řŶųƭŚƳƶŝ

ƵŚģƽźǀĭŹřŵƺưƳ

Well Logging

ŽŹŶƯ
ƽŵřźƯĨƯŚǀſ

ࣘ
 ŢſźƸƟ

ƶƯŶƤƯ
ŚƸĮƴſƾƨǀƯŚƴƿŵƹŹŶǀƷŜƿřźƋƹƾƨƿżǀƟšŚǀƇƺƈų
(Open-hole Logging)ŻŚŝƵźƠůƽźǀĭŹřŵƺưƳƽŚƸƷŚĮŤſŵ
ƾŤƯƹŚƤƯ
(Sonic)ƾţƺƇ
( Nuclear) ƽřƶŤƀƷ
(Gamma ray)ŚƯŚĭ
(Formation Test)ŹźĪƯƾƿŚƯŻōƶƿLJ
(Cased-hole Logging)ƁƺěƵźƠůƽźǀĭŹřŵƺưƳƽŚƸƷŚĮŤſŵ
(Formation Evaluation)ŶƳŻŚſƾŝŚƿŻŹř
Sw,SoŢƠƳƹśōƕŚŞƃřŶƇŹŵƶŞſŚŰƯ
Ö ƪŴƬŴţƶŞſŚŰƯ
LithologyĬƴſžƴūƲǀǀƘţ
 ƶƯŶƤƯ

ŹřŵƺưƳƞƿźƘţ
ƹƱżŴƯĬƴſƹƾĪƿźŤĪƫřƾƿŚǀưǀƃƾĪƿżǀƟƞƬŤŴƯƅřƺųŢŞŧ
ƢưƗƪŝŚƤƯŹŵƩŚǀſ

ƽźǀĭŹřŵƺưƳƶĤŴƿŹŚţ
ƽźǀĭŹřŵƺưƳŻřƝŶƷ
ƽźǀĭŹřŵƺưƳƽŚƸƃƹŹ
ƽźǀĭŹřŵƺưƳšŚǀƬưƗƕřƺƳř
 ƽźǀĭŹřŵƺưƳƶĤŴƿŹŚţ

ƽŵLjǀƯæîçìƩŚſŹŵ 
ƽźǀĭŹřŵƺưƳƵŚĮŤſŵƲǀƫƹř
ƵŻřŶƳřŢƸūƾĪƿźŤĪƫř
ƪǀƀƳŚŤěƝLjŤųřƽźǀĭ
ƱżŴƯŻřƶƐƤƳƹŵƲǀŝ
ŶƃƶŤųŚſ
 ƽźǀĭŹřŵƺưƳƶĤŴƿŹŚţ
Normals (16”, 64”) (1930)
Laterals (18”) 1940
Laterolog
1950
Induction (IES)
Dual Induction (DIT-B) 1960
Dual Laterolog
1970
Spherically Focused Laterolog
Dual Induction (DIT-D) 1980
Dual Induction - Phasor (DIT-E)
1990
Array Induction
AIT-B 1995
Platform Express (AIT-H)
 ƽźǀĭŹřŵƺưƳŻřƝŶƷ

ƮǀƤŤƀƯƽźǀĭƵŻřŶƳřƶĩƱżŴƯƩŚǀſƹĬƴſŻřƾţŚƗLjƏřƱŵŹƹōŢſŶŝ
ŶƃŚŝƾưƳźƿŸěƱŚĪƯřƱō
ƽźǀĭƵżƜƯƱŵƺŝƶƴƿżƷźěƹƪĪƄƯ
ƞƬŤŴƯƽŚƸƄƿŚƯŻōƭŚŬƳřƽřźŝƵżƜƯƮŬůƱŵƺŞƳƾƟŚĩ
ƵżƜƯŹŵšŚƗLjƏřƱŵƺŞƳƶŤſƺǀě
ŢƀǀƳƵŵŚƠŤſřƪŝŚƣźĭƪǀƬŰţƽŚƷŹřżƟřƭźƳƎſƺţƮǀƤŤƀƯšŹƺƈŝƵżƜƯšŚƗLjƏř
 ƶƯŶƤƯ
ŶƳŻŚſƾŝŚƿŻŹřƝřŶƷř

ƱżŴƯƾƬƇřƽŚƷźŤƯřŹŚěƶŞſŚŰƯ
ƪŴƬŴţ
śōƕŚŞƃřŶƇŹŵ
Ĭƴſžƴū
ĬƴſƕƺƳ
ƽŶǀƫƺţƶƿLJŢƯŚŴƋ
ƽźƿŸěŷƺƠƳŢǀƬŝŚƣ

IHCIP  Vb    1  S wi 

æèíë é ƞƿźƃƾŤƘƴƇƵŚĮƄƳřŵ
 ƽźǀĭŹřŵƺưƳŪƿřŹƽŚƸƃƹŹ

(Wire LineƪŝŚĩƶƬǀſƺŝƽźǀĭŹřŵƺưƳ

(CTLŹŚǀſƽżƜƯƶƫƺƫƶƬǀſƺŝƽźǀĭŹřŵƺưƳ

ƽŹŚƠůƽŚƷƶƫƺƫƶƬǀſƺŝƽźǀĭŹřŵƺưƳ

(LWDƽŹŚƠůƲǀůŹŵƽźǀĭŹřŵƺưƳ

(Open-hole Logging)ŻŚŝƵźƠůƽźǀĭŹřŵƺưƳ

(Cased-hole Logging)ƁƺěƵźƠůƽźǀĭŹřŵƺưƳ
ƽźǀĭŹřŵƺưƳƽŚƷŹřżŝř
ŻŚŝƵźƠů
(Open-Hole Logging)
 ƵŵŚƠŤſřŵŹƺƯįŚƷŹřŵƺưƳ
Log Type Abb. Tool Name Company profile Mud Type
Induction resistivity AIT Array Induction Tools Slb. O.H O.B.M/F.W/O.E.M
PI phasor induction Slb. O.H O.B.M/F.W/O.E.M
DIL dual induction log (tool) NIDC O.H O.B.M/F.W/O.E.M
HRI High Resolution Induction NIDC/CNLC O.H O.B.M/F.W/O.E.M

Laterolog resistivity
HRLA slb. O.H S.W
DLL Dual laterolog NIDC/CNLC/slb O.H S.W

NEUTRON CNT Compensated Neutron Tool slb. O.H/C.H no limit

DSN Dual Spaced Neutron NIDC/CNLC O.H/C.H no limit
HGNS(PEX) Integrated Gamma RayNeutron slb. O.H/C.H no limit

Density LDT Litho Density Toll slb O.H/C.H no limit

SDL Spectral Density NIDC/CNLC O.H/C.H no limit
TLD(PEX) Three DetectorLitho density slb O.H/C.H no limit
 Borehole compensated sonic
SONIC BHC slb O.H
BCS Borehole compensated sonic NIDC/CNLC O.H
FWST Full wave sonic Tool NIDC/CNLC O.H

Gama GR Gama Ray Slb./NIDC/CNLC O.H/C.H

NGT natural gamaray spectro slb O.H/C.H

Imager FMI Formation Micro Imager Slb. O.H water B.M

OBMI Oil base mud imager Slb. O.H O.B.M
UBI Ultrasonic borehole Imager Slb. O.H
EMI NIDC/CNLC O.H
CAST NIDC/CNLC O.H/C.H
USIT UltraSonic casing Imager Slb.

