idiom or

fixed expression may have a similar counterpart in the target language, but its context of use

may be different; the two expressions may have different connotations” (Baker, 1992, p. 82).

As the example, Baker (1992) provides English idiom to go to the dogs which in the German

language has similar counterpart but with a different connotation. In German, it means to perish

or die, whereas in English it is used when someone becomes worse or less successful (Baker,

1992). The third difficulty occurs when “an idiom may be used in the source text in both its

literal and idiomatic senses at the same time” (Baker, 1992, p. 82). Finally, Baker (1992) notes

that “the very convention of using idioms in written discourse, the contexts in which they can

be used, and their frequency of use may be different in the source and target languages” (p. 84).

To give an example, Chinese people tend to avoid using idioms in written texts because written

discourse is regarded as formal as opposed to spoken discourse in which idioms are used freely

(Shojaei, 2012).

1.6 Competence in translation

The term competence is usually understood as the state of possessing the necessary

skills or knowledge (Rothe-Neves, 2007). However, in order to analyze particular criteria which

define the good translator, it is necessary to explore this concept deeper — strictly from

the perspective of the translation studies. PACTE (2000) perceives the translator’s competence

as “the underlying system of knowledge and skills needed to be able to translate” (p. 100).

According to PACTE (2000), the concept of the translator’s competence was influenced by

the notion of linguistic competence introduced by Chomsky (1965). In brief, it can be regarded

as the knowledge possessed by the speaker-listener, thus the emphasis is put on the mental
 23

capacity (Chomsky, 1965). Neubert (2000) states that “translation involves variable tasks that

make specific demands on the cognitive system of the translator” (p. 3). In Neubert’s (2000)

terms, the translation competence is something that allows the translator to deal with these tasks.

On the other hand, Chesterman (2000) defines the translator’s competence as a learning process

which begins at the stage of novice and ends at the point where intuition guides the translator’s

actions i.e. the stage of expertise. Conscious rationalization is replaced with intuition, „until its

final task is to provide a kind of internal feedback, particularly at problem-points” (Chesterman,

2000, p. 78). Chesterman (2000) underlines that “intuition is the driving force of skilled

behavior” (p. 79). Therefore, emotional involvement and intuition are extremely important

factors when it comes to acquiring and developing the translator’s competence.

Hejwowski (2006) distinguishes eight major elements of the translator’s competency.

The first one is exquisite knowledge of the source language and the target language. Hejwowski

(2006) points out that language competence isn’t synonymous with communication skill.

The second important thing is the ability to connect similar language structures. For instance,

in some contexts the same expression must be rendered by the translator differently by such

means as equivalency (Hejwowski, 2006). The third one is the broad knowledge regarding

countries and their cultures. What is important, the translator is obliged to possess necessary

information about the current political situation in a particular country as well as its history and

geography (Hejwowski, 2006). “The translators, however, are actually supposed to have

specialist knowledge about more and more. They are the polyhistors in an age of specialisation.

Their mindset is an assemblage of everything that is worth communicating from one lingua-

culture into another” (Neubert, 2000, p. 3). The other elements which Hejwowski mentions

(2006) are: the general knowledge and expertise, good communication skills, the knowledge of

translation theory and finally, an insight. However, it is not possible for the translator’s to be

fully competent in all the fields they come across (Neubert, 2000). This is what Neubert (2000)
 24

identifies as approximate nature of the translator’s competence. According to Neubert (2000),

the translator “acquires the capacity to approximate the subject areas to such an extent that they

can enable and facilitate easy and flawless understanding among the average reader as well as

among the experts” (p. 4).

1.7 Similarities & differences of localization and translation

The success of games depends heavily on good translation and localization besides

the graphics and soundtrack. However, many fail to notice the difference between those terms

and use them in an interchangeable manner. “Localization is presented as an activity that is

entirely different from “translation proper” though it can be a part of a translator’s sphere of

responsibility” (Sdobnikov, 2018, p. 1491). First of all, it is essential to explain what is meant

by the term of localization. Localization is concerned with adapting the product to local and

cultural norms (Ludwigsen, 2018). Harris (2018) views localization “as more comprehensive

process and addresses cultural and non-textual components as well as linguistic issues when

adapting a product or service for another country or local”. In brief, the main goal of

localization is to convey similar meaning or feel as though it was specifically created for

a particular country, in contrast to translation which merely focuses on rendering the text from

the source language to the target language. Singh adds (2016) that translation aims to “to

achieve meaning equivalence by ensuring idiomatic, vocabulary, and conceptual equivalence”.

Localization, in fact, involves translation but it is a more detailed process. It includes idioms

and fixed expressions, cultural references, images, measurement units, advertisements, text

length, page format and even the choice of color (Harris, 2018). To conclude. translation puts

the emphasis solely on the language, whilst localization deals with the content and its

reproduction.
 25

CHAPTER TWO

2.1 Definition of video game

Salen and Zimmerman (2003) describe a game as “a system in which players engage

in an artificial conflict, defined by rules, that results in a quantifiable outcome” (p. 11). It can

apply to traditional games, parlor games, sports, as well as to video games. However, Esposito

(2005) noted an inconsistency with Salen and Zimmerman's approach. Salen and Zimmerman

do not take into account puzzle-games and toy-games which sometimes lack an artificial

conflict. Esposito (2005) proposes more simplified definition: “a video game is a game which

we play thanks to an audiovisual apparatus and which can be based on a story” (p. 2). In other

words, video game differs significantly from traditional types of games because it is performed

on electronic device such as computer or console. The next key element of a video game is

narrative. Narrative is the main driving force for gameplay except for games like Tetris because

they do not need story to progress - they have basic concepts and mechanics.

2.2 Genres of video games

Nowadays game studios compete intensely with each other to attract potential gamers.

The pressure put on game designers by the gaming community is immense, and so is the demand

for entirely new things that have not been done before. Grouping games into genres allows to

identify games in terms of style, characteristics and mechanics (Hanna, 2012). The world of

games is commonly referred to as new universe because of the number of genres. If a game

turns out to be a success it has a chance to become new genre because other game studios will

try to achieve success on a similar scale. Therefore, they will attempt to duplicate certain

mechanisms. The list of general video games’ genres with a brief description of each is provided

below.
 26

2.2.1 Role-playing game (RPG)

A role-playing game is a game in which the player takes an active part in shaping

the world as a fictional character through quests and missions (Salen & Zimmerman, 2003).

The player can evolve his/her character by gaining experience points and in exchange acquires

rewards. The prime examples of RPG genre are Baldur’s Gate and The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt.

