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Ritwik Chowdhury, Dale Finney, Normann Fischer, and Jason Young, Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc.
3) GSU Events
B. Security Analysis and Scheme Settings
Nonlinear GSU events, such as inrush, can present an
external third-harmonic source [10]. The coupling is not direct Having reviewed scenarios that challenge third-harmonic
because the GSU low-voltage winding is connected in delta; protection, we now compare the security of individual schemes.
indirect coupling occurs through CIW, similar to Fig. 7. For one We do this through the artificial introduction of an external
such event [11], CIW = 8 nF and VX3 = 6 kVLN (2 percent of a source (ε) that adds to VT3 and subtracts from VN3, as shown
525 kVLL system), causing third-harmonic element in Table III. We solve the circuit of Fig. 7, apply the resulting
misoperation. These events can last a few seconds. Adequate voltages to each scheme, and determine the pickup threshold
security must be built into the scheme pickup settings, as will that causes each scheme to operate. In determining the pickup
be discussed in Section III, Subsection B. setting, we also consider the following manufacturer
recommendations:
4) Modification of Stator Ground Capacitance • Schemes C and D require a margin of approximately
The distributed stator ground capacitance of a generator 50 percent, which corresponds to ε ~ 0.10 pu.
originates from the insulation and varies with temperature (due
• Schemes A, C, and D require a minimum VG3
to machine loading), moisture content, and age. While these
supervision of 1 percent.
factors provide minor capacitance deviations, large changes can
• Scheme B does not require supervision; this security is
occur as the result of the failure of the generator cooling system,
built into the PKP.
for instance.
The results are given in Table III.
A field event captured by a 64S relay, which measures
generator stator ground impedance, is shown in Fig. 9. The TABLE III
REQUIRED SECURE PICKUP SETTINGS FOR VARYING LEVELS OF ε
cooling system was accidentally left off in Region D, and the
insulation resistance and capacitive reactance dropped to ε (pu of Scheme A Scheme B Scheme C Scheme D
13.9 kΩ and 1.74 kΩ, respectively, almost resulting in a fault. VG3) PKP PKP PKP PKP
Adequate security must be built into the scheme pickup settings 0.00 0.58 0.00 1.00 0.00
to prevent a trip during a thermal event, as will be discussed in
0.10 0.48 0.20 1.41 0.43
Section III, Subsection B.
0.20 0.38 0.40 2.04 1.08
5) Impedance Profile Change at Generator Terminal
0.28 0.30 0.56 2.87 1.92
Some generators have a low-voltage breaker with a surge
capacitor on the GSU side of the breaker. In such cases, the 0.43 0.15 0.88 6.79 5.85
impedance of the third-harmonic circuit can change
significantly, depending on the breaker state [4]. This behavior Note that the pickup settings of Schemes A and B are fairly
can be seen in Fig. 9. When the unit is online in Region A or B linear with ε, whereas Schemes C and D are quadratic and
(relative to the offline state shown in Region C), the additional diverge very quickly. Based on field cases that demand high
surge capacitance reduces the impedance significantly. Some security, the above data should be considered at VG3 = 2% VLN.
relays provide alternate settings to tackle this problem [4]. This only affects the setting calculations of relays using
Abnormal conditions, such as water ingress or other Scheme B, which becomes 0.88 pu • 2% VLN 1.75% VLN.
contamination of the isophase bus, can also modify the
terminal-side impedance. Adequate security must be built into
the scheme pickup settings, as will be discussed in Section III,
Subsection B.
Fig. 10. Sensitivity provided by ground fault protection schemes with secure settings (ε = 0.43 pu).
Fig. 11. Sensitivity provided by ground fault protection schemes with sensitive settings (ε = 0.20 pu).
IV. SENSITIVITY provides very high resistive coverage; the performance of third-
In Section III, we determined settings for each scheme that harmonic schemes is not a concern in this region. Note that the
provided equal levels of security for an external event. We now schemes may operate for a resistive fault, but not for a metallic
compare the sensitivities of each scheme. To do this, we solve fault, at the same location.
the circuit of Fig. 3 while varying the fault location and All schemes can be set to provide similar levels of security
resistance. The resulting voltages are fed to each scheme, and and sensitivity at a given VG3, although this is not evident from
we check the operation. an examination of the operating equations. Furthermore,
Using the secure (ε = 0.43) settings, we show the resulting manufacturers do not normally provide these comparisons.