Tester RFT Repeat Formation Test Slb. O.H no limit

MDT Modular Dynamic Test Slb. O.H no limit
SFT Selectiv Formation Test NIDC/CNLC O.H no limit

Other
VSP Vertical Seismic Profile Slb.
TDT Termal Decay Time C.H
CCL Casing Collar Log C.H
Operating Technique
 Depth-Matching
 Logging Speed
 Tool Positioning
 Response in Known Conditions
 Setting of Constants, Software Version, Sampling
Rate and Filtering Characteristics
 Presence of Standard Curves
 Relogging of Anomalies
 Repeat Section
 Taping Standards
Operating Technique: Depth-Matching
 standard depth control procedures are to be followed
to provide accurate depth measurements.

 Normally the first log run in the well is the master log
and should be used as the depth reference for all
subsequent logs

 Depth-matching between logs should be as follows:

 0 - 10,000 ft +/- 1ft
 10,000 – 15,000 ft +/- 2 ft
 15,000 – 20,000 ft +/- 3 ft
 If the tool is sticking while logging, these tolerances
may be impossible to achieve, in which case the
tension curve should be checked to facilitate
interpretation
Operating Technique: Logging Speed
 The maximum logging speed for a tool is determined by
many factors such as:
 Tool design (the most important one)
 Desired repeatability
 Accuracy
 Formation characteristics
 Hole conditions

 Each tool has its own maximum logging speed for the
ideal case (A recommended logging speed is given for
each tool, which is a maximum value in most cases)

 Slower speeds may be necessary in unusual borehole

conditions or because of formation characteristics
Operating Technique: Logging Speed

 List the logging speed for the following logging tools:

 AIT: 3600 ft/hr or 18 m/min

 APS: 1800 ft/hr or 9 m/min for standard resolution 6-in. sampling.
 ARI:1800 fph for 0.5-in. sampling, recommended for optimal dip estimation
 3600 fph for 1.0-in. sampling
 1800 fph for 1.0-in. sampling if parameter ALGO=SLOW due to running a high-
data-rate combination (for example, FMI ARI).
 5000 fph for DLL only
 BHC: 3600 ft/hr or 18 m/min depending on level of "road noise" and hole conditions
 CNL: 1800 ft/hr or 9 m/min
 DLL
 DSI
 FMI
 FMS
 GR
 LDS/LDL
 NGS
 PEX
 SHDT
Operating Technique: Tool Positioning

 Some tools must be centralized

 Some need to be eccentered
 Others require a certain standoff from the
borehole wall
 These different techniques can have profound
effects on a log
 Tool sketch should be checked to confirm the
location of the items used to achieved the
required tool position
Operating Technique: Tool Positioning

 Some tools are run

centralized in the
borehole in order to
measure properly
Centralised
Tool

Formation
to be
 These include laterolog
Measured
and sonic devices.

 Special centralizers are

put on the tool.
Operating Technique: Tool Positioning

 Some tools are run

eccentered, pushed
against the borehole
wall.
Eccentralised
Tool

 In some cases this is

Formation
to be
Measured
done with an
eccentraliser.

 In other cases a caliper

arm does this job.
Operating Technique: Tool Positioning

 Some tools are run

with “stand-offs” to
position them at a
Tool with
Stand-offs fixed distance from
Stand-Offs
the wall.
Formation
to be
Measured

 The induction family

are usually run in
this manner.
Depth of Investigation and Resolution of Logging Tools

The depth of investigation of a log is

defined by the distance away from
the borehole that a logging tool can
measure.

The resolution of a log is defined as

its capability to distinguish and
properly measure thin beds.

A logging tool acquires data from the

formation by using a particular physical
measurement ranging from Resistivity
to acoustics and Nuclear resonance.

Depending on the design of the

sensors and the physical measurement
used, the depth of investigation and
resolution of the log can vary from a
few mini-meters to a few meters.
 Depth of Investigation and Resolution of Logging Tools

Induction 80 cm
Resistivity log

Laterolog 80 cm

Resolution
Neutron 40 cm
Radioactivity
Gamma-ray 30 cm

Density 20 cm

Acoustic
Sonic 60 cm

Micro resistivity 5 cm
Resistivity Micro log
Dipmeter 2 cm
250 cm 200 cm 150 cm 100 cm 50 cm 0 cm

Depth of Investigation
Reservoir Rock Properties


ࣙࣙ
Reservoir Porosity

Definition
 Porosity is the fraction of a rock that is occupied by voids
(pores).

Vp Vb  Vma
Porosity    
Vb Vb

Discussion Topics
 Origins and descriptions
 Factors that effect porosity
 Methods of determination
Reservoir Porosity

Objectives

 The concepts of rock matrix and porosity

 The difference between original (primary) and
induced (secondary) porosity
 The difference between total and effective
porosity
 Laboratory methods of porosity determination
 Determination of porosity from well logs
Reservoir Porosity
Major Components of Sandstone
PORE
Framework FRAMEWORK
(QUARTZ) MATRIX
−Sand (and Silt) Size Grains CEMENT

Matrix
−Silt and Clay Size Material FRAMEWORK
(FELDSPAR)

Cement
−Material Precipitated Post-
Depositionally,During Burial. Cements
Fill Pores and Replace Framework
Grains

Pores
−Voids Among the Above Components
Reservoir Porosity
Origin of Porosity in Carbonates
Primary (Original)
−Developed at deposition
−Typified by
 Intergranular
 Intercrystalline pores of carbonates
−Usually more uniform than induced porosity

Secondary (Induced)
−Developed by geologic processes after deposition (diagenetic processes)

−Examples
 Grain dissolution in sandstones or carbonates
 Vugs and solution cavities in carbonates
 Fracture development in some sandstones, shales, and carbonates
Reservoir Porosity
Factors Affecting Primary Porosity
Particle sphericity and angularity

Porosity
High

SPHERICITY
Low

Very Sub- Sub- Well-

Angular Rounded
Rounded
Rounded
Packing Angular Angular

ROUNDNESS
Porosity = 48 % Porosity = 27 % Porosity

Packing of Two Sizes of Spheres

Porosity = 14%

Sorting (variable grain sizes)

Very Well Well Moderately Poorly Very Poorly

Sorted Sorted Sorted Sorted Sorted

SORTING
Reservoir Porosity
Factors Affecting Secondary Porosity FRACTURE
DISSOLUTION
Cementing Materials PORE
PORE
FRAMEWORK
(QUARTZ)
Overburden Stress CEMENT
MATRIX

Vugs, Dissolution and Fractures FRAMEWORK

(FELDSPAR)

Diagenesis
Diagenesis is the Post-Depositional Chemical and Mechanical
Changes that Occur in Sedimentary Rocks

