O’ Level CHEMISTRY NOTES by MALIK IMRAN AFZAL

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY NOTES

Organic compounds generally contain C to C and C to H bonds.
Hydrocarbons are the compounds which contain carbon and hydrogen elements only e.g. CH4, C4H8 etc.
A HYDROCARBON DERIVATIVE is the compound with one or more ‘H’ atoms have been replaced by some other atom or
group if atoms e.g. CH3Br
An atom of group of atoms which displaces a H atom from a hydrocarbon is called FUNCTIONAL GROUP. E.g. in CH3Br, Br
is the functional group.
HOMOLOGOUS SEREIS is a family of organic compounds with a general formula and similar chemical properties.
HOMOLOGOUS SERIES:
It is a family of organic compounds with a general formula, same functional group(s) and similar chemical properties.
E.g. alcohols, chloroalkanes, carboxylic acids, aldehydes etc.
Characteristics of a homologous series:
All compounds in a homologous series
• have the same general formula.

• differ in their molecular formulae by CH2

• they show a gradual variation in physical properties, such as their boiling points, density.

• they have similar chemical properties.

• Can be prepared by similar chemical reactions/methods.

Malik Imran Afzal, PhD Scholar 03334346883

CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS:

ALKANES
(SATURATED)
contain c-c single bonds only

HYDROCARBOS
ALKENES
(UNSATURATED)
contain at least one C=C double bond

ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS HALOGENOALKANES
contain functional group -F ,-Cl , -Br , -I
e.g. CH3I, C2H5Br etc

ALCOHOLS
DERIVATIVES* contain functional group -OH
namded as alkanols

CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
contain functional group -CH3CO2H
named as alkanoic acid

HOW TO DRAW STRUCTURES OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS?

• All carbon atoms must have 4 bonds; either four single covalent bonds Or one double and two single covalent bonds
Or one triple and one single covalent bond.
• Each H atom has a single covalent bond
• Each O atom has either two single or a double covalent bond
• Each N atom makes either three single covalent bonds, OR one double and one single covalent bond, OR a triple
covalent bond

Some commonly used bits

to write organic molecular
structures

Examples; (just note

the sample bonding of
each element)

Malik Imran Afzal, PhD Scholar 03334346883

 ISOMERS
‘Iso’ = same and ‘meros’ = parts
Isomers are compounds that contain exactly the same molecular formula (and empirical formula), but different
structures.
Examples:

C3H7Cl

C4H10

C5H12

C3H7OH

C5H10O2

Malik Imran Afzal, PhD Scholar 03334346883

PETROLEUM
• Obtained from earth crust as crude oil / a mineral resource
• It is the major source of hydrocarbons.
• It is the mixture of different hydrocarbons known as petroleum fractions.
• Each fraction has different boiling point depending on the molecular size of the fraction
• All hydrocarbons in petroleum are ALKANES.
• Derivatives of these hydrocarbons are obtained through further reactions of these hydrocarbons
FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION OF PETROLEUM
It is the process of separation crude oil into useful fractions for their specific uses.
Crude oil enters the fractionating column as superheated gas.
This difference in the temperature up and down the column separates the different fractions from each other.
The larger hydrocarbons, with the high boiling points, condense at base of the column, the smaller rise up
and condense at different levels at relevant temperatures.

Malik Imran Afzal, PhD Scholar 03334346883

ALKANES:
• Saturated hydrocarbons with only single carbon to carbon bonds

• A homologous series of hydrocarbon compounds with general formula CnH2n+2.

• The first four alkanes are:

• Their physical properties change gradually as the number of carbon atoms in the chain increases

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Alkanes are generally unreactive compounds but they do undergo certain reactions as combustion, substitution
(chlorination) and cracking.

i) Combustion
Alkanes burn in air to produce CO2 and water. Reaction is exothermic and hence alkanes are major source of energy
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
Incomplete combustion in limited oxygen supply produces smoke (unburnt carbon) and CO.
ii) Substitution reaction (Halogenation/chlorination)
Alkanes react with chlorine in presence of UV light to form chloroalkanes.
CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl + HCl
One hydrogen at a time is substituted by a chlorine atom. The other chlorine atom reacts with the hydrogen to form HCl
iii) Cracking
It is the process of breaking long chain alkanes into
i) shorter alkanes and alkenes OR ii) alkenes and hydrogen
conditions for cracking are
i) High temperature (approx. 600C) iii) Catalyst; Al2O3/ SiO2 / Clay/ Ceramic material

Al2O3/ SiO2 / Clay

C15H32 C8H18 + C7H14

Al2O3/ SiO2 / Clay

Cracking is important for two key reasons:

To balance the availability of different petroleum fractions with the market demand and
to provides the alkenes as raw material for petrochemicals industry

Malik Imran Afzal, PhD Scholar 03334346883

Alkenes:
• A homologous series of unsaturated hydrocarbons
• Contain at least one carbon to carbon (C=C) double bond
• General formula CnH2n
• The double bond acts as a functional group which makes alkenes more reactive than alkanes
•

Malik Imran Afzal, PhD Scholar 03334346883