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Abstract
Many grouting programs designed to manage mine water ingress involve high pressure
injection into water-bearing fractures to reduce/eliminate inflows. Optimal grouts for
durable mine water control 1) exhibit low viscosity and very small particle size (suspen-
sion grouts) or no particles (solution grouts) to permit deep penetration into water-
bearing fractures; and 2) set up as an insoluble, chemically inert, flexible or self-healing
solid that maintains adhesion to wet rock surfaces and concrete despite recovering for-
mation pressure and continued blasting, mining-induced subsidence and stress redis-
tribution.
Keywords: grout, water ingress, fractures, cementitious, solution, bitumen, precipitate,
polymer-based emulsion
Wolkersdorfer, Ch.; Sartz, L.; Weber, A.; Burgess, J.; Tremblay, G. (Editors) 507
Grouts for Water Ingress Control gill and Berry 2007) and at the Waste Isolation
Grout types used for water control vary widely Pilot Plant in Carlsbad, New Mexico, USA.
but can be generally categorized as cementi- Cementitious grouts are brittle when set
tious (suspension), chemical (solution), bitu- up. Consequently, in evaporites (salt and pot-
minous, precipitate and polymer-based emul- ash) that exhibit high creep rates, these types
sion. Each category of grout has strengths and of grout can crack allowing inflows to restart.
weaknesses relative to its application to water Hence, there has been considerable experi-
ingress control as summarized below. mentation with, and commercialization of,
Cementitious Grouts: Cements are a type alternative grouts that are either flexible or
of suspension grout – they contain solid par- self-healing and that can also penetrate very
ticles suspended in a liquid (typically water). fine aperture fractures and pores.
Cementitious grouts are differentiated based Solution (Chemical) Grouts: In contrast
on particle size as Ordinary Portland, Micro- to cementitious (suspension) grouts, solu-
fine and Ultrafine. tion grouts do not contain particles. As such,
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) has they can penetrate very small fissures and
historically been widely used grout for leak pore space (Naudts 2003). Commonly used
control, but exhibits performance limitations solution grouts include polyurethanes, acryl-
without additives. OPC will permeate fissures amides, and acrylates among others. Ideal so-
with apertures as small as 70 microns (Henn lution grouts exhibit an initial, stable and very
2017), but intragranular pore space in many low viscosity followed by a sudden increase in
permeable sedimentary rocks is often smaller. viscosity immediately prior to gelation or cur-
Furthermore, OPC washes out when injected ing. Gelation and set times can be controlled
into high pressure, high rate inflows. Additives through the use of catalysts or inhibitors. So-
(e.g. Type F fly ash, slag, silica fume, pumice, lution grouts are also generally chemically re-
bentonite, CaCl2) are needed to combat wash- sistant.
out, control bleed, and resist pressure filtration Polyurethanes are commonly used to
(Naudts et al. 2003). Dispersants, water reduc- grout shafts and tunnels, and to further re-
ers, and superplasticizers are used to improve duce seepage from residual wet zones after
mixing, and viscosity modifiers, retarders, grouting with other products. Naudts (2003)
and stabilizers are commercially available and categorizes polyurethane grouts as 1) water
can be incorporated into the mix. Grouters reactive; 2) two component foaming grouts
may use other additives to neutralize adverse (polyol-isocyanides combination); and 3) two
effects of H2S (present in some limestones component polyurethane elastomers. Water
and evaporites) and improve set up in saline reactive grouts use available water to create
water environments. a foam or gel. Naudts (2003) differentiates
Microfine and ultrafine grouts are milled hydrophobic and hydrophilic sub-categories,
finer (particle size about 30 microns and 10- and notes that hydrophilic grouts are not ideal
15 microns, respectively) to penetrate smaller for water ingress control. Hence they are not
fissures. Some microfine grouts are slag-based. considered further here.