Some Diagenetic Effects Include

Compaction
Precipitation of Cement
Dissolution of Framework Grains and Cement

Some Diagenetic Effects The Effects of Diagenesis May Enhance or

Degrade Reservoir Quality
Reservoir Porosity
Carbonate Porosity Types
Interparticle Pores Between Particles or Grains

Intraparticle Pores Within Individual Particles or Grains

Intercrystal Pores Between Crystals

Moldic Pores Formed by Dissolution of an
Individual Grain or Crystal in the Rock

Fenestral Primary Pores Larger Than Grain-Supported

Interstices
Fracture Formed by a Planar Break in the Rock

Vug Large Pores Formed by Indiscriminate

Dissolution of Cements and Grains
Reservoir Porosity
Idealized Carbonate Porosity Types

Interparticle Intraparticle Intercrystal Moldic

Fabric
Selective
Fenestral Shelter Growth-Framework

Non-Fabric
Selective
Fracture Channel Vug

Breccia Boring Burrow Shrinkage

Fabric Selective or Not Fabric Selective
(modified from Choquette and Pray, 1970)
Reservoir Porosity
Pore Space Classification
Total Pore Volume
Total porosity, t =
Bulk Volume

Interconnected Pore Space

Effective porosity, e =
Bulk Volume
of great importance; contains the mobile fluid

 Very clean sandstones : e  t

 Poorly to moderately well -cemented intergranular materials: t  e
 Highly cemented materials and most carbonates: e < t
Reservoir Porosity
Porosity Measurement

Total Porosity - Neutron Log

Total Porosity - Density Log
Absolute or Total Porosity
Rock
Matrix Oven-Dried Core Analysis Porosity
VShale Humidity-Dried
Core Analysis Porosity
Quartz Clay Clay Surfaces Small Large, Interconnected Isolated
(Framework) Layers & Interlayers Pores Pores Pores
Capillary
Structural Water
(OH -) Water Hydration or Hydrocarbon
Bound Water Pore Volume
Irreducible or
Immobile Water
Reservoir Permeability

Definition
 Permeability is a property of the porous medium and is a measure of the
capacity of the medium to transmit fluids
 A measure of the fluid conductivity of the particular material

Sources for Permeability Determination

 Core analysis
 Well test analysis (flow testing)
 RFT (repeat formation tester) provides small well tests
 Production data
 production logging measures fluid flow into well
 Log data
 MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) logs calibrated via core analysis
Reservoir Permeability
A
Permeability Determination Apparatus

WATER
Flow is Steady State h1-h2
q
q = KA (h1-h2)/L
K is a constant of proportionality A
h1
h1>h2 for downward flow
h2
(Sand Pack Length) L

qì L  L3 P  T L 1 1  q
k ;     2    L2
  WATER
A Äp  T 1 1 L P 
Reservoir Permeability

Laboratory Determination of Permeability

1” or 1 1/2”

1. Measure inlet and outlet Plug

pressures (p1 and p2) at several
different flow rates Most Common
2. Graph ratio of flow rate to area
(q/A) versus the pressure
function (p1 - p2)/L
3. For laminar flow, data follow a Full Diameter
straight line with slope of k/
4. At very high flow rates, turbulent Heterogeneous
flow is indicated by a deviation
from straight line through origin

Whole Core
Heterogeneous
Reservoir Permeability

Issues Affecting Laboratory Measurements of

Permeability
Core Handling, Cleaning, and Sampling

Fluid-Rock Interactions Darcy Flow Non-Darcy Flow

−Clay Swelling Because of Fresh Water
−Fine Migration, Plugging pore throats , reduces
q
permeability
A

Pressure Changes
−Loss of confining pressure during core recovery k
Slope = 
Rock Heterogeneities
−Naturally Fractured Reservoirs 0
Core Plugs Represent matrix Permeability 0 (p1 - p2)
Total system permeability (Matrix+Fracture)
L
is higher
−Core mineralogy problems (Salt, Gypsum)

Gas Velocity Effects (Klinkenberg)

Reservoir Permeability

Average Permeability of Layered Reservoirs

Linear, Parallel Flow

h  h1  h 2  h 3  h i

p 1 - p 2  Äp  Äp 1  Äp 2  Äp 3

q  q1  q 2  q 3  q i

kwh
q Äp ; A  w  h
ìL

kwh k w h1 k w h2 k w h3
q Äp  1 Äp  2 Äp  3 Äp
ìL ìL ìL ìL

k
k h
i i

h
Reservoir Permeability

Average Permeability of Layered Reservoirs

Linear, Serial Flow

L  L1  L 2  L 3  L i

q  q1  q 2  q 3

p 1  p 2  Äp 1  Äp 2  Äp 3   Äp i

qì L
p1 - p 2  ; A  w h
kwh
qì L q ì L1 q ì L2 q ì L3
p1 - p 2    
k w h k1 w h k 2 w h k 3 w h

L
k
Li
k
i
Reservoir Permeability

Average Permeability of Layered Reservoirs

 Radial Flow, Pressure Profile

q k  dp 
vs    
A ì  ds  q

q k
dr  dp
2ð rh ì
rw pw
1 2ð kh
q  dr   dp rw re
re
r ì pe

q
2ð kh
p e  p w  q ì ln(re /r)
ì ln(r e /r w ) p(r)  p e 
2ð k h
Reservoir Permeability

Average Permeability of Layered Reservoirs

Radial, Parallel Flow
Radial, Serial
Flow???
h  h1  h 2  h 3  h i

p e - p w  Äp  Äp 1  Äp 2  Äp 3

q  q1  q 2  q 3  q i

2ð k h
q Äp
ì ln(r e /r w )
2ð k h
q Äp
ì ln(r e /r w )


2ð k 1 h 1
Äp 
2ð k 2 h 2
Äp 
2ð k 3 h 3
Äp k
k i  hi
ì ln(r e /r w ) ì ln(r e /r w ) ì ln(r e /r w ) h
Fluid Saturations

Core
Laboratory Determination of Fluid Saturations Heating
element
sample

1000-1100 F
Retort Distillation
−Advantages
Rapid (less than one hour) Cooling
water in
Direct measurement of both oil and water volumes recovered
Cooling
Adequate accuracy water out
Condenser

- Disadvantages
High temperatures (1,000 - 1,100 F): Graduated Cylinder

-Destroys core sample

-Water of crystallization in clays may vaporize – and must be accounted for
-Cracking and coking of oil Into smaller chain hydrocarbons, which may not
be recondensed

Vw measured Vo Vp  Vb  from another source

Sw  So 
Vp Vp

Vo  Fcorrection Vo measured S g  1  S w  So

Fluid Saturations

Laboratory Determination of Fluid Saturations

Condenser
Solvent Extraction Method

−Advantages
Accurate determination of water saturation
Non-destructive to core samples
Graduate tube
- Disadvantages
Slow Thimble and core
Oil volume not directly measured
Solvent
Electric Heater
V W W   V ñw
Sw  w Vo 
i dry w
Vp ño

Vo
So  Sg  1  S w  So
Vp
 Lithology Logs

Gamma Ray (GR)

Spontaneous Potential (SP)