2.2.2 Adventure

Adventure genre, as one of the first video game genres, paved the way for the gaming

world. The player as a protagonist explores the world and at the same time solves puzzles and

uncovers mysteries that await for him/her (Hanna, 2012). It is an interactive kind of game

designed mostly for a single player with a large emphasis on the storyline. In contrast to other

genres such as action, adventure is mainly directed towards people who prefer more relaxing

atmosphere e.g. Undertale, Life is Strange.

2.2.3 Action

The whole gameplay of action game focuses on movement, combat, hand-eye

coordination and reaction time. The player may face various obstacles and opponents, often

under time pressure (Matthews, 2018). Action genre incorporates many elements from other

genres, which results in creation of new sub-genres like action-adventure or shooter. The well-

known examples of action genre are Grand Theft Auto and Overwatch.

2.2.4 Simulation

Simulation games attempt to emulate real-life world where player can act freely

usually without any specifically defined goals (Matthews, 2018). Simulation genre includes

multiple sub-genres, some of which are: life simulation, vehicle simulation, construction and
 27

management simulation. Notable examples are The Sims series, Zoo Tycoon and Cities:

Skylines.

2.2.5 Sports

Sports games simulate real-life sports activities such as football, tennis, basketball or

lacrosse (Hanna, 2012). The opposing team can be controlled by another person (i.e.

multiplayer) or artificial intelligence. Some sport games emphasize strategy and sport

management over the experience of playing sport e.g. Football Manager. The title that is

undoubtedly the most famous within sports genre is Fifa.

2.2.6 Strategy

Strategy games place the focus on player’s decisions which determine the outcome of

the gameplay (Dor, 2018). There are two types of strategy games i.e. turn-based and real-time.

Turn-based strategy involves taking turns by players. In contrast, real-time strategy requires

from a player technological development, resource gathering and thus, defeating the enemy.

The main objective of strategy game regardless of its type is achieving the victory through

myriad of strategies and tactics (Dor, 2018). StarCraft and Warcraft are classic examples of

strategy genre.

2.3 Video games as a medium

Video games started to be perceived as one of the most powerful media of the 21st

century with the rapid development of game industry. Nowadays, video games let people

experience wonderful things, explore new worlds with astonishing graphics perfected to every

little detail, connect with other gamers and emerge themselves in detailed storylines where

every decision can affect the whole gameplay. As Kubas-Meyer remarks:

 28

While literature, cinema, and other media/art forms will continue to surprise us with
new stories and make us rethink our worldviews until the inevitable heatdeath of
the universe, the extent of their capabilities are comparatively known and limited.
Games, being so young and so incredibly diverse, will be able to do so much more to
shock us—narratively, structurally, and formally—for many, many years to come
(2017).

First of all, it is important to define what medium is in order to decide if games can be

classified as such. Danesi (2009) suggests that media are “any means of transmitting

information” (p. 192). From the historical point of view, the role of media was always to deliver

information for the general public. However, the definition of media should not be treated so

straightforwardly because it is not only a matter of delivering information. It is also about

perception and experience of receiver and how they interpret the message (Samyn, 2011).

Murray (2011) underlines that medium comprises three layers i.e. inscription, transmission, and

representation. “We recognize a new medium when the inscription and transmission layers

become standardized into common formats, such as oil on canvas, analog TV broadcast or

videogame platforms” (Murray, 2011).

Video games rely mainly on interactivity which occurs “when people can participate

as agents within a representational context” (Laurel, 1993, p. 112), that is to say, it encourages

the player to take active participation in the gameplay. It is crucial to put emphasis on the word

active. While games expect reaction and player’s full attention in order to complete the game,

the other media do not expect anything in return. They base on “one-way” communication –

the receiver can do as he pleases with acquired information.

In the latest years, some of the game researchers also known as ludologists argued that

games cannot be considered a real medium because they do not deliver any specific information

(Lantz, 2009). As mentioned previously, with the advancement of technology and game design
 29

it became possible to communicate throughout video games e.g. MMORPG games in which

thousands of players can interact with each other in a fictional world and share similar goals.

Video games, unlike any other media, attract a lot of young people. It resulted in

forming new subculture referred to as gamers where everyone can find their place regardless

of race, sexual orientation and gender. Gamers participate in various gaming-related events like

LAN parties, conventions or well-known Intel Extreme Masters, the longest running worldwide

e-sport tournament which has been taking place in Katowice in the past years. Video games

also proved to be an incredible tool for fighting with prejudice and discrimination. LGBT

characters portrayed in video games are now common practice. It is extremely important

because media used to be fully heteronormative environment. Even the film industry showed

a great interest in video games which led to many film adaptations based on the most famous

titles e.g. Tomb Raider, Resident Evil.

“What we are advocating here is the birth of something entirely new: a new medium

for a new century, a medium capable of addressing the complexity of contemporary life in

a form that is enriching as well as enjoyable” (Samyn, 2011, p. 3). To briefly summarize, video

games became integral part of our culture and it is time to realize their potential.

2.4 Challenges in the translation of video games

Video games began reaching broader audience in the early 90s. First games were quite

minimalistic in their design with simple mechanics devoid of detailed dialogues. The use of

language was limited only to starting screens and single commands. The popularity of video

games and technological development increased the need for different kinds of translation

(Bernal-Merino, 2008). Game designers started to realize that faithful translation will not be

enough, and that is when the term of localization has emerged. “It became apparent that

seamless transfer from source culture to target culture is no longer an option – video games
 30

have evolved into complex narratives that rely heavily on language and other cultural cues”

(Czech, 2003, p. 5). As Bushouse (2005) points out compared to other fields of translation,

game translators have a set of different tasks that are not just limited to the translation of

linguistic text. Bushouse asserts that “game translators advise developers on cultural

differences, make changes to the art assets, reprogram the game to change the difficulty, hire

and direct voice actors, and more” (p. 79).

Firstly, video games are, above all, a consumer product with the aim to earn money.

To enter foreign markets video game must meet the specific requirements. The most important

one, is adapting the whole gameplay according to cultural differences i.e. localization (Czech,

2003). By way of illustration, the translators from Saudi Arabia simply refused to translate

The Witcher: 3 Wild Hunt into Arabian because of the sexually suggestive and explicit themes

that the game contains. The only solution was to cut disturbing scenes and make necessary

changes in dialogues to avoid causing major controversies (Noclip, 2018). Hence, to provide

comfort and enjoyable experience for every person across the world, the translators have to take

into account cultural diversity and ensure that cultural references and idioms are relevant.

