ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
INSTRUMENTATION AND MEASUREMENT

CHAPTER THREE: Signal conditioning

CONTENTS
3.1. Amplification
3.2. Attenuation
3.3. Filtering
3. Signal conditioning
❑ Signal conditioning circuits are used to process the output signal from sensors
of a measurement system to be suitable for the next stage of operation.
3. Signal conditioning
❑ Amplifiers increase voltage level to better match the analog-to-digital converter (ADC) range, thus increasing
the measurement resolution and sensitivity.
❑ Attenuation, the opposite of amplification. This form of signal conditioning decreases the input signal amplitude
so that the conditioned signal is within ADC range.
❑ Filters reject unwanted noise within a certain frequency range. Which is an external voltage or current
excitation.
❑ Isolated signal conditioning devices pass the signal from its source to the measurement device without a
physical connection by using transformer, optical techniques.
❑ Linearization is necessary when sensors produce voltage signals that are not linearly related to the physical
measurement.
❑ Cold-junction compensation (CJC) is a technology required for accurate thermocouple measurements.
Thermocouples measure temperature as the difference in voltage between two dissimilar metals. Voltage is
generated at the connection between the thermocouple and terminal of data acquisition device. CJC improves
measurement accuracy by providing the temperature at this junction and applying the appropriate correction.
3.1. Amplification
❑Signal amplification is carried out when the typical signal output level of a measurement
transducer is considered to be too low.
❑Amplification by analogue means is carried out by an operational amplifier. Operational
amplifiers are the basic element of many signal conditioning modules.
❑The operational amplifier is an electronic device that has two input terminals and one
output terminal, the two inputs being known as the inverting input and non-inverting input
respectively.
3.1. Amplification
❑The raw (unprocessed) signal Vi is connected to the inverting input through
a resistor R1 and the non-inverting input is connected to ground. A
feedback path is provided from the output terminal through a resistor R2 to
the inverting input terminal.
❑Assuming ideal operational amplifier characteristics, the processed signal
Vo at the output terminal is then related to the voltage Vi at the input
terminal by the expression:
3.1. Amplification
❑ Inverting Amplifier: The figure below is standard way of connecting the operational
amplifier (inverting configuration), the sign of the processed signal is inverted. This can
be corrected for if necessary by feeding the signal through a further amplifier set up for
unity gain (R1 = R2). This inverts the signal again and returns it to its original sign.

𝐼1 = 𝐼2 + 0
𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑉𝑎
=
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = − 𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑅1

▪ The amount of signal amplification is therefore defined by the relative values of R1 & R2.
This ratio between R1&R2 in the amplifier configuration is known as the amplifier gain or
closed-loop gain.
▪ For instance, R1 =1MΩ & R2 =10 MΩ an amplification factor of 10 is obtained (gain =10).
3.1. Amplification

Inverting Amplifier XSC1

Ext T rig
+
XFG1 _
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 2𝑉 A B
R2 + _ + _

2kΩ
VCC
-15V
4 U1
R1
2
1kΩ 6
3

7 1 5 741

VDD
15V 𝑅2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = − 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = −4𝑉
𝑅1
3.1. Amplification
4V
Inverting Amplifier
2V
3.1. Amplification
❑ Noninverting amplifier :The non-inverting amplifier uses the non-
inverting input of the operational amplifier as the main input while the
inverting input is being grounded.

I1 + I 2 = 0
Vin Vin − Vout
+ =0
R1 R2
 R2 
Vout = 1 + Vin
 R1 
3.1. Amplification
Noninverting amplifier

XSC1

XFG1 Ext Trig

+

VCC B
_
A
15V + _ + _

7 1 5 U1
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 2𝑉
3
6
R1
2
1kΩ 𝑅2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = (1 + )𝑉 = 6𝑉
4 741 𝑅1 𝑖𝑛
VDD
-15V

R2

2kΩ
3.1. Amplification
Noninverting Amplifier 6V

2V
3.1. Amplification
❑ Summing Amplifier: is an opamp circuit that can combine numbers of
input signal to a single output that is the weighted sum of the applied inputs.
3.1. Amplification
❑ Differential Amplifier : Opamp has two inputs, inverting and no-inverting,
we can also connect signals to both of these inputs at the same time
producing another common type of opamp circuit called a Differential
Amplifier
3.1. Amplification
❑ Integrating Amplifier: An integrating circuit performs the mathematical
operation of integration with respect to time, on the input signal, i.e. the output
voltage is proportional to the applied input voltage integrated over time.

