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ROYAL UNIVERSITY OF DHAKA

Program: B.Sc. (HON’S) in CSE/CSIT

Course Code & Title: EEE 105 & VLSI (Evening)

Course Teacher: Ahmed Abdullah
Assignment
Assignment Topic:
Describe Transistor Switching Characteristics & doping process. How to make
a power
supply? Explain. Explain the operations of Optoelectronics. Draw construction
diagram of 7-
Segments diagram
Submission deadline: (12th June-20th June), 2020.
 Describe Transistor Switching Characteristics & doping processs
Transistor Switching Characteristics
We all know that a transistor has 4 regions of operation, in which Active, Cutoff and
Saturation are commonly used. A transistor works in active region when worked as an
Amplifier. When a transistor works as a Switch it works in Cutoff and Saturation Regions. In
the Cutoff State both Emitter Base Junction and Collector Base junctions are reverse biased.
But in saturation region both junctions are forward biased. Switch is a very useful and
important application of transistors. In most digital IC’s transistors will work as a switch to
make power consumption very low. It is also a very useful circuit for an electronics hobbyist
as it can be used as a driver, inverter etc..

Circuit Diagram – Transistor as a Switch

Transistor as a Switch Circuit Diagram

From the above circuit we can see that the control input Vin  is given to base through a
current limiting resistor Rb and Rc is the collector resistor which limits the current through
the transistor. In most cases output is taken from collector but in some cases load is
connected in the place of Rc.
 ON  =  Saturation
 OFF = Cutoff
Transistor as a Switch – ON

Transistor as a Switch ON
Transistor will become ON ( saturation ) when a sufficient voltage V is given to input.
During this condition the Collector Emitter voltage Vce will be approximately equal to zero,
ie the transistor acts as a short circuit. For a silicon transistor it is equal to 0.3v. Thus
collector current Ic = Vcc/Rc will flows.
Transistor as a Switch – OFF

Transistor as a Switch OFF

Transistor will be in OFF ( cutoff ) when the input Vin equal to zero. During this state
transistor acts as an open circuit and thus the entire voltage Vcc will be available at collector.
Design
Collector Current, Ic = ßIb + Iceo
where ß is the gain in common emitter configuration and lceo is the leckage current.
Leackage current, Iceo can be neglected, so
Ib = Ic/ß
When the transistor is ON ( saturation region ), the collector emitter voltage Vce is
approximately equal to zero. For a silicon transistor it usually 0.3v. So collector current Ic
can be written as,
Ic = (Vcc – Vce)/Rc, which is the maximum Ic that can flow through the circuit.
Ic = Vcc/Rc, since Vce is less than 0.3V.
To keep transistor in saturation enough base current Ib must flow. The minimum base current
can be find out from the equation Ib = Ic/ß
To ensure that the transistor is in saturation we will take Ib’ = 10Ib
So Rb = (Vin – Vbe)/Ib’ 
Note : In the case of a PNP transistor just replace GND with Vcc , Vcc with GND and the
transistor will be ON when the input voltage Vin is LOW.
Different Ways of Connecting Loads
Load can be connected to transistor in different ways, some of them are shown below.

Transistor as a Switch Different ways of connecting Loads

In the case of inductive loads such as Relay a freewheeling diode should be connected in
parallel to it.

Doping
Doping means the introduction of impurities into a semiconductor crystal to the defined
modification of conductivity. Two of the most important materials silicon can be doped with,
are boron (3 valence electrons = 3-valent) and phosphorus (5 valence electrons = 5-valent).
Other materials are aluminum, indium (3-valent) and arsenic, antimony (5-valent).
The dopant is integrated into the lattice structure of the semiconductor crystal, the number of
outer electrons define the type of doping. Elements with 3 valence electrons are used for p-
type doping, 5-valued elements for n-doping. The conductivity of a deliberately contaminated
silicon crystal can be increased by a factor of 106.
n-doping
The 5-valent dopant has an outer electron more than the silicon atoms. Four outer electrons
combine with ever one silicon atom, while the fifth electron is free to move and serves as
charge carrier. This free electron requires much less energy to be lifted from the valence band
into the conduction band, than the electrons which cause the intrinsic conductivity of silicon.
The dopant, which emits an electron, is known as an electron donor (donare, lat. = to give).