The next fundamental factor is immersion. Calleja (2014) defined immersion as

“intensification of internalized involvement that blends a number of dimensions” (p. 38). In

short, immersion is a matter of experience and player’s involvement (Tanskanen, 2018). To

effectively immerse the player in the virtual world, the translator must pay special attention to

correctly translating all dialogues, quests, tutorials, menus etc. Typos, errors, unclear

instructions may disrupt the whole gameplay, causing the player to completely lose interest in

game (Czech, 2003). Without proper narrative the game would be only a random collection of

events thus there is little margin for error. “. . . playability and immersion are the main goals of

video game translation, and because gameplay can affect the meaning of the story and
 31

the player’s ability to reach the end of it, the translation of the gameplay is crucial.” (Bushhouse,

2015, p. 12).

Finally, the translator is obliged to broaden his/her knowledge in terms of certain

terminologies, slang, cultural references and source material used in a particular game. For

instance, League of Legends is a highly complicated video game, especially for novices, that

belongs to the moba (multiplayer online battle arena) genre. LoL's complexity lies in its lore,

items and current, the most effective strategies referred to as meta. The translation of such

games is an exceedingly difficult process because it requires detailed research beforehand.

 32

CHAPTER THREE

3.1 Object of the study

The Witcher saga is a fantasy series of novels and short stories written by Polish author

Andrzej Sapkowski. They were published from 1993 to 2013 in the following order: The Last

Wish (2007), Sword of Destiny (1992), Something Ends, Something Begins (2000), Blood of

Elves (1994), Time of Contempt (1995), Baptism of Fire (1996), The Tower of the Swallow

(1997), The Lady of the Lake (1999) and Season of Storms (2013). The title of the whole saga

was inspired by the Slavic vědmák which means a male witch or warlock. The term witcher did

not exist in both Polish and English prior to the books and game series hence it is considered

a neologism. However, Sapkowski's depiction of witcher was completely different from its

original concept in Slavic mythology. “I'm a witcher: an artificially created mutant. I kill

monsters for money. I defend children when their parents pay me to. . . I'll carry on killing

monsters in the ruins of this world until some monster kills me.” (Sapkowski, 2008, p. 108).

The series tell the story of Geralt from Rivia also known as White Wolf. At the young

age, Geralt was subjected to the Trial of Grasses, which resulted in him becoming a witcher.

With new powers and heightened senses Geralt wanders the lands to fulfil his duty as a monster

hunter. Other remarkable characters that accompany Geralt in his adventures are Yennefer -

sorceress and Geralt's love interest, Dandelion - poet and minstrel and last but not least, Ciri -

princess of Cintra. The books attained great popularity in Europe and people waited eagerly for

the continuation of Geralt's story. In 2003 CD Projekt Red began work on The Witcher –

the first part of The Witcher game series which proved to be a great hit, but the best was yet to

come. It was followed by two sequels The Witcher 2: Assassins of Kings (2011) and The Witcher

3: Wild Hunt (2015). Breaking all records, The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt won total number of 800

awards from which 251 were game of the year awards. It secured its position as the one of

the greatest RPG of all time.

 33

3.2 Cultural significance in The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt

The world illustrated in The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt is overflowing with Slavic elements

which significantly contributed to the success of the whole game. Above all, it showed the rest

of the world that Poland has rich and unique culture worth paying attention to. The sources from

which CD Projekt Red took inspiration were mainly Sapkowki's books and Slavic folklore with

elements of Polish Romanticism. They adapted Sapkowski's pattern which involved taking old

legends and fairytales and transforming them into modernized versions (Culture.pl, 2018).

However, legends presented in The Witcher: 3 Wild Hunt are ruthless and resemble nightmares

more than fairytale stories where the good always triumphs over evil (Culture.pl, 2018). To

illustrate, the title of the game comes from genuine folk myth about Wild Hunt spread mostly

in medieval Central and Northern Europe. It was believed that Wild Hunt was a group of

wraiths passing through lands and forests (Lecouteux, 2011). Their presence symbolized

inevitable catastrophy such as war, famine or death of a close family member.

Locations in The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt are reflection of Polish landscape – especially

Velen, also called No Man's Land. Lindenvale, a medieval hamlet located in Velen, strikingly

resembles small Polish village Zalipie with its vast meadows, fields and cottages with

beautifully painted floral ornaments. A large part of the rural areas was designed with intent to

reflect Masuria.

We are from Poland and we take great pride in Poland. Our artistic team used Polish
locations as reference. Places such as our picturesque fields, medieval castles and
villages. Our artists photographed such places and tried to reproduce them in
the game as faithfully as possible because Witcher 3 is a Polish product, that we export
to the West. (Dzik, 2017).

The next thing which makes The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt an extraordinary game

production is presence of monsters which come directly from Slavic folklore. During
 34

the gameplay, player can encounter such monsters as Noonwraith, Lechen, Botchling and

the like. In Slavic legends, Noonwraith is a wretched female demon who most likely died before

her wedding, either from sickness or from the hand of treacherous lover (Zych & Vargas, 2012).

Noonwraith was only seen when the sun reached its zenith near the place of her death (Batylda,

2015). Her main victims were farmers and lost travellers. One of the most intelligent and

cunning creatures in The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt is Leshen due to his shape-shifting ability

(Batylda, 2015). In certain regions, Leshen was treated as a deity ruling over forests

(Gołdowski, 2015). The villagers used to make offerings in exchange for successful hunt. Its

prey were mostly lone wanderers who have gotten in his way. The next interesting creature

embedded in The Witcher world is Botchling. Botchling in his form resembles deformed fetus

(Zych & Vargas, 2012). It came to existence due to improper burial. Botchling awaits at night

for its potential victims which were mostly expectant mothers. Hidden under the bed, Botchling

absorbs mother and unborn child’s energy which subsequently leads to their death (Batylda,

2015).

To conclude, The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt is a great example of cultural richness.

It strengthened Poland’s position on the global games market, but more importantly it brought

forgotten Slavic beliefs to life.

3.3 Names of the monsters

The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt is unquestionably a thrilling adventure, mainly because it is

packed with various, more or less dangerous creatures. First of all, CD Projekt Red wanted to

make The Witcher's world alive and breathing, naturally moulding according to the player's

choices. That is why the game developers spent years perfecting every single detail, character

and monster. It can be said that the bestiary itself is a masterpiece. The bestiary is a special

compendium used by witchers. It contains information regarding different types of monsters

along with their appearances, weaknesses and body parts that might be useful for the potion
 35

brewing or crafting. As mentioned before, some of those beasts have their roots in Slavic

mythology. Therefore, The Witcher's translators were required to pay special attention whilst

translating this sort of the proper names. Incorrect or incoherent translation could result in

losing the Slavic atmosphere which is, as a matter of fact, one of the biggest advantages of

The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt. To analyze the translators’ actions and choices I decided to rely on

Newmark's typology. However, some of the monsters do not fall under Newmark's

categorization of procedures because they are new coinages. Hence, the translators decided to

create completely new names with the aim to evoke similar connotations. As stated previously

in the subchapter 1.4, such technique as creating neologisms is extremely common while

rendering fictional proper names due to their common stems. I divided names of the monsters

into seven categories in accordance with the applied procedures.