Plasticizers and viscosity modifiers are often Hydrophobic polyurethane grouts repel
added. Ultrafine grouts are composed of Port- water after the amount needed for curing is
land cement, pumice and dispersant (Magill used. Hydrophobic polyurethanes penetrate,
and Berry 2007). Although finer, microfine expand and fill cracks as fine as 8 microns.
is still mostly applicable to fracture injection Different hydrophobic polyurethane grouts
and much less so to permeation grouting of set up as a flexible solid (for crack injection –
intragranular porosity in rock. Ultrafine can injectable tube applications), a semi-rigid sol-
be used for permeation grouting although id (stopping large water inflows), and a rigid
hole spacing on the order of 1-2 meters is solid (for soil injection). In saline water envi-
required because of limited penetrability. Ul- ronments, large mine inflows can be grouted
trafine has also been used to grout fractures by injecting both brine and polyurethane. The
in salt to reduce leaks into crude oil storage cured grout can accommodate movement
caverns at Weeks Island, Louisiana, USA (Ma- along fractures (Magill and Berry 2007).
Hydrophobic polyurethanes are pH, pres-
508 Wolkersdorfer, Ch.; Sartz, L.; Weber, A.; Burgess, J.; Tremblay, G. (Editors)
sure and temperature sensitive (Magill and crack. Acrylamide also reacts more slowly in
Berry 2007). Neutral pH produces the most the presence of petroleum hydrocarbons.
ideally cured grout; quality degrades in water Acrylate grouts were developed to be a
above a pH of 8-9, and reactivity slows as the less toxic alternative to acrylamide grouts.
pH decreases below 7. Extremely acidic waters Similar to acrylamide, acrylates require a base
may preclude reactivity. These grouts react resin to be mixed with a catalyst in order to
most efficiently at temperatures above 10° C. set up a flexible gel-type grout; set times range
At 100 kPa pressure, reaction time, expansion from about one minute to one hour (Babcock
and swelling begin to decrease and at 1000 2016). United States Army Corps of Engineers
kPa, no expansion or swelling occurs. Grouts (1995) describes the gelling reaction to be cat-
may also fail to react in the presence of high alyzed by the addition of triethanolamine and
concentrations of hydrocarbons. Groundwa- ammonium or sodium persulfate to a metal
ter TDS may affect gel time through chemical acrylate (usually magnesium acrylate). Meth-
reaction or pH buffering. High water salinity ylene-bis-acrylamide is used as a cross-link-
may promote flocculation, which limits grout ing agent. Potassium ferricyanide is used as an
penetrability. inhibitor if long times of setting are required.
Acrylamide is a monomer used as an Adhesion to concrete is reportedly good, and
aqueous solution in geo-technical grouting lab testing indicates that acrylate grout can
applications for over 50 years (Magill and Ber- cure in the presence of extremely hot water
ry 2007). Catalysts, activator and inhibitors (82°C), making it feasible for deep mining ap-
are mixed together to obtain a gel grout that plications. (Sunder 2015). These grouts have
is impervious to water. Grout constituents in- been used in salt mine settings by balancing
clude acrylamide, methylene-bis-acrylamide, grout chemistry with brine.
acrylic acide, triethanolamine, and ethylene Some acrylates physically absorb vast
glycol (Spalding et al. 1987). amounts of water and swell, thereby losing
Acrylamide ranks high among solution their strength (Magill and Berry 2007). The
grouts for water ingress control because of its life span of acrylate grout is about 50 years,
extremely low viscosity (about 2 centipoise which is considerably lower than acrylamide
[cP]), high penetrability, controllable gel time (Babcock 2016).