coverage and resistive sensitivity provided by the various We are not aware of any guidance with respect to minimum
elements in Fig. 10. The 59N sensitivity with a pickup of resistive coverage. However, for faults in the early stages of
0.05 pu is shown as a reference. inception, a large fault impedance can be expected. Scheme B
Note that Schemes A, C, and D have fixed characteristics. is most likely to detect the condition at full load with a lagging
The characteristic of Scheme B varies with VG3, shown as a power factor (when VG3 is large). If sensitive detection for
percentage in Fig. 11. Two typical values are shown for no-load such conditions is desired, a sensitively set Scheme B with
(2%) and full-load (7%). At low levels, its resistive sensitivity PKPB = 0.40 pu • 2% VLN = 0.80% VLN (ε = 0.20 pu, as shown
is similar to that of the other schemes, but when VG3 is large, in Fig. 11) can be used to alarm.
its sensitivity is much higher.
We repeated the exercise for a less conservative case V. CONCLUSION
(ε = 0.20), and the results are shown in Fig. 11. Various implementations of third-harmonic schemes are in
The primary sensitivity requirement for generator protection use. All third-harmonic schemes can be set to provide similar
is to provide metallic fault (Rf = 0 Ω) coverage for 100 percent and adequate security. When combined with a 59N element, all
of the stator winding. For our example system, all schemes schemes provide sufficient neutral-side coverage to obtain
provide this coverage for both sensitive and secure settings. For 100 percent metallic fault coverage for stator ground faults
faults in the upper 90 percent of the winding, the 59N element when sufficient third harmonic is available.
Scheme A is the easiest scheme to set because the pickup A. 59N Setting
setting correlates directly to the winding coverage for metallic The 59N setting is calculated as shown in (12).
faults. Scheme B provides the highest sensitivity, especially
V
when the generator produces a large amount of third harmonic. 59N PKP 0.05
= = pu • LG 6.93 Vsec (12)
A higher sensitivity may be desired for incipient faults. PTRN
While the methods described in this paper are explained in B. Scheme A Setting
percentages and per-unit quantities, relays often use secondary
Since 100 percent stator ground protection is desired
voltages as settings. A sample application is provided in the
(barring additional security constraints), a 10 percent overlap
Appendix.
with 59N is adequate.
VI. APPENDIX Scheme A PKP = 0.05 pu + 0.10 pu = 0.15 pu (13)
The example system shown in Fig. 12 is used to demonstrate Scheme A VG3min = 0.01pu (14)
the application of stator-ground fault protection on a sample
The fault resistance coverage at the neutral by Scheme A can
high-impedance grounded generator.
be analyzed by solving for Rf in the circuit represented in
Fig. 13, as shown in (16).
VRATED = 20 kV where:
Nominal voltage
VLG = 20 kV/√3 = 11.55 kV PKP = 0.15 pu (16)
Nominal frequency 60 Hz
X
Neutral PT ratio PTRN = 20 kV:240 V = 83.33 α sin –1 PKP • Im 1j + t=
= 14.16° (17)
Zn
Terminal PT ratio PTR = 20 kV:120 V = 166.67
Stator ground (CG): 0.342 µF 1 (18)
Capacitances (per phase) Xt
= = 3, 263 Ω
External (CX): 0.100 µF Cg
2 π180 • + C
x
0.605 Ωsec = 2.0 kΩpri 2
Neutral-grounding resistance
equal to 1/(3ω[CG + CX])
3• RN pri • – jX n
Zn = =3,917∠ – 49.25° (19)
We assume the following protection philosophy: ( 3• RN pri – jX n )
• 59N is set to trip at 0.05 pu.
1 (20)
• Scheme A is set securely to trip the unit. Xn
= = 5,171 Ω
Cg
• Scheme B is set sensitively to alarm only when the 2 π180 •
fault is on the neutral side. 2
• A 64S relay injects a current and measures the C. Scheme B Setting
associated voltage to calculate the resistance to ground
to determine whether there is a ground fault. The Based on the recommended survey, the RAT setting for
secure setting used to trip is set to a similar level as Scheme B is consistent with that of the system impedances.
Scheme A. The sensitive setting is set to a value PTR Zn 166.67
higher than a PT secondary-side fault. RATsec RAT
= =pri • = • 2.4 (21)
PTRN X t 83.33
The time delays associated with tripping and alarming are
not within the scope of this example. They can be set to In some relays, the RAT setting is scaled by 3,
coordinate with the terminal PT fuse and external system events corresponding to the ratio between the neutral voltage and the
[8] or they can be accelerated [9]. sum of the per-phase terminal voltages. In such cases, RATsec
for this system would be 2.4/3 = 0.8.