3.3.1 Literal translation

POLISH ENGLISH
Bazyliszek Basilisk
Wyjec Howler
Czart Chort
Wiedźma Crone
Gryf Griffin
Wiverna Wyvern
Widłogon Forktail
Table 1: Literal translation

The translators did not have much problem with rendering names of these monsters

because they possess their direct equivalents in the English language. Bazyliszek was translated

as Basilisk with reference to the legendary hybrid beast from the European legends. Wyjec

appears as Howler in the English version of the game. It is also worth mentioning that howlers

(lit. trans.: wyjce) belong to the species of mammals, namely tropical monkeys from America

which are particularly loud. Another prime example of literal translation is Chort. Czart is
 36

a creature characteristic of the Czech and Slovak culture and its pronunciation is immensely

similar to its Polish version. In other words, Czart was naturalized to Chort in the past.

Wiedźma is rather an interesting case because for its translation the translators chose

Crone instead of Witch. The reason is that in The Witcher’s lore, Crone is the third form of

the fiction goddess Melitele, which is in fact a reference to the ancient times and The Triple

Goddess. The Triple Goddess is a neo-pagan deity whose life was split into three stages –

The Maiden, The Mother and The Crone (Wigington, 2019). Moreover, Crone seems to have

more negative connotations than Witch. Gryf was translated into Griffin. Griffin can be also

referred to as Gryphon or Griffon, however the translators chose more commonly used term.

In the case of Wiverna and Widłogon, the translators rendered them literally into

Wyvern and Forktail. Wyvern is a legendary creature similar in appearance to dragon but much

smaller in size. The name Wyvern most likely derived from Latin vipera (lit. trans.: snake or

serpent). The main feature of Wyvern is a long tail as reflected in its etymology. The game

developers clearly took inspiration from the natural world because forktail belongs to

the species of bird from Asia.

3.3.2 Neologization

POLISH ENGLISH
Mglak Fogler
Skrzekacz Shrieker
Parszywiec Scurver
Północnica Nightwraith
Południca Noonwraith
Zgnilec Rotfiend
Poroniec Botchling
Utopiec Drowner
Żalnica Mourntart
Table 2: Neologization
 37

The next procedure which is commonly applied in the translation of the bestiary is

coining new words. Mglak and Skrzekacz are the terms that did not exist in

the Polish language prior to the novel series and games. The translators had no choice but to

create new names with similar connotative meaning. Skrzekacz contains the verb skrzeczeć. Its

English translation would be to shriek or to squawk. However, the translators chose the first

option and added the suffix -er which denotes agent noun. Mglak was translated in a similar

way, namely its common stem mgła was literally translated to fog with addition of the suffix

-er. The thing I found particularly interesting is that the monster named Parszywiec was

translated as Scurver. The translators once again decided to create a neologism which contains

the agent suffix -er. However, Scurver sounds remarkably like Polish curse word – skurwiel. It

might be a deliberate word-play. Nevertheless, English adjective scurvy is almost synonymous

with Polish adjective parszywy, hence the connotation of the common stem remains unchanged.

Północnica and Południca were translated by the same manner i.e neologization. It

can be said that Północnica is a twin sister of Południca because both of them belong to

the group of wraiths. However, Północnica could be seen only during night time, while

Południca appeared around midday (Batylda, 2015). The translators rendered both of these

names according to their common stems and then combined them with the word wraith.

Południca’s common stem is the noun południe which can be literally translated to noon.

However, in the case of Północnica, the translators decided to replace its common stem północ

with the equivalent night. Midnightwraith would sound significantly worse than Nightwraith.

Zgnilec, as the name implies, is an undead creature that resembles body in the state of

decomposition. (Batylda, 2015). It was necessary to create another neologism in English

because Zgnilec is a product of CD Red Projekt’ imagination. The verb gnić, which is

the component of Zgnilec, was translated into to rot by using the literal translation procedure.
 38

Whereas the term fiend is one of the synonyms for the word monster. Hence, to rot combined

with fiend means literally rotting monster which was initially the translators’ goal.

Poroniec was loosely translated to Botchling which bears no relation to its Polish

equivalent. Poroniec is a Slavic monster that spawns from the ground due to improper burial of

miscarried child as its main component poronienie suggests (Batylda, 2015). However,

Botchling’s components do not make any sense. Botch literally means mess or poorly performed

task which has no relevance to the term of miscarriage. The translators failed to preserve

connotative, as well as cultural, meaning of Poroniec which proved that their actions are

inconsistent. The application of the cultural or functional equivalent procedure would be much

better choice than neologization. Utopiec was translated in a similar manner to Mglak and

Skrzekacz. Its common stem, the verb utopić się was literally translated into to drown and

combined with the noun suffix -er. Utopiec is a water demon characteristic for Slavic myths,

very often confused with Wodnik (Zych & Vargas, 2012).

Żalnica is a hideous creature that lives in a cemetery and digs up graves in order to

feed on rotten corpses (Batylda, 2015). Żalnica derived from Żalnik which was the name for

old Slavic cemetery from pre-Christian times. Żal has the connotations of mourning and sorrow

which was the reason why the translators chose the verb to mourn as the main component of

the English version. The translators also wanted to preserve Żalnica’s gender, hence

the addition of the noun tart which is a derogatory term for a woman of loose morals which

comes from the British slang.

 39

3.3.3 Transference

POLISH ENGLISH
Alp Alp
Bruxa Bruxa
Protofleder Protofleder
Ekimma Ekimma
Sarasti Sarasti
Table 3: Transference

Alp, Bruxa and Protofleder were directly transferred to English because they do not

have any specific connotations and their concept are relatively unknown for the players. Alp is

a mythological creature which originates from German mythology (Bressan, 2015). Whereas

Bruxa is a vampire, often disguised as a young woman, which has its roots in Portugal beliefs

(Çelik, 2019). Protofleder is a new monster designed by CD Projekt Red. Its name is a quite

characteristic one, therefore it could be easily transferred to the English language. Ekimma and

Sarasti were also translated by means of transference because they do not express any specific

connotations.