The dopants are positively charged by the loss of negative charge carriers and are built into
the lattice, only the negative electrons can move. Doped semimetals whose conductivity is
based on free (negative) electrons are n-type or n-doped. Due to the higher number of free
electrons those are also named as majority charge carriers, while free mobile holes are named
as the minority charge carriers.
n-doping with phosphorus

Arsenic is used as an alternative to phosphorus, because its diffusion coefficient is lower.

This means that the dopant diffusion during subsequent processes is less than that of
phosphorus and thus the arsenic remains at the position where it was introduced into the
lattice originally.
p-doping
In contrast to the free electron due to doping with phosphorus, the 3-valent dopant effect is
exactly the opposite. The 3-valent dopants can catch an additional outer electron, thus leaving
a hole in the valence band of silicon atoms. Therefore the electrons in the valence band
become mobile. The holes move in the opposite direction to the movement of the electrons.
The necessary energy to lift an electron into the energy level of indium as a dopant, is only
1 % of the energy which is needed to raise a valence electron of silicon into the conduction
band.
With the inclusion of an electron, the dopant is negatively charged, such dopants are called
acceptors (acceptare, lat. = to add). Again, the dopant is fixed in the crystal lattice, only the
positive charges can move. Due to positive holes these semiconductors are called p-
conductive or p-doped. Analog to n-doped semiconductors, the holes are the majority charge
carriers, free electrons are the minority charge carriers.
p-doping with boron

Doped semiconductors are electrically neutral. The terms n- and p-type doped do only refer
to the majority charge carriers. Each positive or negative charge carrier belongs to a fixed
negative or positive charged dopant.
N- and p-doped semiconductors behave approximately equal in relation to the current flow.
With increasing amount of dopants, the number of charge carriers increases in the
semiconductor crystal. Here it requires only a very small amount of dopants. Weakly doped
silicon crystals contain only 1 impurity per 1,000,000,000 silicon atoms, high doped
semiconductors for example contain 1 foreign atom per 1,000 silicon atoms.
Electronic band structure in doped semiconductors

By the introduction of a dopant with five outer electrons, in n-doped semiconductors there is
an electron in the crystal which is not bound and therefore can be moved with relatively little
energy into the conduction band. Thus in n-doped semiconductors the donator energy level is
close to the conduction band edge, the band gap to overcome is very small.
Analog, through introduction of a 3-valent dopant in a semiconductor, a hole is available,
which may be already occupied at low-energy by an electron from the valence band of the
silicon. For p-doped semiconductors the acceptor energy level is close the valence band.
 Band model of doped semiconductors

How to make a power

supply? Explain.

Executive Summary
Electrical power is the rate of movement of electrons that create energy. As a result of the
electronic age many products need electrical power to perform certain activities. Being able
to manipulate electrical power comes at a cost. In today's world there is always the bottom
line, cost. Power supplies are the devices that can manipulate electrical power to be used in
various applications. Power supplies can be expensive but there are cheaper alternative
solutions that can produce the same output. A power supply includes conversion steps and
has to be reliable enough not to damage what it is hooked up to. Both aspects need specific
parts in a certain orientations to create those specific outputs. Throughout this note there
where be many suggestion on how to create a cheap reliable power supply.

Objective
To create a cheap, reliable, and effective DC power supply. There is a basic design that can
be adjusted to fit many applications. This supply needs to be small so it can be versatile to be
applied in many products.

Introduction
Power is used in everyday life. Ever since the basic ideas of power were thought up by
Nikola Tesla and others, then implemented in today's power system, people have been
craving power. People need power to run their homes, cars, computers, etc. To be able to
manipulate power is vital to today's society. Power is defined as (Voltage)*(Current) the
current within this equation comes in two flavors AC and DC. Every circuit designed today
needs power to be applied for the circuit to function. DC is the basis for most circuit designs
that goes into everyday products. If a circuit has no power a circuit would not be able to
perform its desired function. A variable DC power supply, seen in every electronics lab, on
the market today costs around $300. These lab power supplies are very good for testing a
circuit in the lab but not useful to be used in a product application. These power supplies can
be very bulky and not very mobile. There is a need for a power supply that is cheap, reliable,
efficient, and small.