▪ The output of an integrator is out of phase by 180 degree with respect to the
input, since the input is applied to the inverting input terminal of the op-amp.
▪ Integrating circuits are generally used to generate ramp wave from square
wave input. 4

Rf Vin dVout 1
+C =0
C R dt 2

5
1
Vin R
1
4 Vout = −
RC  Vin dt
3 Vout
K
2
Vout = − t
5
RC
3.1. Amplification
Integrating Amplifier
R2

2kΩ XSC1

Ext T rig
C1 +
2 _
A B
1µF + _ + _

XFG1

VDD
-15V
4 U1
R1
2
1kΩ 6
3

7 1 5 741

VCC
15V
 3.1. Amplification
Generate ramp wave from square wave input.

Output of an integrator is out of phase by 180 degree with respect to the input.
3.1. Amplification
❑ Differentiating Amplifier: An op-amp differentiating amplifier is an inverting
amplifier circuit configuration. It performs mathematical differentiation operation
on the input signal with respect to time, i.e. the output voltage is proportional to the
rate of change of the input signal.
▪ Differentiating circuits are commonly used to operate on triangular and
rectangular signals. While operating on sine wave inputs, differentiating
circuits have frequency limitations.

dVin Vout
C + =0
dt R
dV
Vout = − RC in
dt
3.1. Amplification
Differentiating Amplifier
3.1. Amplification
Differentiating Amplifier

Sine wave input and cosine wave output

Triangular wave input and rectangular wave output

3.1. Amplification
❑ Instrumentation Amplifier: amplifying a small differential voltage few hundred
times in instrumentation applications. A single stage differential amplifier, is not capable of
performing this job efficiently because of the input impedance is finite, the achievable gain
in this single stage amplifier is also limited due to gain bandwidth product limitation as well
as limitations due to offset current of the opamp. Instrumentation amplifier, shown in fig. is
an ideal choice for achieving the objective.
3.1. Amplification
Instrumentation Amplifier

𝑅𝑓3 𝑅𝑓2
𝑅𝑓2 = 𝑅𝑓1 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 1+ (𝑉2 −𝑉1 ) = 20𝑉
𝑅1 𝑅𝑔1
3.1. Amplification
❑ Linearization Amplifier: Several types of transducer used in measuring
instruments have an output that is a non-linear function of the measured
quantity input. This non-linear signal can be converted to a linear one by
special operational amplifier configurations that have an equal and opposite
non-linear relationship between the amplifier input and output terminals.

I (Vout ) = I 0 exp(Vout ) Vin

+ I (Vout ) = 0
R
logc Vin − loge (I 0 R )
( )
1 1 V 
Vout = Vout = G in 
   R
3.1. Amplification
❑ Current-to-Voltage converter: A variety of transducers produce electrical
current in response to an environmental condition. Photodiodes and
photomultipliers are such transducers which respond to electromagnetic radiation at
various frequencies ranging from the infrared to visible to γ-rays. A current to
voltage converter is an op amp circuit which accepts an input current and gives an
output voltage that is proportional to the input current.
3.1. Amplification
❑ Voltage-to-Current converter: A voltage to current (V-I) converter accepts as
an input a voltage Vin and gives an output current of a certain value. In general the
relationship between the input voltage and the output current is
Where S is the sensitivity or gain of the V-I converter

Logarithmic
amplifier
Vout = k ln(Vin)

• The voltage- current relationship can be approximated by:

V=Cln(I) = Cln(Vin/R) = kln(Vin); so if Vin=Aexp(at) then
Vout= K ln(Aexp(at)) =klnA+at which is linear relationship
26

3.2. Attenuation
❑ It is the reduction in amplitude and intensity of a signal. It can also be understood
to be the opposite of amplification.