3.3.4 Naturalization

POLISH ENGLISH
Echidna Ekhidna
Ghul Ghoul
Table 4: Naturalization

Echidna and Ghul were naturalized to pronunciation and morphology of the English

language. In English, the /ch/ sound is usually pronounced as unvoiced /ʧ/, in contrast to Polish

ch which is pronounced identically to h. Therefore, Echidna was replaced with Ekhidna which

sound /kh/ is similar to /ch/. While the short vowel /u/ in Ghul was substituted with diphthong

/ou/.
 40

3.3.5 Cultural equivalence

POLISH ENGLISH
Kuroliszek Cockatrice
Borowy Spriggan
Kłobuk Lubberkin
Table 5: Cultural equivalence

Another procedure that proved to be useful for the Witcher's translators is

the procedure of cultural equivalent for the sake of making the bestiary more coherent and

culturally appropriate. For instance, Kuroliszek is a classic example of Slavic monster which

cannot be translated by means of literal translation, neologization or transference. A lot of

players simply are not familiar with Slavic culture. Hence, the translators applied the procedure

of cultural equivalent and rendered Kuroliszek as Cockatrice which is probably well-known

concept for the English player. Cockatrice is a mythological beast similar in appearance to

Kuroliszek. Another example of the cultural equivalent is Borowy who played the role of forest

caretaker in Slavic beliefs (Winiarski, 2016). The translators decided to replace Borowy with

its closest English equivalent – Spriggan. Although English Spriggans are slightly different

creatures than Slavic Borowy, it does not disrupt perception of the player in any way.

Another supernatural being that required applying the cultural equivalent procedure is

Kłobuk. In Slavic folklore, Kłobuk is a friendly guardian spirit who watches over the house and

its family (Batylda, 2015). The appearance of Kłobuk in The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt is

significantly different from its original Slavic predecessor. Kłobuk most likely derived from

Kogut because it was depicted as a black cock (Zych & Vargas, 2012). The translators decided

to employ the procedure of cultural equivalent and substituted Lubberkin for Kłobuk. However,

in English folklore, Lubberkin is a creature much more mischievous and spiteful than Slavic

Kłobuk.
 41

3.3.6 Functional equivalence

POLISH ENGLISH
Bies Fiend
Bożątko Godling
Table: 6 Functional equivalence

The beast that required applying the functional equivalent procedure is Bies. Bies, also

referred to as Chort, is an evil spirit that comes from Slavic mythology (Kamoń, 2016). After

the Christianisation, Bies was used synonymously with the term devil. The translators focused

on conveying the connotation of this term due to lack of such creature in English myths.

Therefore, the Slavic Bies was translated as Fiend. Its literal meaning is diabeł or potwór, thus

the connotation remains the same. Bożątko, which originates from Slavic folklore, was also

translated by means of functional equivalent. It can be concluded that the translators clearly

aimed at finding the culture-neutral word. Bożątko implies that the bearer of its name is a small

or inferior god. The translators wanted to preserve this connotation in English and chose

Godling as its equivalent.

3.1.7 Couplet

POLISH ENGLISH
Licho przy studni Devil by the well
Morowa Dziewica Plague Maiden
Table 7: Couplet

Licho is a Slavic demon, often depicted as an elderly, one-eyed woman clothed in

black robes (Zych & Vargas, 2012). The translators could use its naturalized equivalent Likho.

However, Likho is not a well-known term for the English players. The translators applied

the procedure of functional equivalent and replaced Licho with the culture-neutral word Devil.

Both Devil and Licho are the embodiments of evil, hence the concept of Licho was successfully
 42

preserved in English. The prepositional phrase przy studni was translated into by the well by

employing literal translation.

Morowa Dziewica, specifically Polish adjective morowa could be translated literally

instead of applying functional equivalent procedure. However, its English translation

pestiferous could be too difficult to remember or pronounce for the English players, as well as

for those who prefer to play in English. Plague was a perfect choice because it is a commonly

used word and above all, it has the same connotation as morowa. Dziewica was rendered into

Maiden by application of the literal translation procedure.

3.4 Idioms & idiomatic expressions

Every region in The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt posseses its own unique dialect.

The characters’ speech is incredibly rich in idioms, slang expressions and world plays.

Idiomatic expressions, above all, make a language sound natural which was the game

developers’ goal. As mentioned before, The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt is a reflection of Polish

cultural heritage. Therefore, the presence of idioms was extremely important to sucessfully

immerse the player in this vibrant, yet dangerous world inspired by Slavic folklore.

I categorized idioms into four groups and analyzed them by means of Newmark’s typology.
 43

3.4.1 Equivalence in idioms

POLISH ENGLISH

Zaprowadzę go do Janka, zanim go szlag
trafi.
Gdybym nie trzymał ręki na pulsie, ryby
już dawno zagnieździłyby się w moim
oczodołach.
I’ll take ‘im to Johnny, after he goes barmy
on us.
My skull’d be a home for bottom-feedin’
river fish if I didn’t keep an ear to the
ground.

Zawsze była moim oczkiem w głowie. She was always the apple of my eye.

Żaden poeta nie jest wart tego, żeby siostry No poet’s worth two sisters nipping at each
skakały sobie do oczu. other’s throat.

Szukam igły w stogu siana I'm looking for a needle in a haystack.

Table 8: Equivalence in idioms I

Most of the idioms were translated by means of idiomatic equivalence. The first

example is an expressive phraseme szlag kogoś trafił. It appears mostly in colloquial speech.

The aim of this phraseme is to emphasize that the mentioned person is going absolutely mad.

In the context of The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt, the children talked about Geralt and his impatience,

as the word zanim implies. Moreover, szlag derived from German shlag and literally denotes

blow or strike. Regarding the translation of this phraseme, the choice fell on the expression to

go barmy. The lexical items are different, however the meaning remains the same.

The next Polish phraseme that was rendered by applying equivalence is trzymać rękę

na pulsie. It means carefully monitoring the situation and paying attention to everything that is

happening. It was replaced by the translators with English idiom keep an ear to the ground. In

the English language, there is an idiom with identical lexical items - keep your finger on

the pulse which could be a better choice. Neverheless, the meaning was not lost in any way.

Być oczkiem w głowie, like the rest of the aforementioned phrasemes, was replaced with its

English equivalent to be the apple of somebody's eye. Both of them are used when talking about
 44

the person who someone cherishes and loves dearly. This idiomatic expression was used by

Phillip Strenger, also known as Bloody Baron, while talking about his daughter. In short,

Bloody Baron lost his beloved daughter and wife because of his alcoholism and abusive

behaviour, which later on lead to bigger problems.

The translators rendered skakać sobie do oczu into to nip at each other's throats.