Background

The power that comes into the house travels, sometimes, hundreds of miles to get there.
Through this processes AC current is used. AC or alternating current has different phases
depending on the application. These phases are created by the physical offset of the original
power generator. In contrast to AC there is DC or direct current. DC doesn't alternate the
current, it outputs a steady current to be applied to circuits. DC is useful in circuit design
because many of the components do not function well if an AC is applied. AC is the current
that is brought to a normal house wall socket. Through the wall socket many different devices
are plugged in and used everyday but most of these devices need DC to operate correctly.
When a plug is inserted into a wall socket there is an AC to DC conversion that takes place
This is commonly done by using a full-wave rectifier. The full wave rectifier in figure 1
allows an input of AC and creates a small ripple current,seen in figure 2, which is close
enough to a DC representation.
This is a result from the orientation of the diodes. As the voltage changes polarity different
diodes are tuned off and on creating the ripple affect seen across the load which can be seen
in figure 2. The concept of AC is very important to building a power supply because the main
source of power in a home is AC. The conversion method shown in figure 1 is the method
that will be applied to the cost effective power supply.
Linear Regulators
Once a ripple output is established from the Full wave rectifier a stable voltage needs to be
created. A stable voltage is needed for consistent operation from the connected circuit. The
cheapest and most cost effective way is to use a linear regulator. A regulator does exactly
what the name says, it regulates the voltage. Using the voltage input a regulator generates an
internal voltage for the regulator to compare the output to be able to hold the output constant.
There are two types of regulators fixed and variable. A fixed regulator is set internally to
output a specific voltage, +5V, -12V etc. A variable regulator can be set to a wide
range of voltages. This is done by constructing a resistance divider at the output and varying
one resister to obtain the desired DC output. Therefore a variable regulator is vary useful if
the voltage need to be varied. This can be seen below in figure 3. The regulator that was
chosen was the LM317. This regulator can take in a voltage as high as +40V and as low as
+3V. The value of voltage would correspond to what voltage level was needed at the output.
For example if an application needed +5V, +10V would be needed at Vin to compensate for
heat losses and voltage drops that go on within the regulator.
In figure 4 the equation can be used to create the desired output voltage that is needed for a
specific application. Everything within the equation is kept constant except R2. The other
values are constants given as: Vref = 1.25V, R1 = 240Ω, Iadj=50-100μA. Lastly, R2 can be
either raised to create a larger output voltage or lowered to create a lower output voltage.
Using this regulator helps to obtain a constant output voltage that can be obtained at a low
cost.

The complete DC power supply design in figure 5 combines the full wave rectifier and the
LM317 regulator. This design is simple and is low cost. The main problem is that it is not
very efficient. This set up would not be good in a battery application but if the application can
be plugged into the wall this set up can save a lot of money. The total cost is around $3.00.
This design takes the power from the wall, which has AC. Then using a regulator takes ripple
current from the rectifier and outputs a constant DC output. This DC output is very useful to
power microchips and different ICs.
Conclusion
The power supply that has been designed provides a good alternative to a more expensive
power supply. The power supply has few components, covers a small area, and is very simple
in design.
End
Explain the operations of Optoelectronics

Abstract
The recent progress in optical computing outlines the fact that electronic computing has
almost failed to cope with the international optical computation and communication traffic
demand. Thanks to the non-linear material (NLM) which pave the way to new designs of
new optical devices. A proposal for developing the most basic element in the optical
computer such as optical switch, optical gates like OR gate, AND gate, XOR gate, flip-
flops…. etc. has been introduced in recent research papers, also a proposal of the optical logic
and arithmetic processor (OLAP) and the all-optical a-stable multi-vibrator has been
introduced. Here some proposal developments are presented in this track, three components
which they are most important in any new optical project those are optical switch, optical
oscillator, and optical trap, the optical oscillator was introduced using an electro-optical
modulator and, in this study, the oscillator design has no electro-optical elements, also the
optical trap here works as an optical memory of binary data.