❑ It is an important property in telecommunications and ultrasound applications

because of its importance in determining signal strength as a function of distance.

❑ It is usually measured in units of decibels per unit length of medium (dB/cm,

dB/km, etc.) and is represented by the attenuation coefficient of the medium in
question.

❑ Attenuation coefficients are used to quantify different media according to how

strongly the transmitted ultrasound amplitude decreases as a function of frequency.
The attenuation coefficient (α) can be used to determine total attenuation in dB/cm
in the medium .
Attenuation (dB) = α (dB/MHz*cm) x l(cm) x f(MHz)
27

3.2. Attenuation
❑ As the above equation shows, besides the medium length and attenuation
coefficient, attenuation is also linearly dependent on the frequency of the
incident ultrasound beam.

❑ Attenuation in ultrasound is the reduction in amplitude of the ultrasound

beam as a function of distance through the imaging medium. Accounting for
attenuation effects in ultrasound is important because a reduced signal
amplitude can affect the quality of the image produced.

❑ By knowing the attenuation that an ultrasound beam experiences travelling

through a medium, one can adjust the input signal amplitude to compensate
for any loss of energy at the desired imaging depth.
28

3.2. Attenuation
Applications

❑ In optical fibers, attenuation is the rate at which the signal light decreases in
intensity. For this reason, glass fiber (which has a low attenuation) is used for long-
distance fiber optic cables; plastic fiber has a higher attenuation and hence shorter
range. There also exist optical attenuators which decrease the signal in a fiber optic
cable intentionally.

❑ Attenuation of light is also important in physical oceanography. Here, attenuation

is the decrease in light intensity with depth due to absorption by water molecules
and scattering by suspended particulates. This same effect is an important
consideration in weather radar as rain drops absorb a part of the emitted beam that
is more or less significant depending on the wavelength used.
29

3.2. Attenuation
Applications

❑ The attenuation of photons, particularly of those in the x-ray spectrum, is

important in the field of medical physics. Due to the damaging effects of high
energy photons, it is necessary to know how much energy is deposited in tissue
during diagnostic treatments involving such radiation. Additionally, gamma
radiation is used in cancer treatments where it is important to know how much
energy will be deposited in healthy and in tumorous tissue.

❑ Attenuation is an important consideration in the modern world of wireless

telecommunication. People are daily affected by it as they rely more and more on
mobile phones, radio, television, satellite communication, and wireless internet.
Attenuation limits the range of radio signals and is affected by the materials a signal
must travel through (e.g. air, wood, concrete, rain).
30

3.3. Filters
❑ Filtering is the process of removing a certain band of frequencies from a signal
and permitting others to be transmitted or filter is a circuit that is designed to pass
signals with desired frequencies and reject or attenuate others.

❑ Four types of filters:

▪ Low-pass filter: passes low frequencies and stops high frequencies.

▪ High-pass filter: passes high frequencies and rejects low frequencies.

▪ Band-pass filter: passes frequencies within a frequency band and blocks or

attenuates frequencies outside the band.

▪ Band-reject filter: passes frequencies outside a frequency band and blocks or

attenuates frequencies within the band.
31

3.3. Filters
Low-pass RC filter
1
❑ Critical frequency: fc =
2 RC
Vout 1
❑ Output-to-input voltage ratio: =
Vin 1 + ( f / fc )
2
32

3.3. Filters
High-pass RC filter
1
❑ Critical frequency: fc =
2 RC

❑ Output-to-input voltage ratio: Vout =

( f / fc )
Vin 1 + ( f / fc )
2
33

3.3. Filters
Band-pass RC filter
1 1
❑ Critical frequency: fL =
2 RH CH
and fH =
2 RLCL

❑ Output-to-input voltage ratio:

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝐻 𝑓 𝑅𝐻
= ,𝑟 =
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑓 2 − 𝑓𝐻 𝑓𝐿 2 + 𝑓𝐿 + 1 + 𝑟 𝑓𝐻 2 𝑓 2 𝑅𝐿
34

3.3. Filters
Band-reject RC filter