Four Special Number Systems

When you add, subtract, multiply or divide the “real numbers” used
in everyday life, you always get another real number. Three generalizations
of the real numbers also behave in this way. Many physicists
believe that all four of these “division algebras”
underlie the laws of physics.

ℝ Real numbers Examples of

real numbers:
All the numbers on (1-D) number line.
−2 -1 0 1 2
One defining characteristic of reals
is that their square is never negative.
−1.3 √2
e.g. 22 = 4 and also (−2)2 = 4

ℂ Complex numbers Example of a

Reals used in conjunction with an i complex number:
3i 3+2i
unconventional “imaginary” unit called i. Complex
numbers 2i
One defining characteristic of i
behave like 1i
is that its square is negative.
coordinates
ie. i2 = −1 on a 2-D plane: 1 2 3 Real

ℍ Quaternions Quaternion:
Reals used in conjunction with three 3+2i+1j+2k
i
unconventional units called i, j and k. j

Multiplication of quaternions Quaternions

is noncommutative: Swapping Real
behave like
the order of elements changes coordinates
the answer. in 4-D space: k

Multiplication follows a cyclic pattern, where

k i
multiplying neighboring elements results in the third: Cyclic
Moving with arrows gives a positive answer: i x j = k pattern
Moving against arrows gives a negative answer: j x i = −k j

𝕆 Octonions Octonion:
Reals used in conjunction with seven 3+2e1+2e2+3e3+2e4+2e5+1e6+3e7

unconventional units: e1, e2, e3, e4, e5, e6 e1

and e7 (e1, e2 and e4 are comparable
e7 e2
to the quaternions’ i, j and k).
Octonions
Multiplication of octonions is behave like e6 Real
nonassociative — it matters coordinates e3
how they are grouped. in 8-D space: e5
e4
Their multiplication rules are encoded in the
“Fano plane.” Multiplying two neighboring elements e6
on a line results in the third element on that same line. Fano
Imagine additional lines that close the loop for each plane
group of three elements (e.g., the dashed line).

Moving with arrows gives a positive answer: e4 e1

e.g. e5 x e2 = e3 and e6 x e3 = e4 e7

Moving against arrows gives a negative answer:

e.g. e1 x e7 = −e3 and e6 x e5 = −e1 e3 e2 e5

To see their nonassociative property, multiply three elements e5, e2, e4

Grouping them like this ... (e5 x e2) x e4 = (e3) x e4 =
e6 Different
But grouping them like this … e5 x (e2 x e4) = e5 x (e1) = −e6 answers

Revised July 22, 2018 Quanta Magazine