ࣛࣚ
Lithology Logs

 The first goal of Formation Evaluation is to

attempt to identify the lithology down hole and
its depth of occurrence

 Gamma Ray Log

 Spontaneous Potential (SP) Log
 ƺǀŤĩřƺƿŵřŹźƇŚƴƗšŚǀƇƺƈų

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ƾƠƴƯ
 ƱƹŶŝóžǀƏŚƴƜƯƹźŤĪƫřšŚƘƄƘƄţ:ã ±
ƾĪƿźŤĪƫřŹŚŝƹƭźū
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Penetration
Gamma Ray

photo-multiplier amplifies the signal

Photomultiplier tube 1

Detector 1

Stabilization source

Detector 2

Photomultiplier tube 2
Gamma Ray Interactions

Compton
scattering
Medium energy
(0.75-10 Mev)

Photoelectric Pair Production

absorption High energy
Low energy ( > 10 Mev)
(< 0.75 kev) ray converts into e+
and e-
Gamma Ray Application: Natural Radioactivity

The tool detects gamma rays

primarily emitted from
Potassium, Thorium, and
Uranium.

 the gamma ray tool can be

used in oil base mud, gas or
other non-conductive borehole
fluids. It is also used in cased
holes.

 The gamma ray log is used

primarily for lithology
determination, and well-to-well
correlation. It can also be used
to pick perforation points in a
cased hole.
Gamma Ray Application: Natural Radioactivity
Gamma Ray
 Clean sandstones or limestones have a low radioactive mineral
content (low GR reading).

 Shale and clay formations have a high radioactive mineral content

(high GR reading)

 Using a calculated shale index, IGR, one can estimate the volume of
shale by applying it to a published logging company chart.

API Gamma Ray Units ranges from a

low of zero (0) to as high as two
hundred (200)
Gamma Ray

 The mud also absorbs gamma rays (the denser the

mud, the greater the effect), so environmental
corrections need to be made to obtain a true value for
the formation radioactivity.

 Corrections need to be made for the borehole diameter

and mud density.

 Schlumberger GR-1, and GR-2

Spectral Gamma Ray
 The spectral gamma ray log is commonly given the symbol SGR.

 Measure the proportion of the total gamma radiation coming from each of
potassium-40, the uranium-radium series, and the thorium series. Their sum
should be the same as the total gamma ray value measured by the NGT

 The spectral gamma ray tool uses the same sensor as the NGT. The output
from the sensor is fed into a multi-channel analyzer that calculates the
amount of radiation coming from the energies associated with each of the
major peaks.

 The sum of the potassium-40 and thorium radiation, is called the computed
gamma ray response (CGR).

 The depth of investigation is controlled by the same fundamental physics as

for the total gamma ray tool, and is identical to the total gamma ray tool (i.e.,
about 1 ft).
Spectral Gamma Ray
Use of the Spectral Gamma Ray

Determination of Lithology
1- Discriminating between sand and shale
2- Carbonate Formations
3- Evaporates

Unconformity Detection
Recognition of Igneous Rocks
Diagenesis
Sedimentology
Estimation of Uranium Potential
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
Hydrocarbon Potential
Fracture Detection
Use of the Spectral Gamma Ray

Discriminating between sand and shale

 Clean sands can sometimes produce high gamma ray readings which would
confuse them with shales.

 Such sandstones include those containing feldspars, micas, glauconite, and

heavy minerals including uranium-bearing ores.

 The extra information supplied by the spectral gamma ray tool can, in most
cases, help recognize these situations, and calculate the amount of the particular
radioactive minerals present
Use of the Spectral Gamma Ray
Use of the Spectral Gamma Ray

Discriminating between sand and shale

Use of the Spectral Gamma Ray

 The fact that sands that do not contain clays are sometimes radioactive
indicates that there will be occasions when the shale volume calculated
from the total gamma ray log (GR) or the total gamma ray log from the
spectral tool (SGR) will be misleading.

 However, we can calculate the shale volume from the individual readings of
the spectral gamma ray log (K, Th and U), and from the computed gamma
ray log (CGR).
Use of the Spectral Gamma Ray

Carbonates Formations
 In pure carbonates, thorium will usually be absent because the common
thorium ions are insoluble, and potassium will also be negligible.

 If the formation has very low Th and K abundances, the rock may be a
pure carbonate. The rock, however, may contain uranium.

 Uranium ions are either soluble or insoluble depending upon their

oxidation state.

 Highly oxidized uranium ions, from oxidizing environments (such as

deserts) are insoluble. Thus a carbonate, which also has low U
abundance, comes from an oxidizing (maybe desert) environment which
is not favorable for the conservation of organic materials.

 Conversely, non-oxidized uranium ions from sub-surface depositional

environments are more soluble, and hence can be present in
carbonates.
Use of the Spectral Gamma Ray

Carbonates Formations
 In clay-bearing carbonate rocks, high total gamma ray readings are not
a reliable indicator of the shaliness of a carbonate.

 The spectral gamma ray log indicates the presence of K and Th

together with the U, it may be said that the K and Th contributions are
associated with the clay content of the shaly carbonate, while the U is
associated with some organic source which was deposited in a reducing
environment that favours the conservation of organic material.

 Note that K and Th must be present together for a clay to be indicated.

The presence of K and no Th (with or without U) is usually an indicator
of the remains of algal mats in the carbonate, or of glauconite. Thus,
when calculating the shaliness of a carbonate, it is better to use the
CGR as in the case of sandstones
Use of the Spectral Gamma Ray

Carbonates Formations
Use of the Spectral Gamma Ray

Evaporates
 Large total gamma ray values are commonly associated with shales and certain
types of potassium bearing evaporite.
 We can discriminate between these because the potassium-bearing evaporites
have much larger potassium abundances and zero thorium resulting from the
insolubility of thorium ions in water.
 Evaporites are deposited in oxidizing environments, so the uranium is usually
also very low or zero

Unconformity Detection
 The mean Th/K ratio of large intervals of formations is usually approximately
constant. This is because it depends ultimately upon the depositional conditions.

 Any sudden changes in the mean Th/K ratio can act as an indicator of sudden
change in depositional environment, such as at an unconformity.
Use of the Spectral Gamma Ray

Recognition of Igneous Rocks

 The values of Th and U from the spectral gamma ray log are used together with
the density from the density log and the sonic wave travel time from the sonic log
to identify and discriminate between igneous rocks. Most igneous rocks show a
Th/U ratio close to 4.

Diagenesis
 Diagenesis is studied using the Th/K ratio derived from spectral gamma ray logs.

CEC
 The cation exchange capacity of the rock may be calculated by knowing
the type and quantity of clays present in the rock from spectral gamma
ray data.
Use of the Spectral Gamma Ray

Hydrocarbon Potential
 Organic matter is good at concentrating uranium. If this is deposited in a reducing
environment it can be preserved and transformed to hydrocarbons. Hence, there
is a correlation between the presence of uranium and hydrocarbons.

 It is possible to evaluate the total organic carbon content of rocks from the
uranium content derived from the spectral gamma ray log providing the
relationship is calibrated using core data. The hydrocarbon potential of the rock
may then be derived from the total organic carbon content.