The meaning of these expressions is pratically the same, namely if two people or more nip at

each other’s throats, they are arguing or fighting angrily. The next expression that was

translated by using idiomatic equivalence is szukać igły w stogu siana. It implies that something

is extremely difficult to find. Its English equivalent to look for a needle in a haystack has

the same meaning and components, which is rather rare in the case of idioms. This idiom

appeared for the first time in one of the works of Sir Thomas More – advisor to King Henry

VIII of England (Atkins, 2014).

POLISH ENGLISH

Kiedy ja błagałem o wsparcie dla Wyzimy, When I begged him to support Vizima's
odprawił mnie z kwitkiem defense, he showed me the door.

Nigdy nie lubiłeś owijania w bawełnę. You've never been one to mince words.

Gdyby to był jeszcze jakiś jednorazowy

One tussle in the hay.
skok w bok.

Więc to takie buty. So that’s the way the wind blows.

Spisać ich tak po prostu na straty to

To write them off like that... it'd be cruel.
okrucieństwo.
Table 9: Equivalence in idioms II

The idiomatic expression odprawić kogoś z kwitkiem was translated into to show

someone the door. These expressions differ both in terms of the lexical items and meaning. By
 45

way of explanation, odprawić kogoś z kwitkiem denotes sending someone away with nothing.

Whereas the meaning of to show someone the door is to ask someone to leave. In some cases,

the translators strove to make more coherent and comprehensible phrases than to replicate

the same exact meaning, which is the goal of localization. The English equivalent of odprawić

kogoś z kwitkiem would be to send somebody away empty-handed.

When it comes to the idiom owijanie w bawełnę, it is apparent that the literal

translation procedure could not be applied because it would lead to a misunderstanding.

Therefore, owijanie w bawełnę was replaced with its equivalent phrase to mince words. Both

are used in the situation when someone carefully picks the words because they do not want to

offend the other peson. While in the context of the game, these expressions emphasized Geralt’s

straightforwardness and cynical nature. The phraseme skok w bok is usually translated into brief

affair or one-night stand. However, the translators wanted to preserve Bloody Baron’s informal

manner of speaking, full of slang expressions. Hence, tussle in the hay proved to be a perfect

choice. Skok w bok and tussle in the hay denote brief sexual intercourse with no commitment.

The equivalent of Polish phraseme takie buty is the way the wind blows. Takie buty

and the way the wind blows are synonymous in terms of meaning. In other words, they denote

the current state of affairs or how a certain situation will develop. The person who popularized

the way the wind blows was American singer and songwriter Bob Dylan by including it in one

of his songs, namely Subterranean Homesick Blues. The idiomatic expression spisać kogoś na

straty was also rendered by employing the procedure of equivalence. In the English version of

the game, it was replaced with the phrasal verb to write somebody off. While the lexical items

differ, the meaning remains unchanged. They are used in the context of losing faith in someone

or dismissing them as unimportant and worthless.

 46

POLISH ENGLISH
Dowiedzieliśmy się, że to Pani Merigold We learned Miss Merigold had helped Myra
pomogła zniknąć Myrze Baiss, kiedy łowcy Baiss disappear once the witch hunters were
zaczęli jej deptać po piętach. onto her.
Gdyby trolle były też diabelnie inteligentne i If trolls were devilishly intelligent and had a
miały żyłkę do kryminału. flair for crime.

Mówię ci, artystka jakaś albo dziwka, An artist or a whore – doesn’t much matter
zresztą one po jednych pieniądzach. as they’re one and the same.

Cierpliwość nigdy nie była moją mocną

Patience has never been my strong suit.
stroną.

Cóż, stara miłość nie rdzewieje. Guess old flames never die.

Table 10: Equivalence in idioms III

The phraseme deptać po piętach was uttered during the conversation about Myra

Baiss, a sorceress and a friend of Triss Merigold. Myra Baiss was targeted by the religion cult

Eternal Fire because of her magical powers. The main goal of Eternal Fire was to get rid of all

the magical creatures and witches in the town. The translators once again decided to apply

the procedure of equivalence in idioms and changed deptać po piętach into to be onto someone.

However, to be onto someone not necessarily means chasing someone because of the crimes

they might have committed. It can also denote talking to someone in order to ask them about

something. Therefore, to breathe down sb’s neck could be a better choice to emphasize Eternal

Fire’s manhunt. The translators decided to render mieć żyłkę do czegoś into to have a flair to

something. Both of these idiomatic expressions have the same meaning and identical lexical

components. The noun flair can be literally translated into talent, as well as żyłka and smykałka.

The aforementioned phrases were used by Priscilla while talking about Sigismund Dijkstra,

who was an old friend of Geralt, so as to highlight his exceptional intelligence and involvement

in the criminal world.

 47

The expressions być po jednych pieniądzach and its idiomatic equivalent one and

the same are used to emphasize that someone is very similar to another person in terms of worth

or personality. When it comes to the game, the person who uttered these words was Dandelion’s

ex-lover named Vespula in regard to his many amorous exploits. The translator’s choices

primarily depend on the animation and the character’s mouth movements. Therefore, in some

cases it is exceptionally hard to find the equivalent expressions. For instance, one and the same

could be replaced with of the same kind. But then, the translators would risk the quality of

smooth animation.

The Polish proverb stara miłość nie rdzewieje denotes that the old love, especially first

love, cannot be forgotten. As its English equivalent the translators chose old flames never die.

An old flame denotes a former romantic partner who is still looked on with affection.

The possible version of stara miłość nie rdzewieje could be also old love dies hard. Nonetheless,

the translators opted for old flames never die perhaps for the sake of matching up the sentence

with the lip synchronization of the character.

POLISH ENGLISH
Ale ludzie kiedyś zrozumieją, że Wieczny But one day folks will understand the
Ogień jest tylko po to, żeby trzymać ich w Eternal Fire’s naught put a leash around
ryzach. their necks.

Nie ucz ojca dzieci robić. Don't teach your grandma to suck eggs.

Mógłby nam oszczędzić zachodu i dać się Mighta saved us some trouble, let us kill it
zasiec. now.

Jak to mówią, dwie pieczenie na jednym

Well, like they say, two birds, one stone.
ogniu.
Table 11: Equivalence in idioms IV

Trzymać kogoś w ryzach and to put a leash around someone’s neck mean to keep

someone under strict control. Another idiomatic expression that might be a good equivalent for
 48

its Polish version is to keep someone in check. On the other hand, the meaning of to put a leash

around someone’s neck is more emphatic which was initially the translator’s aim. To put it

another way, Eternal Fire controlled the whole town of Novigrad and created atmosphere of

terror because of their mass killings. That is why, to put a leash around someone’s neck is

a good choice so as to emphasize Eternal Fire’s reign.