(from 3 seconds to 10 hours), long half-life Precipitation grouts: CaCl2 injections
(>300 years) after injection, and resistance have long been used to seal mine leaks at the
to shrinkage and microbiological degrada- K2 potash mine in Esterhazy, Saskatchewan
tion (Gentry and Magill 2012; Babcock 2016; (Ziegenbalg and Crosby 1997). Injected CaCl2
Spalding et al. 1987). Acrylamide grout can reacts with the brine in an overlying aquifer
also be used with cementitious grouts, and to precipitate NaCl that clogs flow paths con-
can withstand exposure to nuclear waste. necting the aquifer to the mine workings. Al-
Acrylamide grout can be mixed with brine for though somewhat successful, timing of NaCl
use in salt mines (Magill and Berry 2007). precipitation cannot be controlled, and the
One notable concern with use of acryl- finely crystalline halite precipitate does not
amides is health and safety during the mixing always extend beyond the boundaries in a
process. Mono-acrylamide is a neurotoxin plug flow situation. Continued research led to
that can enter the body by inhalation, inges- development of a second precipitation grout
tion or absorption through skin (Magill and using solutions supersaturated with gypsum
Berry 2007). Grouters using acrylamide must (Ziegenbalg et al 2009). Supersaturation is
receive special safety training. In gel form, it is achieved using NaSO4 and CaCL2 solutions as
non-toxic, however. inhibitors.
Magill and Berry (2007) also note that Achieving an effective seal using precipi-
acrylamide is susceptible to shrinkage and tation grouts (or any grout for that matter)
premature polymerization if subjected to con- requires that enough solids block the flow
stant UV rays, and the grout will degrade if conduit and exhibit enough strength to hold
exposed to continual freeze-thaw and wet-dry against rebounding formation pressure. Sec-
cycles. Acrylamide does not adhere to con- ondly, flow must be sufficiently turbulent to
crete surfaces and will not stretch in a moving induce gypsum precipitation.
Wolkersdorfer, Ch.; Sartz, L.; Weber, A.; Burgess, J.; Tremblay, G. (Editors) 509
Hot Bitumen: When injected into a water- at the time of injection is extremely penetra-
saturated medium, hot bitumen cools quickly ble and will go where water travels.
at the interface with water; the viscosity in- PBE was developed in the 1970s and first
creases rapidly (Naudts and Hooey 2003). applied to high pressure-high rate inflows
Steam is created at that point, however, thus into deep South African mines. The grout has
decreasing the viscosity of the bitumen and sealed discrete inflows of up to 12,000 lpm
serving to draw the bitumen into pore space. at pressures up to 20,000 kPa (Gancarz and
The faster the water flows, the faster the bi- Yilmaz 2017).
tumen cools off. The skin prevents washout Inhibitors and activators are used to
while the “sheltered” hot bitumen behind the change the characteristics of the polymer, en-
skin penetrates void space in similar fashion hancing the control over direction of flow and
as solution grouts. Naudts and Hooey (2003) resulting in greater penetration. The polymer
cite a case study involving a Saskatchewan remains stable in its fluid state until activat-
potash mine where hot bitumen was able to ed. Activation may also be achieved through
temporarily seal a 7000 lpm mine inflow. agitation when the polymer is subjected to
Bitumen’s good insulating characteristics shear action as it passes through an orifice of
allow it to be injected for a very long time a fissure. Once activated, the dispersed colloi-
(days - even weeks) into the same grout hole dal compound coagulates to form a mass of
without risk of either premature blockage linked and tethered rubberlike laths.
or wash-out (Naudts and Hooey 2003). The When first formed, the activated polymer
width of the fissures accessible to hot bitu- transforms to a hydrated jelly–like plug of
men varies with the duration of the grouting matted laths. As pressure is applied to the ac-
operation. The longer the grouting operation, tivated polymer, the water is expelled and the
the finer the apertures the bitumen will pen- laths adhere to each other to form a denser
etrate. Naudts and Hooey claim that hot bitu- and more competent plug that is both imper-
men will penetrate 100 micron fractures. meable and flexible.
