Concepts of Sampling

Dr. Kunal Ghosh

 Sampling
• Rationale for Sampling
Who needs the whole
• Sampling Terminology
population when a
sample will do nicely? • Representative Sample

• Probability Sampling
• Non-probability Sampling

• Sampling Bias
 Rationale for Sampling

• Population vs. Sample

• The population refers to all possible members of a group
• The sample refers to subsection of the population
• Usually, the findings derived from a well drawn sample can be
used to comprehend the (larger) population that it was drawn
from
• Samples are preferable in terms of:
• Time
• Cost
• Feasibility
 Rationale for Sampling

• Time
• Competing priorities / tasks preclude lengthy data gathering
phase
• The (statistical) question may be time-sensitive – need the
answer sooner than later (e.g., blood test, polling data).
 Rationale for Sampling

• Cost
• Not all data is free
• Recruitment advertising budget
• Staff fees
• Participant compensation
• Surveys (face-to-face interview, postage, website, telephone,
photocopying, data entry)
• Administrative expenses
 Rationale for Sampling

• Feasibility
• May be unsafe to gather all data (e.g., process a small blood
sample, not the entire blood supply)
• Geographical dispersion may limit outreach
 Sampling Terminology

• Population
• The population is the entire realm of people / data that could be
measured or counted
• All people living in a city / state / country
• All students enrolled at a school
• Every registered voter in an election district / state / country
 Sampling Terminology

• Sample Frame
• The sample frame is the part of the population that you could
access
• The phone numbers of those who are listed
• Students who opt to be on a mailing list
• Individuals who attend a group meeting
 Sampling Terminology

• Sample
• The sample is the portion of the sample frame that you will
actually investigate
• 5% of the sample frame
• Every nth record / person on the sample frame
• 10% of the full-time students on the sample frame
 Sampling Terminology

• Review: Population, Sample Frame, Sample

• The population is the entire realm of those in a specified set (all
people / records)
– The sample frame is a list of those who could be potentially accessed
from that population
• The sample is the sub list of those selected from the
sample frame, who will be the subject of analysis
 Representative Sample

• Definition
• The characteristics of a representative sample is proportionally
equivalent to the (larger) population it was drawn from
• Representative sampling better enables you to generalize your
findings (derived from the sample) to the (larger) population it
was drawn from
• Representative sampling facilitates external validity
 Probability Sample

• Definition
• Equal-opportunity sampling – each potential element (person /
data record) has the same chance of being selected:
• Simple Random Sampling
• Systemic Sampling
• Stratified Sampling
• Disproportionate / Proportionate Sampling
• Area Sampling
 Probability Sample

• Simple Random Sampling

• Gather the largest sample frame possible
• Determine the desired sample size
• Make random selections until the sample size is achieved
1. Sample frame = 1,000 elements
2. Want to select 30
3. Randomly select any 30
 Probability Sample

• Systemic Sampling
• Uses periodic selection process to derive sample
1. Identify total number of records (or people) in the sample frame
(1,000)
2. Decide on a target sample size (10)
3. k = (total number of records) ÷ (target sample size)
k = 1,000 ÷ 10 = 100
4. Start point = random number: 1…k (71)
5. From start point (71), select each kth (100th) item:
71, 171, 271, 371, 471, 571, 671, 771, 871, 971
 Probability Sample

• Stratified Sampling
• Enables equal selections based on a criteria within a sample
• Example: Select same amount of females and males in a given
sample frame; target sample size = 100
• Separate the list into two strata: females, males
• Randomly select 50 females
• Randomly select 50 males
• NOTE: Can use Simple Random Sampling or Systemic Sampling to make
selections within each strata (use same selection technique for each
strata)
 Probability Sample

• Disproportionate / Proportionate Sampling

• Draw (stratified) sample using proportions as-is, or adjust
sampling ratios to achieve equal n’s in sample
• Example: Sample frame = 1,000; 60% females, 40% males;
target sample size = 100
• Disproportionate would render 50 females and 50 males
• Proportionate would render 60 females and 40 males
• Disproportionate sampling may be preferred if n is (too) low in a
strata
 Probability Sample

• Area Sampling
• Used to gather sample from a geographic region, or where
sample frame is not available
• Example: Conduct survey of Anytown; population 60,000
spanning 500 residential Blocks. Target sample size: 1,000
households
• Build Block strata (Block 1, Block 2… Block 500)
• Strata selection = Target ÷ Blocks

• Strata selection = 1,000 ÷ 500 = 2

• Randomly select 2 households from each block
 Non-probability Sample

• Definition
• All items in the sample frame do not have an equal chance of
being selected, or the sample frame does not exist
• Findings cannot (necessarily) be generalized to the larger
population that the sample was drawn from; compromises
external validity
• Convenience Sampling
• Snowball Sampling
• Quota Sampling
• Purposive Sampling
 Nonprobability Sample

• Convenience Sampling
• Researcher recruits whoever is readily accessible
• People walking by
• Students in a classroom
• People waiting in a line
 Nonprobability Sample

• Snowball Sampling
• After engaging with a participant with a unique attribute,
request referral (from that participant) to others with same
attribute
• People who use a wheelchair
• Substance abusers
• Cancer survivors
 Nonprobability Sample

• Quota Sampling
• Set quota for total n per strata to gather, and stop gathering
data (on that strata) when the quota is met
• Quota: 30 females, 30 males
• Quota: 20 left handed people, 50 right handed people
• Quota: 40 Democrats, 40 Republicans, 40 Other
 Nonprobability Sample

• Purposive Sampling
• Participants must meet (multiple) criteria:
• age is 18 – 65
• and diagnosis of Cancer
• and set to begin radiation therapy
• and scheduled for 3 – 5 radiation treatments
• and willing to take experimental drug (or placebo)
• and not using any non-prescribed medications
 Sampling Bias

• Sampling bias can occur when participants with certain

characteristics are (unintentionally) selected / not
selected
• Sampling bias can compromise external validity
• Where, how, and when subjects are recruited may bias the
sample:
• Sports bar
• Women’s locker room
• Lobby of a technology company
• Liquor store in an impoverished neighborhood