The pickup setting is set sensitively to alarm with [5] C. Mozina, “15 Years of Experience With 100% Generator Stator
Ground Fault Protection—What Works, What Doesn’t, and Why,”
ε = 0.20 pu. The error in the primary signal is calculated as
proceedings of the 62nd Annual Conference for Protective Relay
shown in (23): Engineers, College Station, TX, March 2009.
ε pri =ε • 2% • VLN =46.19 Vpri (22) [6] CSC-306 Instruction Manual, Beijing Sifang Automation Co., Ltd.,
Beijing, China.
1 RATsec [7] X. G. Yin, O. P. Malik, G. S. Hope, and D. S. Chen, “Adaptive Ground
Scheme B PKP =
ε pri • + 1.22 V (23)
=
PTRN PTR Fault Protection Schemes for Turbogenerator Based on Third Harmonic
Voltages,” IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 5, Issue 2,
The following should be noted when choosing the settings April 1990, pp. 595–603.
using (22) and (23): [8] IEEE Standard C37.101-2006, IEEE Guide for Generator Ground
Protection.
• If the relay uses a pickup setting in percent, then the
[9] M. Sosa-Aguiluz, A. Guzmán, and J. León, “CFE Generator Protection
pickup setting would be 0.40 pu • 2% = 0.80%, where Guidelines for Setting 40 and 64G Elements Based on Simulations and
0.40 pu is obtained from Table III. Field Experience,” proceedings of the 68th Annual Conference for
• If the protection philosophy required Scheme B to trip, Protective Relay Engineers, College Station, TX, March 2015.
then ε = 0.43 would be used, with PKP = 2.62 V. [10] R. J. Marttila, “Design Principles of a New Generator Stator Ground
Relay for 100% Coverage of the Stator Winding,” IEEE Transactions on
• RATsec in (23) should always use the RATsec value Power Delivery, Vol. 1, Issue 4, October 1986, pp. 41–51.
shown in (21), irrespective of how the relay scales the [11] R. Chowdhury, M. Rusicior, J. Vico, and J. Young, “How Transformer
RAT setting for Scheme B. For this example, we use DC Winding Resistance Testing Can Cause Generator Relays to
2.4 instead of 0.8. Operate,” proceedings of the 69th Annual Conference for Protective
Relay Engineers, College Station, TX, April 2016.
The resistive coverage of this scheme varies with the level
of the third harmonic produced, as shown in Fig. 10 and Fig. 11,
and can be determined by using tools that solve the circuit based IX. BIOGRAPHIES
on available commissioning data. Ritwik Chowdhury received his bachelor of engineering degree from the
University of British Columbia and his master of engineering degree from the
Based on commissioning data, the example generator University of Toronto. He joined Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc. in
produces a VG3 in the range of 3 to 9 percent (or 346 Vpri to 2012, where he has served as an application engineer and presently works as a
1,040 Vpri). Some relays provide a terminal third-harmonic research engineer. He has authored several technical papers on power system
protection and control. His interests include the analysis and control of
value that is the sum of the per-phase third-harmonic voltages. generators and their systems, controlled switching, and generator and line
In such cases, it is important to divide the sum by 3, as shown protection. He is a member of IEEE.
in (25).
Dale Finney received his bachelor of engineering degree from Lakehead
VA3 + VB3 + VC3 University and his master of engineering degree from the University of
VG3 = VN3 + VT3 = VN3 + (24) Toronto. He began his career with Ontario Hydro, where he worked as a
3 protection and control engineer. Currently, Mr. Finney is employed as a senior
power engineer with Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories, Inc. His areas of
D. 64S Setting interest include generator protection, line protection, and substation
The 64S setting is set to trip at a similar resistive level as automation. Mr. Finney holds more than 10 patents and has authored more than
30 papers in the area of power system protection. He is a member of the main
Scheme A; we can set this to 200 Ω. Based on testing, a PT committee and vice-chair of the rotating machinery subcommittee of the
secondary fault resulted in a fault resistance of 6 kΩ. The 64S IEEE PSRC. He is a senior member of the IEEE and a registered professional
is set to alarm at a higher value, such as 10 kΩ. engineer in the province of Nova Scotia.