Introduction
The last three decades have witnessed a massive development in electronic technology
passing through very large scale integration (VLSI), ultra large scale integration (ULSI), and
super large scale integration (SLSI) to the last development in nanotechnology. The most
intelligent device in any era was the computer, optical computing was a hot research area in
the 1980′s. But the work tapered off due to materials limitations [1], [2], [3], [4], [5]. Optical
fiber with its various categories has recently unusable bandwidth, an example about radio
over fiber (RoF) by a technique which reaches 1.05 Tb/s Optical orthogonal frequency
division multiplexing (OFDM) over 3600 km in a single mode recently the optical computer
is a main subject in the computation development track [6]. The development speed of this
track has raised after employing the NLM in developing modules of the optical computer,
this development has passed through many generations, from electronics to optoelectronics to
full-optical process. In this paper a proposal of two new modules are introduced, those are the
all-optical switch and the optical oscillator. The paper is organized as the following: Section
2 gives Boolean algebra of a simple additional operational of the two 4-bit binary numbers.
Section 3 presents optical non-linear material characteristics, Section 4 explains the basic
principle of the optical switch, Section 5 outlines the basic concept of the optical oscillator
based on the optical switch structure. Summary or conclusion part is discussed in Section 4.

Optical NLM characteristics

The nonlinear met materials exhibit uncommon properties because they are made and
constructed artificially. The material characteristics such as the permittivity and permeability
determine the material’s response to the electromagnetic radiation [7]. Therefore, the
material’s refractive index can be determined by the material’s permittivity and permeability.
Despite the natural materials, the nonlinear met materials can provide a negative refractive
index as well as producing a better nonlinear response compared to natural materials [8]. The
nonlinear materials can be used also as an optical switch. Here in this paper new employment
of the NLM in an all-optical system is a goal. Fig. 2 shows the effect of using NLM in
the refraction of the laser beam direction. A continuous laser source (CLS), linear martial
(LM), “A” for the input laser signal modulated beam. The light intensity level of CLS signal
at the same time of optical data signal (input A) those together passing through LM section
and the intensity of CLS controls the refractive index of the NLM, then the angle of the light
beam of (input A) through the NLM changes.
Fig. 1 shows the optical NOT gate showing the laser beam directions from two directions
input A and CLS entering the LM-NLM couple at point O1 the LM hasn’t affected by the
laser intensity, so the combined two ray’s direction deduced by apply Snell’s low until reach
point O2 then enters the NLM and the amount of intensity of CLS controls the swept angle
through NLM.

Fig. 1. An optical NOT gate using a coupling of LM and NLM.

An example of a NOT gate showing the action of nonlinear materials as in  Fig.1.
Considering that “I” is intensity CLS or (input A) if exist, so if (input A) = 0 then the
intensity of the mixed beam incident at “O1” (and also at “O2”) is “I” only. So, this light
beam will follow the continuous line shown in the figure and gets out from the NLM at “O4”.
Therefore, at the output “Y‟ a light beam of intensity “I‟ (of the CLS) is received. Again, if
the (input A) = 1 then the intensity of the mixed light beam penetrates from “O1” becomes
“2I” so the NLM refractive index increases. So, the light beam is following the dotted line
shown in Fig. 1 and leaves at “O3”. Therefore, no light (logic 0) is received at “Y”, and that
is what happens in a NOT logic gate and the truth table is shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. Truth table of the optical NOT gate.

The optical switch

Fig. 3 shows the optical switch which can be easily designed by the same idea as in the
optical NOT gate shown in Fig. 1. A switch is a device which switches addressed data traffic
from one port to another and the switch in Fig. 3 switches the addressed optical data traffic
from port-1 to port-N radically from θ = 0–θ = θ 2 in the NLM section, when the thickness of
the NLM section increases, the swept area width at the output area increases, this will allow
much more ports to existing at output, this will be easily applicable with a high scale
integration technology in Nano-scale manufacturing.

Fig. 3. The all-optical switch.