The application of idiomatic equivalence was also possible in the case of nie ucz ojca

dzieci robić, which is used in the context of giving advice to another person who has more

experience regarding a certain subject. It was translated into don’t teach your grandma how to

suck eggs, which possesses the same meaning but differs in terms of lexical components.

The earliest recorded use of this expression dates back to 1707. It appeared in The comical

works of Don Francisco de Quevedo translated by John Stevens. In the game, the person who

uttered this idiom was witcher Lambert in response to Geralt’s teasing about his boating skills.

The translators easily replaced szczędzić komuś zachodu with its idiomatic equivalent to save

someone the trouble. Both of these expressions mean to prevent someone from doing or

experiencing something problematic. Therefore, the meaning was preserved.

The idiomatic expression dwie pieczenie na jednym ogniu was rendered into two birds,

one stone which is another example of equivalence. Dwie pieczenie na jednym ogniu and two

birds, one stone describe two, completed tasks in a single action, thus they do not differ in terms

of meaning. Two birds, one stone most likely derived from Greek mythology, namely the myth

of Icarus and Daedalus. Icarus and his father Daedalus were imprisoned in The Labyrinth of

Crete by king Minos (O’Conner & Kellerman, 2013). Daedalus, who was a brilliant craftsman,

hatched a plan to escape by using wings constructed from feathers and wax. It is believed that

Daedalus got the feathers by killing two birds with one stone (O’Conner & Kellerman, 2013).
 49

3.4.2 Paraphrase

POLISH ENGLISH

Zalazł ci jakoś za skórę? But what'd he done to you?

Jak znam Geralta, dupę komuś ratował, If I know Geralt, he risked his noggin to
nadstawiając karku! save someone else's arse!

Nasze konie, znaczy mój i panienki Tamary Our horses, mine and Tamara’s, got spooked
spłoszyły się i pędziły na złamanie karku. and tore off willy-nilly.

Król Żebraków to tylko przezwisko. W It’s a moniker for a man who everyone in
Novigradzie wszyscy się z nim liczą. Novigrad respects deeply.

Suszyła ci o coś głowę? Was she nagging you about something?

No to teraz jesteś baronem pełną gębą. Proper baron now.

Co chwilę słyszę, że jej kolejni nauczyciele Week on week, we get fresh gossip’ bout
rezygnują bo spuściła im manto. her trashin’ another instructor.
Table 12: Paraphrase

In comparison to equivalence in idioms, the procedure of paraphrase was used

scarcely. The idiomatic expression zaleźć za skórę could be translated into to get under

someone's skin by means of equivalence. Both zaleźć za skórę and to get under someone’s skin

denote making someone very angry or irritated. However, the idiom to get under someone’s

skin possesses more than one meaning. It can be used also in the context of positively affecting

someone’s feelings. The translators wanted to avoid ambiguity and loosely paraphrased zalazł

ci jakoś za skórę into what'd he done to you.

The person who uttered the phrase nadstawiać karku is Geralt’s companion - Zoltan

Chivay. His language is rich in slang words and idiomatic expressions. Hence, the translators

were required to render Zoltan’s lines accordingly to his manner of speech. Consequently,

nadstawiać karku was paraphrased into to risk one’s noggin. The word noggin is the slang term
 50

for head. It appeared in the English language in the 16th century and meant small cup (The Word

Detective, 2008). The expression liczyć się z kimś, which means to consider someone important,

was translated into to respect someone deeply. It does not possess its equivalent in English, thus

the translators applied the procedure of paraphrase.

Pędzić na złamanie karku is the idiomatic expression which denotes running very fast.

It was paraphrased by the translators into to tear off willy-nilly. Willy-nilly is rather an informal

expression and means to do something suddenly or haphazardly. The translators’ choices, as in

this case, often depend on the characters’ background. By way of explanation, the character

who used this idiomatic expression was one of the Oxenfurt villagers – Voytek. The Witcher 3:

Wild Hunt has broad representation of dialects which differ from each other in terms of

vocabulary, accent and grammar. The people of lower social status use more informal language

than the aristocracy.

The first example is the idiomatic expression suszyć komuś głowę which was translated

into the verb to nag. Suszyć komuś głowę, indeed, does not possess its English equivalent, thus

it left the translators no choice but to paraphrase the aforementioned expression. Moreover,

suszyć komuś głowę can be understood as bothering or nagging someone. It can therefore be

concluded that the meaning remained the same. The next expression that was translated by

using paraphrase is pełną gębą. It implies that something is fully suitable or appropriate. It was

translated into the adjective proper. Although the sentence was changed into the non-idiomatic

one, the meaning remained unaltered.

The phraseme spuścić komuś manto was paraphrased into to trash someone.

The Polish language is much more flexible when it comes to the creating various idiomatic

expressions. The example of this can be spuścić komuś manto which has a great number of

synonyms e.g. porachować komuś kości, sprać kogoś na kwaśne jabłko or spuścić komuś łomot.
 51

Most of these expressions do not have their equivalents in English. Therefore, it was necessary

to translate spuścić komuś manto by using paraphrase.

3.4.3 Other

POLISH ENGLISH

Nie warto iść dalej w zaparte. No point in playing dumb.

Po moim trupie! My arse, it is!

Table 13: Other

The remaining idioms do not fall under any of the procedures. The translators replaced

them with completely different idiomatic expressions. For instance, iść w zaparte, which

denotes firmly standing by one’s opinion, was translated into to play dumb. The idiomatic

phrase to play dumb means to pretend to be stupid or slow-witted. To conclude, they do not

express the same meaning. Polish and English scripts of the game were created and the same

time, thus there might be some inconsistency. Nevertheless, it does not change the characters’

conversation nor the plot.

The phrase po moim trupie was loosely rendered into my arse. Although, both of these

idiomatic expressions are expressive, they do not denote the same thing. Po moim trupie means

never, while my arse is used to express disbelief in something that has been said. Moreover, my

arse is more vulgar and aggressive than po moim trupie. This action might be deliberate in order

to emphasize the informal character of the conversation.

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3.5 Data analysis

The procedures applied in the translation of proper

names

Literal translation
7% Neologization
7% 23%
10% Transference

6% Naturalization
Cultural equivalence
17% 30%
Functional equivalence
Couplet

Chart 1: Frequency of the procedures applied in the translation of proper names

This research constitutes of 58 examples divided into groups and analyzed in

accordance with Newmark’s methodology. In terms of the translation of proper names, it can

be concluded that the most commonly used procedure was neologization. As mentioned before,

charactonyms frequently cannot be transferred or rendered literally due to their common stems.

