Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation: Granted Autonomous Status

Manuel S.
Enverga University Foundation

Lucena City, Philippines
Granted Autonomous Status
CHED CEB Res. 076-2009
THYRISTOR
“Thyristors are a class of semiconductor devices characterized by 4-layers of alternating p and n material. Four-layer
devices act as either open or closed switches; for this reason, they are most frequently used in control applications.”
[1]
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
Figure 1 Thyristor could be a common title for a number of high-speed switching

devices regularly utilized in AC power control and AC/DC switching, counting
triacs and SCRs (Silicon Controlled Rectifiers). The SCR may be a
exceptionally common sort of thyristor and a few illustrations of common SCR
bundles are shown in Figure 1. The circuit symbol for a SCR is shown in
Figure 2 and suggest that the SCR acts basically as a SILICON RECTIFIER
diode, with the normal anode and cathode connections, but with an extra
CONTROL terminal, called the Gate, subsequently the title Silicon Controlled
Rectifier. A trigger voltage connected to the gate while the anode is more
positive than the cathode will switch the SCR on to permit current to stream
COATES, E.;Thyristors (2016) between anode and cathode. This current will proceed to flow, even in case the
trigger voltage is evacuated, until anode to cathode current falls to
exceptionally about zero due to external impacts such as the circuit being
exchanged off, or the AC current waveform passing through zero volts as
portion of its cycle. [2]
The Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