As shown in Fig-3, this is a simple 2D view of the optical switch laser data from an optical
data source signals enters the LM synchronously with the CLS control optical signal, the
amount of the intensity of CLS affects the LM-NLM couple to work as a switch to switch
through θ2 from output port (1) to output port (2) and the more the control level of the CLS
intensity the more of the capacity of the switch. Separation must be done at the data source
elements like that shown in Fig. 4.  Fig. 4 shows the optical switch as in an optical network
which it’s a block encloses the optical switch of Fig. 3, the input traffic which is the laser data
source, the master traffic control which is the CLS control signal, the output traffic ports
number which reflects the switch capacity and depend on the number of the control steps of
CLS intensity level, to get a numerical result for the optical switch it’s important to take a
look at the Kerr effect which will show how refractive index changes with light intensity.

Fig. 4. The optical switch as in a network.

Declaration example
Before discussing Kerr effect it’s important to take an example to show what meant by a one
degree change in θ2, a one degree change in θ2 in a slim NLM chip of 10 mm thickness then
we get 174 um switch width and a single mode fiber of 9um in diameter so it can be switched
over (174/9 ≈ 19) output ports of single mode fiber.

Optical Kerr effect

The Optical Kerr effect [9], [10] is the effect which describes how the refractive index of a
NLM changes with light intensity, the refractive index behaves according to this relation:
(1)δn=δnsat1-exp-EEs2where δn is the change in refractive index is, δn sat is the saturation
value of δnδn., (E) is the electric field of CLS control laser signal and E s is the saturation
value of (E) The relation can be simulated by MATLAB to get the result shown in Fig. 5,
using (Es = 13.9, δnsat δnsat. = 0.038),
 Fig. 5. Refractive index change behavior with light intensity.

Snell’s low
It’s known that Snell’s law which states that:(2)n1sinθ1=n2sinθ2
Which gives a description of what happened to light direction if it passes through two
deferent materials, where n1 and n2 is the refractive index of a couple of two materials, θ1 and
θ2 are the incident and refracted angles at the incident point of the isolated plane of the two
materials. As shown in Fig. 3 suppose that n1 for LM, n2 for the NLM, the LM connected to
the input port and the NLM connected to the array of all output ports of the optical switch,
combining relation (1) with Snell’s law (2) to get a good result relates the refracted angle
with the square of the electric field of CLS (E) as in Eq. (3).(3)θ2=sin-1n1n2(min)+δnsinθ1
Fig. 6 shows that result, from figure it’s clear that at low values for (E) a high negative slope
exists and at high values of (E) a low negative slope exists, so to get a good performance for
the switch, it’s better to use low values for the operating point for (E). The result in Fig.
6 with these substitutions: n1 = 1.452, θ1θ1 = 45, Es = 13.9, n2(min) = 1.552 at 1550 nm.
 Fig. 6. Changing of the refracted angle with light intensity.

It’s also clear that choosing a high value for the operating point gives low
performance due to the need to use big change in (E), the low good operating point
which exists near above the low detective values for the receiver and copes with the
swing range for the CLS control signal should be the best choice for good
performance. Another good parameter to be optimized is the changing rate of the
refracted angle with respect to incident angle (RF) versus the refractive index of the
linear material (n1) from Fig. 7 shows that the relation, the figure shows that working
with LM of refractive index near and smaller than 2.21 gives a high rate of 11.13.

Fig. 7. The changing rate of the refracted angle with respect to incident angle (RF)
against the refractive index of the linear material (n1).

The RF factor can be represented by the function below:(4)RF=n1n2midcosθ11-

n1n2(mid)2sinθ12
RF gives a good view to choose the operating point for the optical switch, continuing with
that factor, the two figures below showing some analyses,

From Fig. 8(a) deference of θ2 of about 0.24 degree, while Fig. 8(b) introduces deference of
about 0.45 degree, it’s clear that operating with high values of θ1 introduces a big change in
θ2, this means that operating with high values of θ 1 introduces big deference change. Another
factor must be considered for the design that is the reflection coefficient, this coefficient from
an electromagnetic view has three cases: The reflectance for s-polarized light Rs,
the reflectance for p-polarized light Rp and the un-polarized one R. Those reflectance
coefficients with respect to incident angle θ1, with n2 (med) = 1.565 a medium value for n2 are
shown in Fig. 9.