Fracture Detection
 Uranium is soluble in reducing conditions. Dissolved uranium salts may then be
precipitated along fractures, causing local peaks in the uranium spectral gamma
ray log.

 However, local uranium peaks do not unambiguously indicate fractures, so their

presence must be checked on image logs.
SP

 SP is generated by the diffusion of ions through two

solutions of different salinities separated by a shale
membrane and a liquid-junction membrane.
SP

 When shale separates two sodium chloride solutions of different

concentrations, sodium will diffuse through the shale from the
higher concentration to the lower, due to the ion exchange capacity
of the clays present. The chlorine ions, due to their size and net
negative charge cannot flow across the shale.

 In the permeable bed, there is the invaded zone, which contains

the mud and mud filtrate (in this case the dilute solution), and the
uninvaded zone, containing the formation water (here the
concentrated solution). So, a current will be created moving from
the mud or filtrate to the uninvaded zone through the shale and
back to the mud or mud filtrate.

 SP is measured by recording the change in potential between an

electrode being pulled up hole in a sonde, and a grounded
electrode at the surface. A conductive mud is required.
SP

 The magnitude and direction of the SP curve is controlled by three

major factors:
1) Salinity of the mud filtrate, Rmf
2) Salinity of the formation water, Rw
3) Shaliness of the formation

 Other minor factors include:

1) Streaming potential (EK)
2) Low salinity formation water
3) High Hydrocarbon saturation
4) Extraneous artificial and natural electrical disturbance

 The calculation of SP values requires that corrections are made for

the borehole size, bed thickness, invasion and resistivity contrasts.
 Charts (Schlumberger) SP-3 and SP-4,
SP

 Across from a clean, thick, sand formation where the borehole fluid
is the dominant resistance, the electrochemical potential is fully
developed and the deflection is known as the static spontaneous
potential, SSP

 The SSP can range

from +50 millivolts (mv), when the formation water is
fresher than the mud filtrate (Rw > Rmf),

to a zero value, when the filtrate and formation water

have the same salinity (Rw = Rmf),

to a value of -200 mv, when the formation water is

very salty compared to the mud filtrate (Rw <
Rmf).
SP

Direction of deflection

 Uses of the SP
1) Correlation
2) Detect beds having permeability and porosity
3) Locate bed boundaries and thickness
4) Indicate bed shaliness (qualitative)
5) Determine depositional environment (only with much
experience)
6) Calculate Rw via the equation
Porosity Logs

Sonic Logs
Density Logs
 Neutron Logs

ࣞࣘ
İţƺƇįźǀĭŹřŵƺưƳƵŚĮŤſŵ

Sonic log

ࣞࣙ
Basic Sonic Measurement
 An acoustic pulse is sent
into the formation

 The time it takes to reach

each receiver is measured
2 ft
 One path is 2ft longer
than the other.

 The extra time that sound

takes to travel through 2ft
is used to determine
rock’s acoustic velocity
Transit Time & DT

 Transit time is the time it takes

sound to travel from the transmitter
to the receiver measured in s
 It contains :
TTmud1+TTrock+TTmud2

 DeltaT (DT) is the time it takes for TT3

sound to travel through a known TT4
distance of rock measured in s/m
or s/ft calculated as the difference
between two transit times
DT

TT3  TT4 (TTmud1  TT3,rock  TTmud2 )  (TTmud1  TT4,rock  TTmud2 )

DTSingle  
2ft
2ft
Far
TTthrough 2ft of rock ìs Receiver
 [ ]
2ft ft TT3-TT4 TTmud2
(2 ft)
Near
Receiver

TT4,rock
TT3,rock

Transmitter
TTmud1

TT3 TT4
Waveforms & Transit Times
Transmitted Pulse: To Received Pulses Pulse

Far Receiver (TT3)

Near Receiver (TT4)

Far Receiver TT (TT1 or TT3)

Near Receiver TT (TT2 or TT4) TT - TT
3 4

TT3  TT4
DTLower 
2ft
Borehole Compensated Sonic

 To remove certain borehole

effects, another Transmitter
-Receiver set has been
added.
TT3 TT2

 Now since there are TT1

TT4
identical (but upside down)
measurements, one can
take the average of them.
Deviated Well

 TT’s decrease and get

separated

 First arrival amplitude will

be dramatically smaller
due to late arrivals on the
long side of the borehole

 True distance of traveling

will be more than 2 ft
DTTilted will be slightly
larger than DTTrue.
Eccentering

 TT’s, decrease

 First arrival amplitude will

be dramatically smaller
due to late arrivals on the
long side of the borehole

 Low signal amplitude

makes detection difficult
since noise amplitude
remains the same
Large Boreholes

 TT’s, Increase

 First arrival amplitude will

be dramatically smaller
due to increased travel
time through the mud.
 Low signal amplitude
makes detection difficult
since noise amplitude
could remain the same

 16 in is the maximum
hole size.
Porosity Calculation From Sonic Log

t L   S xo t mf   1  S xo  t hc
 Vsh t sh  1    Vsh  t ma

tL = Travel time read from log

 Sxo tmf = Mud filtrate portion
 (1 - Sxo) thc = Hydrocarbon portion
Vsh tsh = Shale portion
(1 -  - Vsh) tma = Matrix portion

 If Vsh = 0 and if hydrocarbon is liquid (i.e. tmf  tf), then

 tL =  tf + (1 - ) tma or

t L  t ma
s   
t f  t ma
Commonly Used Matrix Travel Times

Lithology Typical Matrix Travel

Time, tma, sec/ft
Sandstone 55.5
Limestone 47.5
Dolomite 43.5
Anydridte 50.0
Salt 66.7
Sonic Log
001) BONANZA 1
GRC ILDC RHOC DT
0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50
SPC SNC CNLLC SPHI
-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15 45 ss -15
ACAL MLLCF
6 16 0.2 200
10700 DT
150 us/f 50

10800
SPHI

10900
FACTORS AFFECTING SONIC LOG RESPONSE

 Unconsolidated formations
 Higher transit time Porosity overestimated

 Naturally fractured formations

 Vug and fracture porosities are not detected

 Hydrocarbons (especially gas)

 Negligible effect as small fluid saturations have small effect
on transit time

 Rugose salt sections

İưŬůƭźūįźǀĭŹřŵƺưƳƵŚĮŤſŵ

Density log

ࣟࣜ
Density log

 As the gamma rays enter the formation, some are absorbed, some
pass through and others are slowed down and scattered. The last
type of collision is known as Compton Scattering and is the basic
signal mode of the density tools

 Two detectors at fixed distances on the skid record the intensity of

the back-scattered gamma ray

 The scattered gamma radiation occurs because of collisions with

electrons of the atoms making up the bulk formation and is related
to the electron density of the formation
 electron density is in turn, proportional to the bulk density of the
formation
Z : Atomic Number
A : Atomic Weight
Density log

Mud cake
(mc + hmc)

Formation (b)

Long spacing detector

Short spacing detector

Source
Density log

 More recently the energy level of density tools has been raised to take
advantage of another nuclear phenomenon, the photoelectric effect.