SCRs, not at all like ordinary two layer PN junction rectifiers, comprise of four
layers of silicon in a P-N-P-N structure, as can be seen in the cut-away see of a
SCR in Fig 2. The addition of the entryway association to this structure
COATES, E.;Thyristors (2016) empowers the rectifier to be switched from a non-conducting 'forward
blocking' state into a moo resistance, 'forward conducting' state. So a little current connected to the gate is able to
switch on an awfully much larger current (too at a much higher voltage) applied between anode and cathode. Once
the SCR is conducting, it carries on like a normal silicon rectifier; the entryway current may be evacuated and the
gadget will stay in a conducting state. [2]
 Unijunction Transistor (UJT)
“The UJT is a three-terminal, semiconductor device which exhibits negative resistance and switching characteristics
for use as a relaxation oscillator in phase control applications” [3]
Unijunction transistors, like diodes, are constructed from different semiconductor materials of the P-type and N-type
that form a single PN-junction inside the main conducting N-type channel of the system (hence its name Uni-
Junction). [3]
In spite of the fact that the Unijunction Transistor contains a transistor title, its exchanging characteristics are to
some degree distinctive from those of a standard bipolar transistor or field impact transistor since it may not be
utilized to intensify a flag, but is utilized as an ON-OFF exchanging transistor instep. UJTs have unidirectional
conductivity and negative impedance highlights that, amid breakdown, carry on more like a variable voltage divider.
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation
University Site, Brgy. Ibabang Dupay, Lucena City, Philippines; Telephone No. (042) 710-3151
Like N-channel FET's, the UJT comprises of a solitary strong bit of N-type semiconductor material framing the
primary current conveying channel with its two external associations set apart as Base 2 ( B2 ) and Base 1 ( B1 ).
The third association, confusingly set apart as the Emitter ( E ) is situated along the channel. The producer terminal
is spoken to by a bolt pointing from the P-type producer to the N-type base. [3]
The Emitter correcting p-n intersection of the unijunction semiconductor is shaped by combining the P-type material
into the N-type silicon channel. Notwithstanding, P-channel UJT's with a N-type Emitter terminal are additionally
accessible yet these are minimal utilized. [3]
The Emitter amending p-n intersection of the unijunction semiconductor is framed by combining the P-type material
into the N-type silicon channel. Nonetheless, P-channel UJT's with a N-type Emitter terminal are additionally
accessible however these are minimal utilized. [3]
The Emitter intersection is situated along the channel so it is nearer to terminal B2 than B1. A bolt is utilized in the
UJT image which focuses towards the base showing that the Emitter terminal is positive and the silicon bar is
negative material. Beneath shows the image, development, and proportional circuit of the UJT. [3]
Unijunction Transistor Symbol and Construction
https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/power-power30.gif
Notice that the image for the unijunction semiconductor looks fundamentally the same as that of the intersection
field impact semiconductor or JFET, then again, actually it has a twisted bolt speaking to the Emitter( E ) input.
While comparative in regard of their ohmic channels, JFET's and UJT's work contrastingly and ought not be
confounded. [3]
So how can it work? We can see from the proportionate circuit over, that the N-type channel essentially comprises
of two resistors RB2 and RB1 in arrangement with an equal (ideal) diode, D speaking to the p-n intersection
associated with their middle point. This Emitter p-n intersection is fixed in position along the ohmic channel during
make and can thusly not be changed. [3]
Resistance RB1 is given between the Emitter, E and terminal B1, while opposition RB2 is given
between the Emitter, E and terminal B2. As the physical situation of the p-n intersection is nearer to terminal B2
than B1 the resistive estimation of RB2 will be under RB1. [3]
The absolute obstruction of the silicon bar (its Ohmic opposition) will be reliant upon the semiconductors real
doping level just as the physical components of the N-type silicon channel however can be spoken to by RBB.
Whenever estimated with an ohmmeter, this static obstruction would ordinarily quantify in the vicinity about 4kω
and 10kω's for most normal UJT's, for example, the 2N1671, 2N2646 or the 2N2647. [3]
These two arrangement protections produce a voltage divider network between the two base terminals of the
unijunction semiconductor and since this channel extends from B2 to B1, when a voltage is applied over the gadget,
the potential anytime along the divert will be with respect to its situation between terminals B2 and B1. The degree
of the voltage inclination consequently relies on the measure of flexibly voltage. [3]
 Programmable Unijunction Transistor (PUT)
Programmable unijunction semiconductor or PUT is a nearby relative of the thyristor family. Its has a four layered
development simply like the thyristors and have three terminals named anode(A), cathode(K) and gate(G) again like
the thyristors. However, a few creators consider it a programmable UJT in light of the fact that its qualities and
boundaries have a lot of comparability to that of the unijunction semiconductor. It is called programmable in light of
the fact that the boundaries like natural deadlock proportion (η), top voltage (Vp) and so on can be modified with the
assistance of two outside resistors. In a UJT, the boundaries like Vp, η and so on are fixed and we can't transform it.
The primary use of programmable UJT are unwinding oscillators, thyristor terminating, beat circuits and timing