Fig. 8. The reflected angle θ2 versus the square of E related to the light intensity at a
different angle θ1.

Fig. 9. Reflectance against incident angle θ1.

From Fig. 10, it’s clear that at θ1 = 47.22 degree we get the minimum value
of Rs called Brewster's angle of about RS(min) = 7.107 × 10−14, so it’s clear that using s-
polarization introduces the minimum reflectance and the Reflectance for s-polarized versus
light intensity with the conditions above is shown in Fig. 10.
 Fig. 10. Reflectance for s-polarized versus light intensity.
Now from Fig. 9, it’s clear that values of θ1 > 47.22 degree introduce a high reflectance and
low performance and from Fig. 8, it’s clear that high values of θ1 introduce a big deference
change of θ2 which is a gain in the optical switch performance, this tradeoff should be
considered in the design.

Performance factor (PF)

From above results it’s easy to develop a factor which can test a part of the switch
performance, a factor which can combine many parameters like reflectance, the changing rate
of the refracted angle and many other parameters which can affect the switch performance,
PF is a performance factor which combines R and RF in a formula as below:

(5)PF=RF/R
And other two sup-formulas relative to the polarization used those are:
(6)PFRS=RF/RS,PFRp=RF/Rp
PF is also affected by the θ1 and n1 so by putting values of n1 = 1.551 and θ1 from 0 to 90
degree to get values of PF, PFRS and PFRp at a critical value of θ1:
Fig. 11(c) shows the maximum value of PF at θ1 = 37 degree as PF(max) = 5.63 × 104 at
E2 = 5.153 Volt2/m2. These last values of PF, PFRS, and PFRp. are not suitable in optical switch
design due to sharp slopes around the peak values of last three figures as the design with a
range of values of E2 covers a wide range, so it’s available to choose conditions that can
match the required demand for design. For example, at n1 = 1.549 and θ 1 = 35 degree, it’s
found that R manner changes to that shown in Fig. 12.
Fig. 11. (a, b). Maximum of PFRS and PFRp at a critical value of θ1,

PFRS(max) = 2.87 × 104 at E2 = 5.153 Volt2/m2 and θ1 = 32.18 degree.

PFRp(max) = 1.764 × 1015 at E2 = 186.9 Volt2/m2 and θ1 = 45.45 degree. (c). Maximum
of PF at a critical angle of θ1.
 Fig. 12. An operating state of the optical switch.
By the way, this is not the maximum value of R can be achieved, but it introduces a-stable
margin of E2 to operate without affecting the performance factor, E 2 can swing around point
B with values E2 = 20 ± 10 Volt2/m2.

The optical oscillator (multi-vibrator)

This component can be considered as a derivative component from the all-optical switch.
Any processing system needs oscillation, an old proposal design of a-stable multi-
vibrator [11], but this proposal still using Electro-optical devices, also the Heterodyne OPLL
(Optical Phase Lock Loop) [12] is a proposed design for all optical design using also Electro-
optical devices.
The oscillator shown in Fig. 13 uses electric parts such as electro-optical modulator
and photodetector. Fig. 13 show a simple oscillator using LM-NLM couple which used in the
optical switch. As shown in the figure when CLS present and input A is high so the laser
beam in NLM will be swept to Non so the output from NLM which goes again to A to be
next input is low then the swept angle will be zero, then again input A will be high and so on.
 Fig. 13. The design of optical oscillator.

Conclusion
The switching of optoelectronics to full optical computing operations are deeply studied. It
has been shown later the new proposed design of the optical switch and the optical oscillator
in order to overcome the computing limitations of optical computer realizations. Boolean
algebra has also been introduced then described the non-linear material and the study
presented how to use it as NOT gate as an example. It is evident that the proposed
implementation of the optical oscillator is described clearly. The light implementation of both
optical switch and optical oscillator mentioned before are a step of a long way towards a new
future of optical computing systems.
Draw construction diagram of 7- Segments diagram