 The photoelectric effect is described by absorption of the incident photon

of gamma energy and the emission of a photoelectron.
Porosity Calculation From Density Log

 b  Vsh  sh  1    Vsh   ma   S xo  mf   1  S xo   hc

Matrix Fluids in
flushed zone

d = Porosity from density log, fraction ma = Density of formation matrix, g/cm3
b = Bulk density from log measurement, g/cm3 f = Density of fluid in rock pores, g/cm3
hc = Density of hydrocarbons in rock pores, g/cm3 mf = Density of mud filtrate, g/cm3
sh = Density of shale, g/cm3 Vsh = Volume of shale, fraction
Sxo = Mud filtrate saturation in zone invaded by mud filtrate, fraction

 If minimal shale, Vsh  0

 If hc  mf  f, then b =  f - (1 - ) ma

 Density log
GR RHOB
0 API 200 2 G/C3 3
CALIX DRHO
6 IN 16 -0.25 G/C3 0.25
CALIY
6 IN 16

4100

RHOC
1.95 2.95

Gamma ray

Caliper Density
4200

Density correction
Factors Affecting Porosity From Density Log

 GRAIN DENSITY
 If one has a dolomitised limestone with matrix density of 2.77 gm/cm3
and does not realise it, a grain density of 2.71 gm/cm3 may be
erroneously used. A porosity that is to low will be calculated.

 FLUID DENSITY
 Errors arise when oil based or salty muds are used, or when hydrocarbon
bearing zones are contacted.
 Highly saline muds can have fluid densities as high as 1.15 gm/cm3. Since oil
typically has a lower fluid density than water (i.e. 0.80 gm/cm3), its presence as a
residual saturation with the very salty filtrate in the flushed zone will usually result
in an average fluid density close to 1.0 gm/cm3. However, in zones containing no
hydrocarbons, a porosity that is too low will be calculated if 1.0 gm/cm3 is used
instead of the correct value for the very salty mud.
 Errors arise in hydrocarbon bearing zones flushed to residual amounts by a fresh
water filtrate. In flushed oil zones, the effect is minor compared to that in flushed
gas or very light oil. In the latter case, if the proper fluid density is not used, a
porosity too high is calculated
Factors Affecting Porosity From Density Log

 Effect of the shale

 The density of shale can vary from a low of 2.20 gm/cm3 to as high as
2.85 gm/cm3
 when the density of the shale is close to 2.65 gm/cm3, porosity
calculated in shaly sands would be reliable
 Often Shale densities are lower-especially at shallower depths. If this is
not accounted for, a porosity that is too high will be calculated
 The effect of the shale also depends on whether it is dispersed or exists
as laminations. Dispersed shale typically has lower densities than the
surrounding shale beds.

Schlumberger uses q as an
indicator of how permeability is
affected by dispersed shale.
q = Fraction of the total For example, in the US Gulf
porosity occupied by clays Coast, if 1 >0.40, it indicates a
non-productive zone.
Factors Affecting Porosity From Density Log

Influence Of Clay-Mineral Distribution

On Effective Porosity
Clay
Dispersed Clay e Minerals
• Pore-filling
• Pore-lining
• Pore-bridging Detrital Quartz
Grains

e
e
Clay Lamination

Structural Clay ee

(Rock Fragments,
Rip-Up Clasts,
Clay-Replaced Grains)
ƱƹźţƺƳįźǀĭŹřŵƺưƳƵŚĮŤſŵ

Neutron log

࣠ࣛ
Neutron Interactions
Scattering Absorption
Inelastic Elastic
Fast neutron Thermal-neutron
absorption absorption

>100Kev
A fast neutron (> 1 Mev)
excites the nucleus to Billiard-ball collision
higher energy. The nucleus Principle used by all Emission of a capture
emits Gamma Rays at neutron porosity tools Gamma Ray of unique
energy unique to nucleus. energy
Life of a Neutron
Neutron log
 The neutron tool emits neutrons which are slowed down and
captured. The most energy is lost when colliding with a hydrogen atom
nucleus

 Different tools sense wither the amount of neutrons present or

the gamma rays emitted after collision

 The quantity detected is dependent upon the amount of

hydrogen present. The amount of hydrogen is dependent upon
how much liquid-filled porosity is in the formation

 Tools are calibrated in the University of Houston’s API test pit which
contains carbonates of known porosities. The porosities are given in
limestone porosity units. If the matrix is not limestone, empirical
corrections are made to correlate the porosity to the proper lithology.

 The neutron log senses porosity fairly well in totally liquid-filled

(i.e., not gas or light oil) formations. Due to less hydrogen
present in gas zones, the neutron logs read low.
Neutron logging tools
 The four main tools are:
 GNT - The old conventional neutron log which senses thermal neutrons

 SNP - The Sidewall Neutron Log, which is a pad device, can be run in
either liquid or air-filled holes, but it can only be run in uncased holes.

 CNL - The Compensated Neutron Log has two detectors that average
the responses which corrects for borehole irregularities. It has a deep
investigation capability and is often run with the density tool to help
detect gas zones. It must be run in liquid-filled holes; however, it works
in cased or uncased holes.

 GLT The geo-chemical logging tool has two emitters and three
detectors. It is designed to obtain excitation spectra from individual
elements. One detector is a passive NGS device, the others look at the
gamma-rays from the decay of high energy neutrons.
Neutron Porosity
001) BONANZA 1
GRC ILDC RHOC DT
0 150 0.2 200 1.95 2.95 150 us/f 50
SPC SNC CNLLC
-160 MV 40 0.2 200 0.45 -0.15
ACAL MLLCF
6 16 0.2 200
CNLLC
10700
0.45 -0.15

10800

10900
Neutron
Log
Neutron Porosity
 N   S xo  Nmf   1 S xo   Nhc
 Vsh sh  1    Vsh   Nma
N = Recorded parameter (Neutron porosity in P.U.)
 Sxo Nmf = Mud filtrate portion
(1 - Sxo) Nhc = Hydrocarbon portion
Vsh Nsh = Shale portion
(1 -  - Vsh) Nhc = Matrix portion where  = True porosity of rock
N = Porosity from neutron log measurement, fraction
Nma = Porosity of matrix fraction
Nhc = Porosity of formation saturated with hydrocarbon fluid, fraction
Nmf = Porosity saturated with mud filtrate, fraction
Vsh = Volume of shale, fraction
Sxo = Mud filtrate saturation in zone invaded by mud filtrate, fraction
Estimation of Porosity from Neutron Porosity
Neutron Porosity
 Anomalous behavior can be easily detected when a density-
neutron log tool is run and the data is plotted on the same scale.
The neutron log will skirt to the right and the density log will skirt
to the left. When they meet again marks the gas-liquid contact.