The translators created new proper names with the objective to preserve the connotative

meaning, which proved to be a good solution. As shown in the chart above, the second most

frequently used procedure was literal translation. The translators had no choice but to translate

literally proper names that possess their direct equivalents in the English language, even if they

are part of Slavic culture. The proper names that do not evoke specific connotations were

transferred exactly for this reason. Transferred, as well as naturalized names of the monsters do

not originate from Slavic mythology. In comparison to other procedures, naturalization was

applied rather scarcely in the translation process of the bestiary. If possible, the translators

replaced Slavic monsters with their cultural equivalents. However, some of these names do not

possess cultural equivalents in English, thus it was necessary to find culture neutral words.
 53

The procedure of couplet was applied in the translation of names which have two or more

lexical components.

The procedures applied in the translation of idioms

5%

26% Equivalence in idioms

Paraphrase
Other
69%

Chart 2: Frequency of the procedures applied in the translation of idioms

The analyzed data indicate that the translators rendered most of the idioms by

employing idiomatic equivalence which proved to be an excellent choice. It adds naturalness to

the language spoken in The Witcher’s world and provides an enjoyable experience for

the player. In some cases, the application of the aforementioned procedure was not possible due

to the fact that of the idioms do not have their equivalents in English. Therefore, the translators

decided to paraphrase those idiomatic expressions. Nevertheless, it does not disrupt

the conversation fluidity of the characters. The remaining idioms could not be categorized

because they differ from their Polish forms in terms of meaning. However, it does not have any

major influence on the plot of the whole game.

 54

CONCLUSIONS

The thesis aimed to compare two versions of the game and analyze the use as well as

the frequency of translation procedures in the translation process of Slavic elements and idioms.

The translation of proper names and idiomatic expressions presents a challenge, especially in

video games where the translator must take into an account the lip synchronization of

the character. Video games tend to include a lot of cultural references that often cannot be

rendered by means of literal translation. For instance, The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt is based pm,

to a large extent, on Slavic folklore. Therefore, the translators were required to broaden their

knowledge in terms of Slavic mythology so as to render such elements correctly. Regarding

the translation of idiomatic expressions, the translators had to ensure that they are fully relevant

for the sake of the player’s comfort and successful immersion in the game. This research

constitutes of 58 examples divided into groups and analyzed in accordance with Newmark’s

methodology.

The obtained results indicate that the most commonly employed procedure in

the translation process of the bestiary was neologization and literal translation. It was an easy

task to preserve proper names rendered by means of literal translation given that they have their

English equivalents. Whereas some of the proper names necessitated the use of neologization

because they are either new coinages or they do not possess their equivalents in

the English language. The proper names, which are characteristic solely of Slavic myths, were

translated by means of cultural or functional equivalence in order to make the game more

culturally appropriate. When it comes to the translation of idioms, the most frequently applied
 55

procedure was idiomatic equivalence. Therefore, it is safe to assume that the translators clearly

aimed at preserving original language richness.

Taking everything into consideration, the translators achieved their goal of preserving

Slavic elements and idioms in the English version of the game. This allows the player to fully

emerge himself/herself in this magnificent world and explore Slavic culture. The topic of

translation of cultural elements in The Witcher series certainly should be explored more

thoroughly in the future.

 56

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List of tables and charts

Table 1: Literal translation ....................................................................................................... 35

Table 2: Neologization ............................................................................................................. 36

Table 3: Transference ............................................................................................................... 39

Table 4: Naturalization ............................................................................................................. 39

Table 5: Cultural equivalence .................................................................................................. 40

Table 6: Functional equivalence............................................................................................... 41

Table 7: Couplet ....................................................................................................................... 41

Table 8: Equivalence in idioms I.............................................................................................. 43

Table 9: Equivalence in idioms II ............................................................................................ 44

Table 10: Equivalence in idioms III ......................................................................................... 46

Table 11: Equivalence in idioms IV ......................................................................................... 47

Table 12: Paraphrase ................................................................................................................ 49

Table 13: Other......................................................................................................................... 51

Chart 1: Frequency of the procedures applied in the translation of proper names ................... 52

Chart 1: Frequency of the procedures applied in the translation of idioms ............................. 53

 66

SUMMARY

The aim of this thesis was the comparative analysis of the Polish and English versions

of The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt in terms of Slavic elements and idiomatic expressions so as to

evaluate if they were translated correctly and faithfully. The first chapter is dedicated to

the theory of translation, definition of the actual concept of translation and differences between

strategy, method and procedure. The following subchapters introduce the notion of equivalence

and the typology of Newmark, which forms the basis for the research. This chapter also covers

such topics as the translation of proper names and idioms, translation competence as well as

similarities and differences between localization and translation. The second chapter focuses

on the definition of game and the most popular video game genres along with their brief

description. This chapter also explores the controversial issue whether video games can be

considered a medium. Moreover, it was necessary to examine challenges that await for

the translator in the video games translation. The third chapter is fully dedicated to the

comparative analysis of names of the monsters and idioms on the basis of Newmark’s

methodology. Taking everything into account, it can be concluded that the translators

successfully preserved Slavic elements and idiomatic expressions in the English version of

the game.
 67

STRESZCZENIE

Celem niniejszej pracy była analiza porównawcza polskiej i angielskiej wersji gry

Wiedźmin 3: Dziki Gon pod kątem zawartych tam słowiańskich elementów i idiomów oraz

ocena czy zostały przetłumaczone w sposób poprawny i zgodny z oryginałem. Pierwszy

rozdział jest poświęcony teorii tłumaczenia, definicji samego pojęcia jakim jest tłumaczenie

oraz różnicom pomiędzy strategią, metodą a procedurą. W kolejnych podrozdziałach została

opisana ekwiwalencja oraz metodologia Newmarka, która stanowi podstawę do analizy.

Następnie zostały omówione nazwy własne i idiomy w przekładzie, kompetencje tłumacza oraz

podobieństwa i różnice pomiędzy lokalizacją a tłumaczenieniem. Drugi rozdział skupia się na

definicji gry i najbardziej popularnych gatunkach gier video, które zostały krótko

scharakteryzowane. Poruszony został również problem, który budzi wiele kontrowersji, a

mianowicie czy gry video zasłużyły na miano medium. Ponadto została omówiona kwestia

trudności na jakie może natknąć się tłumacz podczas przekładu gier video. Trzeci rozdział jest

w pełni poświęcony analizie porównawczej nazw potworów i idiomów na bazie typologii

Newmarka. Biorąc pod uwagę całość powyższej analizy, można stwierdzić, że słowiańskie

elementy i idiomy zostały jak najbardziej zachowane w angielskiej wersji gry.