circuits. ON Semiconductor® is the main maker of PUT now. 2N6027 is the most widely recognized sort number
and it is accessible in the TO-92 plastic bundle. The inside square chart and circuit image of PUT are demonstrated
as follows. [4]
https://www.circuitstoday.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/09/PUT-internal-block-diagram.png
From the above figure, you can see that the PUT has a four layered development. Highest P-layer is known as the
anode (A). The N-layer close to the anode is known as the door (G). The P-layer close to the door is disregarded.
The base most N-layer is called cathode (K). Ohmic contacts are made on the anode, cathode and door layers for
outer association. [4]
PUT characteristics
PUT qualities is basically a plot between the anode voltage Va and anode current Ia of the PUT. The regular biasing
graph and qualities plot of a PUT is demonstrated as follows. [4]
https://www.circuitstoday.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/09/PUT-characteristics.png
Commonly the anode of the PUT is associated with a positive voltage and the cathode is associated with the ground.
The entryway is associated with the intersection of the two outer resistor R1 and R2 which frames a voltage divider
organization. It is the estimation of these two resistors that decides the natural stalemate ratio(η) and top voltage
(Vp) of the PUT. [4]
At the point when the anode to cathode voltage (Va)is expanded the anode current will likewise get expanded and
the intersection carries on like an ordinary P-N intersection. Be that as it may, the Va can't be expanded past a
specific point. Now adequate number of charges are infused and the intersection begins to soak. Past this point the
anode current (Ia) increments and the anode voltage (Va) diminishes. This is equivalent to a negative obstruction
situation and this negative opposition area in the PUT trademark is utilized in unwinding oscillators. At the point
when the anode voltage (Va) is diminished to a specific level called "Valley Point", the gadget turns out to be
completely immersed and no more decline in Va is conceivable. There after the gadget acts like a completely soaked
P-N intersection. [4]
Peak voltage (Vp): It is the anode to cathode voltage after which the PUT bounces into the negative opposition
district. The pinnacle voltage Vp will be normally one diode drop (0.7V) in addition to the door to cathode voltage
(Vg). Pinnacle voltage can be communicated utilizing the condition:
Vp = 0.7V + Vg = 0.7V + VR1 = 0.7V + ηVbb . Where η is the inherent stalemate proportion and Vbb is the all out
voltage over the outer resistor organization. [4]
Intrinsic standoff ratio (η): Intrinsic stalemate ratio of a PUT is the proportion of the outside resistor R1 to the
whole of R1 and R2. It encourages us to anticipate how much voltage will be dropped over the door and cathode for
a given Vbb. The inherent deadlock proportion can be communicated utilizing the condition: η = R1/(R1+R2). [4]
 TRIAC
The TRIAC is a three terminal semiconductor power control unit. It gets its name from the word Alternating Current
TRIode. It is essentially a development of the SCR or thyristor, but the TRIAC is a bidirectional unit, unlike the
thyristor that can only conduct in one direction. [5]
TRIAC / thyristor comparison:
TRIAC is the best system for AC switching applications because it can control the current flow over both half of the
alternating loop. A thyristor is only capable of regulating them for half a cycle. In the remaining half there is no
conduction and thus only half of the waveform can be used. [5]
https://www.researchgate.net
/publication/321137100_Thy
ristor_Triac_and_Diac
“Typical / idealised TRIAC & thyristor switching waveforms”
The fact that the TRIAC can be used to control the current switching on both sides of the alternating waveform
makes a much better use of power. However, TRIAC is not often as easy for certain high-power applications where
switching is more difficult. [5]
TRIAC symbol:
It can be seen from the outside as two back to the back of the thyristors, and this is what the circuit symbol means.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321137100_Thyristor_Triac_
and_Diac
TRIAC equivalent as two thyristors
There are three terminals on the TRIAC sign. They are the Gate and two other terminals are sometimes referred to as
the "Anode" or the "Key Terminal." As the TRIAC has two of these, they are called either Anode 1 and Anode 2 or
Main Terminal, MT1 and MT2. [5]
DIAC
The DIAC is a full-wave or bi-directional semiconductor switch that can be switched on both forward and reverse
polarities. The name of the DIAC is derived from the contraction of the terms DIode Alternating Current. DIAC is
commonly used to help activate a TRIAC when used in AC switches. DIACs are primarily used in dimmer
applications as well as in starter circuits for flowerscent lamps. [5]
Circuit symbol:
The DIAC circuit symbol is created from the two triangles between the two lines as shown below. In some way, this
shows the structure of the system, which can also be regarded as two junctions. [5]
https://www.researchgate.ne
t/publication/321137100_T
hyristor_Triac_and_Diac
Circuit symbol for the DIAC
The two terminals of the unit are usually designated as either Anode 1 and Anode 2 or Main Terminals 1 and 2, i.e.
MT1 and MT2 respectively. [5]
Characteristics of DIAC:
Operation:
 The DIAC is essentially a diode that operates after a 'break-over' voltage, defined as a VBO, has been
exceeded.
 The diode stays in its conductive state until the current through it falls below what is called the holding
current, which is usually indicated by the letters IH.
 Its activity is bi-directional and thus acts on both sides of the alternating period. [5]
Structure of the DIAC:

The DIAC may be manufactured as either a three-layer or a five-layer system.
 The three-layer variant of the device is the most common and can have a break-over voltage of about 30 V.
The operation is almost symmetrical due to the symmetry of the device.
 A five-layer DIAC structure is also available. This does not work in the same way, but it creates an I-V
curve that is quite similar to the three-layer version. It can be considered to be two disconnected diodes
connected back to back. [5]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321137100_Thyristor_Triac_
and_Diac
The structure of a DIAC
A three-layer variant of the DIAC is used by most applications. Provides ample improvement in the switching
characteristics. Five layer device may be used for some applications. [5]
OPTOELECTRONIC DEVICES AND SENSORS
OPTOELECTRONICS
 Communication between optics and electronics, including the research, design and manufacture of a
hardware system that transformselectrical energy into light and energy through semiconductors
 Made of solid crystalline materials that are lighter than metals and heavier than insulators.
 Many applications for optoelectronics, such as military forces, telecommunications, automated access
control systems and medical equipment, can be found. [6]
Types of Optoelectronics Devices
Optoelectronics are classified into different types such as:

 Photodiode
 Solar Cells
 Light Emitting Diodes
 Optical Fiber
 Laser Diodes
Photo Diode
A photo diode is a semiconductor light sensor that produces a voltage or a current when the light falls at the
junction. It consists of an active P-N junction, which acts in reverse bias. When a photon with a lot of energy hits the
semiconductor, an electron or a hole pair is formed. The electrons are diffused to the junction to create an electrical
field. [6]
This electrical field across the depletion zone is equal to a negative voltage across the unbiased diode. This approach
is often referred to as the inner photoelectric effect. This system can be used in three modes: photovoltaic as a solar
cell, forward bias as an LED, and reverse bias as a photo detector. Photodiodes are used in a wide variety of circuits
and applications, such as cameras, medical devices, safety equipment, business, communications equipment and
industrial equipment. [6]
Solar Cells
A solar or photovoltaic cell is an electronic system that transforms the energy of the sun directly into electricity. As
sunlight falls on a solar cell, it generates both a current and a voltage to generate electrical energy. The sunlight,
which is made up of photons, radiates from the sun. When photons strike the silicon atoms of the solar cell, they
transfer their energy to lose electrons, and then these high-energy electrons flow to the outer circuit. [6]
The solar cell is made up of two layers that are struck together. The first layer is charged with electrons, so these
electrons are able to move from the first layer to the second layer. The second layer has several electrons withdrawn,
so it's able to accept more electrons. The benefits of solar cells are that there is no supply of fuel and no cost issue.
They are very reliable and need little maintenance. [6]
Light-Emitting Diodes
Light emitting diode is a P-N semiconductor diode in which the recombination of electrons and holes creates a
photon. When the diode is electrically biased in the forward direction, it emits inconsistent narrow spectrum light.
When a voltage is applied to the LED leads, the electrons recombine with the holes within the device and release
energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence. It's the conversion of electrical energy into
light. [6]
The use of LEDs is beneficial as it uses less power and generates less heat. LEDs are longer than incandescent
lamps. LEDs might become the next generation of lighting and be used everywhere, such as lamps, computer parts,
medical devices, watches, instrument panels, switches, fiber optic communication, consumer electronics , home
appliances, etc. [6]
Optical Fiber
An optical fiber or an optical fiber is a plastic and a clear fiber consisting of plastic or glass. It's a bit thicker than
human hair. It may act as a light pipe or a waveguide to relay light between the two ends of the fiber. The optical
fibers typically consist of three concentric layers: the heart, the cladding and the jacket. The heart, the light-
transmitting area of the fiber, is the central portion of the fiber made of silica. Cladding, the protective coating
around the core, is made of silica. This provides an optical waveguide that restricts the light in the core by means of
a complete reflection on the core cladding interface. Jacket, a non-optical layer around the cladding, usually consists
of one or more polymer layers that shield the silica from physical or environmental damage. [6]
Along with the fiber optic cable, jackets are available in various colours. These colors make it easy to distinguish the
fiber optic cable and the type of cable that is being used. For eg, an orange-colored cable clearly indicates a single-
mode fiber, while a yellow one indicates a multimode fiber. One mode spreads in single-mode fiber, and light rays
pass straight through the cable. In a multimode cable, the light rays pass through the cable in various modes. [6]
These cables are used in telecommunications, sensors, fiber lasers, bio-medicals and many other industries. The
benefits of using optical-fiber cables include higher bandwidth, lower signal loss, weightlessness and thinness than
copper wire, cost-effectiveness, versatility, and thus they are used in medical and mechanical imaging systems. [6]
Laser Diodes
Laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) is a source of highly monochromatic, coherent and
directional light. It operates under stimulated emission condition. The function of a laser diode is to convert
electrical energy into light energy like infrared diodes or LEDs. The beam of a typical laser has 4×0.6mm extending
at a distance of 15 meters. The most common lasers used are injection lasers or semiconductor lasers. The
semiconductor laser differs from other lasers, such as solid , liquid and gas lasers. [6]
When the voltage is applied across the P-N junction, the electron inversion of the population is produced and the
laser beam is accessible from the semiconductor region. The ends of the P-N junction of the laser diode have a
polished surface and thus the emitted photons bounce back to generate more electron pairs. As a consequence, the
photons produced will be in phase with the previous photons. [6]
References
[1] T. L. Floyd, Electronic Devices, 9th edition, Pearson Education., 2012.
[2] E. COATES, Thyristors, 2016 .
[3] "Electronics Tutorials," [Online]. Available: https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/power/unijunction-
transistor.html.
[4] "Circuits Today," [Online]. Available: https://www.circuitstoday.com/programmable-ujt.
[5] M. M. A. Therib, Electrical and Electronic Engineering, 2014.
[6] "Types of Optoelectronics Devices with Applications," [Online]. Available:
https://www.elprocus.com/optoelectronics-devices-with-their-applications/.

Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation: Granted Autonomous Status

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Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation: Granted Autonomous Status

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Manuel S.

Enverga University Foundation

 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

Figure 1 Thyristor could be a common title for a number of high-speed switching

The Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

 Unijunction Transistor (UJT)

Unijunction Transistor Symbol and Construction

 Programmable Unijunction Transistor (PUT)

TRIAC / thyristor comparison:

“Typical / idealised TRIAC & thyristor switching waveforms”

Circuit symbol for the DIAC

Structure of the DIAC:

The structure of a DIAC

OPTOELECTRONIC DEVICES AND SENSORS

Types of Optoelectronics Devices

Optoelectronics are classified into different types such as:

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