 Since the neutron log senses hydrogen, it will also detect the
water bound in clay and other hydratable minerals. consequently,
porosities too high are calculated in formations containing these
types of minerals.
Example

This log
example will
be used to
demonstrate
the quick-look
evaluation
Neutron technique
Resistivity Density
GR
Example - Identify Reservoir rocks

Sand
The sand and

Cut off Shale

shale line are
selected on the
Gamma Ray as
indicated by the
respective lines
and the cut-off
line drawn. The
zones where the
Gamma Ray is
below the cut-off
line can be
considered to be
reservoir quality.
Example - Identify Hydrocarbon bearing zones

Once we have identified

the reservoir intervals
using the Gamma Ray

Hydrocarbon

Hydrocarbon
Log, the next step is to

Water
Water

Water
identify the hydrocarbon
bearing zones.
This is done by
identifying the zones with

between R t and b
anti-correlation
high resistivity.

High R t &
 As can be seen, these
zones also show an anti-
correlation between
density and resistivity log,
confirming the presence
of hydrocarbons.
Example - Gas-Oil Differentiation

 Continuing with our

log example, once we
have identified the
hydrocarbon bearing
zones in the reservoir
intervals the next step
is to differentiate
between oil and gas.
This is done by the
density neutron curve
separation. Zones with
high separation are
identified as gas
bearing and zones with
little separation as oil
bearing.
Oil

Gas

Gas
Summary – Quick-look Evaluation

3
Calculate Sw using
Differentiate the Rw calculated
Identify
Oil & Gas in the water zone
Hydrocarbon
Zones 6
4
2 Evaluate  in
water, oil & gas zones
5
1 calculate Rw
Identify from water zone
Reservoir
Interval
ROCK TYPE CLASSIFICATION

ROCK TYPE CLASSIFICATION

---------------------------------------------------------
R-TYPE DESCRIPTION POR RANGE (%) SW RANGE (%)
---------------------------------------------------------
1 POOR SANDSTONE 0.0 - 4.5 100.0 - 0.0
4.5 - 100.0 100.0 - 50.0
2 GOOD SANDSTONE 4.5 - 100.0 50.0 - 0.0
3 DENSE CARBONATE 0.0 - 4.5 100.0 - 0.0
4.5 - 100.0 100.0 - 50.0
4 POOR CARBONATE 4.5 - 8.5 50.0 - 0.0
8.5 - 100.0 50.0 - 25.0
5 GOOD CARBONATE 8.5 - 100.0 25.0 - 0.0
---------------------------------------------------------
ROCK TYPE CLASSIFICATION

Core Pore Petrophysical Gamma Ray Flow

Core Lithofacies
Plugs Types Data Log Units
Capillary
vs k Pressure

5
4

1
Saturation Logs

Resistivity Logs (DLT)

Induction Logs (DIT)

ࣘࣘࣗ
İŞƳŚūƅƺƈŴƯŢƯƹŚƤƯįźǀĭŹřŵƺưƳƵŚĮŤſŵ

Dual Latrolog

(DLT)

ࣘࣘࣘ
Resistivity Applications

 Determine whether hydrocarbons are

present

 Identify at what depths hydrocarbons are

present.

 Determine the quantity of hydrocarbon

material that exists (if porosity is known)
through Archie's equation.

 Determine mud resistivity to help define the

invasion profile.
Resistivity

 The opposition to flow of electrical current offered by a

material of unit length and unit cross sectional area. It
expressed in ohm-meter2/meter, usually written as ohm-m.
L

Ohms Law :
A V=IR
R
Substitute R with r:
R= r x L/A
V=r x L/A x I
Substitute k = (A/L):
V - Voltage (Volts) r = V/I x (A/L)
R - Resistance (Ohms) K : Geometrical factor
I - Current (Amperes)
A - Area (Square Meters) Resistivity:
L - Length (Meters) r = V/I x k
r - Resistivity(Ohms Meters)
Formation Model

 Objective is to get Rt
 Rmud and Rxo can affect Rt measurement
Resistivity Measurement - Model 1
Resistivity Measurement - Model 2
Equipotential

 Current can flow

only perpendicular
to Equipotential

 Equipotential Lines = Same Potential along a line

 Current <--> Equipotential are Related and Affect each other
 By controlling Equipotential we can control Current flow
 If equipotential line parallel to hole then current goes into the
formation and along mud column. This will be used in DLT design.
Focusing

 Simple electrode geometry is inadequate

 Current finds the easiest path
 Current may go through borehole
 So FOCUSING of current is necessary
Focusing - Active

 Note Monitoring Electrodes are introduced

 The Bucking Current is adjusted to have Vm1 - Vm2
 Note Equipotential line shape near A0 electrode.
Passive Focusing

 The Bucking Current constrains/focuses the Measure Current

 Note distortion of Equipotential line
 Can cause currents in borehole (unwanted)
Dual Laterolog Measurement
Laterolog Principle - LLS (Shallow)

A2

280 Hz
Current A1
Source Bucking Current

M2
Monitoring
Loop M1

Measure Current
A0

 CURRENT PATHS
 Measure Current is sent from A0 and returns to A2
 Bucking Current is sent from A1 and returns to A2
 280 Hz current is generated downhole inside tool

 MAIN MONITORING LOOP

 Voltage between M1 and M2 is monitored
 Measure Current is adjusted to Keep VM1-VM2 =0
Laterolog Principle - LLD (Deep)
LCM Module

Fish
35 Hz Current

Bucking Current
A2
35 Hz
Aux Mon.
Loop A1*
A1
Bucking Current
M2
Monitoring M1
Loop
A0
Measure Current
Laterolog Deep - Principles
 CURRENT PATHS
 35 Hz laterolog current is generated at surface - LCM
 Measure Current sent from A0 and returns to Surface “Fish”
 Bucking Current is sent from A1 and A2
 Bucking Current returns to Surface “Fish”
 MAIN MONITORING LOOP
 Voltage between M1 and M2 is monitored
 Measure Current is adjusted to Keep VM1-VM2 =0
 AUXILLARY MONITORING LOOP
 A1 and A2 needs to be kept at same potential for 35 Hz only
 Voltage between A1* and A2 is monitored
 Bucking current distribution altered to keep VA2-VA1* =0
 Current density is high at A1 Hence potential is measured
at A1* which is very close
Laterolog - Depth of Investigation

 Both LLD and LLS are measured simultaneously

 LLD = 35 Hz LLS = 280 Hz

 LLS Depth of Investigation IS Approximately - 2 feet

 LLD Depth of Investigation IS Approximately - 10 feet

MSFL (Micro-Spherical-Focused-Log)

 The Microspherically Focused Log is a miniaturized

version of the SFL (Spherical Focused Log) and is
used to evaluate resistivity in the invaded zone
around the wellbore as does not require the depth of
invasion as much as SFL.

 Also, due to the type of focusing, the response is not

greatly affected by the mud-cake thickness. It can
tolerate a mud-cake thickness of 3/4 inch with little
effect.