When hot bitumen cools it is subject to PBE is non-expanding, non-toxic and
significant thermal shrinkage (Naudts and user friendly. PBE is not exothermic – no heat
Hooey 2003). Cement-based suspension is generated during the curing process.
grout is often injected in conjunction with At present, PBE is available only through
hot bitumen to compensate for the thermal a single entity that holds the patent. The grout
shrinkage of the bitumen; to make the bitu- cannot be purchased for use other than by li-
men less susceptible to creep; and to increase cense holders. The grout is primarily used for
the mechanical strength of the end product. sealing fissures (consolidation grouting). PBE
Besides safety considerations in the ap- has not yet been extensively used for sealing
plication of hot bitumen, injection of hydro- intragranular pore space (permeation grout-
carbons into the ground raises environmental ing).
concerns. There are, however, many types of
bitumen available with a wide range of char- Conclusion
acteristics. Naudts and Hooey (2003) recom- Optimal grouts for durable mine water con-
mend use of a “hard” oxidized environmen- trol 1) exhibit low viscosity and very small
tally friendly type of bitumen with a high particle size (or no particles in the case of a
solidification point. solution grout) to permit deep penetration
Polymer-Based Emulsion (PBE): PBE is a into water-bearing fractures; 2) set up as an
suspension of polymer emulsoids colloidally insoluble, chemically inert, flexible or self-
dispersed in a solution of additives that pro- healing solid that maintains adhesion to wet
mote flow and adhesion (Gancarz and Yilmaz rock surfaces and concrete despite continued
2017). PBE is injected in a fluid state and re- blasting, mining-induced subsidence and
mains a fluid until activated. The grain size of stress redistribution; and 3) withstand high
the particles in the polymer is less than one formation pressures. Precipitation grouts can
micron, and the viscosity of the polymer is be useful but only where mine waters are
2.5 cP. Hence, the dilatant polymer solution highly saline. Ultrafine cement satisfies the
510 Wolkersdorfer, Ch.; Sartz, L.; Weber, A.; Burgess, J.; Tremblay, G. (Editors)
first and third criteria, but is brittle and may Geological Survey Geological Pamphlet No. 11,
fracture in rocks that are prone to shifting or Baton Rouge, Louisiana, 34 pp
creep. Polyurethane grouts satisfy the first and Momber A, Kovacevic R (1994) Fundamental In-
second criteria, but may be pushed out of fis- vestigations on Concrete Wear by High Veloc-
sures under high fluid pressures. Acrylamide ity Water Flow. Wear. 177. 55-62. 10.1016/0043-
satisfies the first and second criteria, but does 1648(94)90117-1.
not adhere to rock/concrete. Hot bitumen Magill D, Berry R (2007) Comparison of Chemi-
and PBE grouts satisfy all three criteria. Hot cal Grout Properties, Which Grout Can be Used
bitumen and PBE have proven ability to stop Where and Why. Geo-Denver 2007 Congress,
large mine inflows. Hot bitumen poses envi- Denver, Colorado 11pp
ronmental and safety issues whereas PBE is Naudts A, Landry E, Hooey S, Naudts W (2003)
environmentally safe. Hot bitumen may not Additives and admixtures in cement-based
seal water-transmissive pore space smaller grouts. Grout 2003, Deep Foundations Institute/
than 100 microns, whereas the particle size for Geo-Institute of the American Society of Civil
PBE is less than one micron. Hot bitumen is Engineers, New Orleans, Louisiana 14 pp
commercially available and can be applied by Naudts A (2003) Irreversible changes in the grout-
appropriately trained grouting crews, whereas ing industry caused by polyurethane grouting:
PBE is a patented product that can only be ap- an overview of 30 years of polyurethane grout-
plied by users under license. Low-cost OPC ing. Grout 2003, Deep Foundations Institute/
can be used in combination with any of the Geo-Institute of the American Society of Civil
above-referenced grouts to fill larger voids Engineers, New Orleans, Louisiana 17 pp
and to provide strength.
Naudts A, Hooey S (2003) Hot bitumen grout-
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