 An advantage over all contact logs is that a separate

logging run is not required. This tool, the MSFL, can
be attached to the Compensated Formation Density
Log or the Dual Laterolog.
MSFL (Micro-Spherical-Focused-Log)
DLT Measurement - Simplified
Surface
LLS LLD Electrode
Cable

Torpedo Outer Equipotential measured

at Torpedo
Bridle

Measure V0
Mass
Measure I0
A2

M2
A0

Inner Equipotential
measured at M2 electrode

A2
Mass

Voltage is measured between M2 and Armor for LLS and LLD

Constant Voltage & Current Devices
Constant Voltage Device

 I (Measured) = V/r = K x C x V
Constant voltage is applied
Current varies with Conductivity
Current is measured
Examples - SFL, MSFL
Limitation
If R is very high, C is very low
I is too low to measured

 Constant Current Device

 V(Measured) = I x r = KxRxI
 Constant current is applied
 Voltage varies with resistivity
 Voltage is measured
 Examples - Old Normal and Lateral
Devices
Laterolog - Groningen Effect

High Resistivity Bed High Resistivity Bed

Deep Current

 Presence of High Resistivity Bed causes Deep current to flow

through the mud
 This affects the Voltage Reference at Torpedo
 Shallow current returns to A2 - hence no effect.
 High Resistivity
Bed

18 ft 18 ft

Vo
V gron

18 ft

LLG

LLD
Resistivity
 Vg is measured between Groningen Electrode (bridle) and M2
 LLG uses Vg as voltage instead of V0
 Groningen Effect can be detected from LLD and LLGseparation
 LLS is unaffected
LLG and LLD

LLG = LLD
when no Groningen Effect
DLT - Log Example

SHALE - Impermeable Zone

Sandstone - Permeable Zone

DLT - Repeatability
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Dual Induction log

(DIT)

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Induction Principles - 1
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Ŷƴĩ ƾƯŹŚĩƶƿLJconductivityƅƺƈŴƯ
Ct=1/Rt
Induction Principles - 2
Induction Principles - 3
Conductivity vs. Resistivity

Resistivity device
(laterolog) is equivalent to
a serial circuit.

Conductivity (induction)
device is equivalent to a
parallel circuit.
Conductivity Seeking Tool

 The AIT-H, like all AIT

induction tools will find

and measure the largest
conductivity it can see.

 Ideal example:
 Mud: Low Conductivity
 Invaded Zone
 Target: Higher Conductivity
Resistivity Tool Limitations
Possible large errors all DIL
AIT logs
1000
Possible large
Possible largeerrors on shallow
errors on shallowDIL
AIT logs
logs
Rt (ohmm)

100
Recommended DIL DLL
operating Range
DIL
10
and/or
DLL

0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000

Rt/Rm
(Low Rm or High Rt)
Archie’s Formula to Calculate Sw

 Cube Filled with Formation Water

Rt

Rt = Rw
Sw = 1,  = 1
Archie’s Formula

 Cube Filled with Formation Water/Rock

RW

Rt
Rt  Rw and Rt  1/
Rt  Rw/
Archie’s Formula
 Cube Filled with Formation Water/Oil

RW

Rt
Rt  Rw and Rt  1/Sw
Rt  Rw/Sw
Archie’s Formula
 Cube Filled with Formation Water/Oil/Rock

Rw Sw

Rt

Rt  1/, Rt  Rw, Rt  1/Sw

Rt  Rw / ( . Sw )
Archie’s Formula (Virgin Zone)
a Rw Rw n a Rw
Rt = m n
=F Sw =
m
n
 Sw Sw  Rt
F is called formation factor

 m Cementation factor
 Related to the degree and type of cementation
 (1.6 to 2.2, usually 2 for chalky rock and 2.15 for sandy rocks)

 a Local correction factor

 Related to tortousity, granular shape and size (0.6 to 1, usually 1)

 n Saturation exponent (usually 2)

 Note: Values for a, m & n are found experimentally for different

formations
What is Invasion
 Process by which mud filtrate is forced into permeable
formations due to pressure difference between mud column
and formation pressure.

Rmc Rs
Adjacent Bed
Rxo Rt
Invaded Rmf Rw
h Virgin Zone
Zone Sxo Sw

Tmc - mud cake thickness

Adjacent Bed Rm

Di
Invasion

Porosity = 30 %

mud filtrate

Porosity = 10 %

mud filtrate

Porosity = 20 %

mud filtrate

mud cake
No Invasion - Shale

Known condition:
Curves overlay indicating
no invasion, impermeable
Resistivity

Virgin

10 60 90
Depth of Investigation
Shallow Invasion – Water Zone (Rmf>Rw)

Known condition:
Curves separate indicating
invasion profile

Rmc >Rmf
Mud cake is formed
with invasion
Resistivity

Virgin

10 60 90
Depth of Investigation
Shallow Invasion – Oil Zone (Rmf<RO)
Resistivity

Virgin

10 60 90
Depth of Investigation
Tool Combinations
Cased Hole Logging

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Cement Bond Log (CBL)
 The amplitude of an acoustic wave decreases as it propagates through a
medium. This process is known as Attenuation

 Attenuation of a wave moves through the reservoir depends on:

The wavelength of wave and its type
The texture of rock and its physical properties
Pore and grain size
Type of grain contact
Sorting
Porosity
Permeability
 Specific surface of rock pores
Type of fluid in the pores and its viscosity
Rock Fractures or fissures

In cased holes, attenuation depends mainly on the quality of the cement
around the casing
Cement Bond Log (CBL)
Causes of attenuation in the borehole
Open-hole:
Attenuation in the mud
Attenuation by transmission of energy across the mud-formation boundary
Attenuation in the rock
Transfer of energy along the bore-hole wall
Cased-hole:
Casing
Quality of cement
Mud

If the casing is free and surrounded by mud, it can vibrate freely. In this Case
transfer factor of energy to formation is low and the signal at the receiver is high
 If the distance between casing and borehole wall is small ( less than one or two wavelengths, formation
signals may also be received.

If the casing is inside thin well bounded cement, vibration will be smaller and transfer factor to
the formation will be higher

As energy is transferred to formation, receiver signal would be smaller

How much energy is transferred to the formation, just depends on thickness of cement and
casing
Cement Bond Log (CBL)
 In CBL the general method is to measure the amplitude of the first arrival in the
compressional waves at the receiver

 Amplitude of first arrival is a function of:

Type of tool (Particularly tool spacing)
The quality of cementation
The nature of the cement
Percentage of the circumstance of casing correctly
bound to the formation

The amplitude is minimum and the attenuation is maximum

when the tool is in the zone where the casing is held
sufficiently thick annulus of cement (1” at least)

Transformation of amplitude measured in CBL to

Attenuation depends on the transmitter receiver spacing.

Smaller spacings always give better resolution

Cement Bond Log (CBL)

 Bond Index is defined as the ratio of

the attenuation in the zones of interest to
the max. attenuation in a well cemented
zone

 A bond index of 1 indicates perfect

cement bond.
Smaller values show a less bond than
perfect case.
A lower limit is set on the bond index ,
above which
the cementing is acceptable

Interpretation of bond index is helped

by using VDL.
Variable Density Log (VDL)

 A record is made of the signal transmitted along the logging cable during a
1000 µs period using a special camera.

The trace would be translated into a variable surface by darkening area

depending on height of the positive half-waves of the sonic signal

 Different arrivals can be identified in VDL. Casing arrivals appear as regular

bands, whereas the formation arrivals are usually irregular.

Shear waves arrive later than compressional waves and at a sharper angle. As
they are often of high energy, higher amplitude and therefore darker trace will be
appeared