See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/339060440

Evaluating energy efficiency and economic effect of heat transfer in copper

tube for small solar linear Fresnel reflector

Article  in  Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry · March 2021

DOI: 10.1007/s10973-020-09384-6

CITATIONS READS

10 291

6 authors, including:

Evangelos Bellos Zafar Said

National Technical University of Athens University of Sharjah
186 PUBLICATIONS   3,746 CITATIONS    129 PUBLICATIONS   2,197 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Boussad Boumeddane
Saad Dahlab University
66 PUBLICATIONS   497 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

olive wastes gasification View project

Numerical Study of Multi-jets flows View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Evangelos Bellos on 05 August 2020.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 1 Evaluating energy efficiency and economic effect of heat transfer in copper
2 tube for small solar Linear Fresnel Reflector
3
4 Mokhtar Ghodbane1, Evangelos Bellos2, Zafar Said3,*, Boussad Boumeddane1, Ahmed
5 Kadhim Hussein 4, Lioua Kolsi5,6
6
7
1
8 Mechanical Engineering Department, Saad Dahlab University, Blida 1, Algeria.
2
9 Thermal Department, School of Mechanical Engineering, National Technical University of
10 Athens, Athens, Greece.
3
11 Sustainable Energy Development Research Group, College of Engineering, University of
12 Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
4
13 College of Engineering - Mechanical Engineering Department – University of Babylon -
14 Babylon City – Hilla – Iraq.
5
15 Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Haïl University, Haïl City
16 2440, Saudi Arabia.
6
17 Research Unit of Metrology and Energy Systems, National Engineering School, Energy
18 Engineering Department, University of Monastir, 5000 Monastir, Tunisia. E-mail:
19 *Corresponding author: zaffar.ks@gmail.com; zsaid@sharjah.ac.ae;
20 ghodbanemokhtar39@yahoo.com
21
22
23 Abstract
24 An experimental and numerical investigation of a small linear Fresnel for water heating
25 application has been carried out at Blida, Algeria. The numerical simulation with a 1D
26 modeling in transient mode was performed by using the finite difference method. The thermal
27 evaluation is based on the energy assessments characterized by the differential equations of
28 pure water with a flow mass rate equals to 0.015 kg s-1 and copper absorber tube temperature.
29 Moreover, the Fluent code has been developed in order to conduct the CFD modeling at the
30 absorber tube of the solar collector. SolTrace software has been used to determine the optical
31 behavior of the linear reflector. The average optical efficiency of the device is about 42.97 %,
32 but the average value of the experimental thermal efficiency reached 29.21% for 22/01/2015
33 and 29.20% for 19/02/2015. The average value of pure water temperature for 22/01/2015 is
34 67.28°C, while its value for 19/02/2015 is 70.99°C. This solar experimental setup will reduce
35 the consumption of liquefied natural gas by 88.9 m3, which will reduce the CO2 emission by
36 187.93 kg. In addition, its manufacturing cost will be recovered 16 years from the date of use
37 of this heater.
38
39
40 Keywords: Linear Fresnel collector; Experimental setup; Numerical simulation; CFD
41 modeling; Solar water heater;
42

1
43 1. INTRODUCTION

44 Hot water is the daily necessities of life, industrial or household, where it can be
45 provided in several ways. The most popular techniques used in water heating are:
46  Heating the water with electricity, but this is very expensive.
47  Water is heated by gas, but not all regions are equipped with fossil energy. This
48 energy is also expensive in countries that buy fossil fuels.
49  Use of wood and carbon to heat water, but these techniques have tragic consequences
50 on the ecosystem such as deforestation and desertification. In addition, with the demographic
51 explosion and population expansion, the heat energy provided by burning wood and carbon to
52 heat the water cannot be provided to everyone.
53 As noted, traditional energy sources directed at water heating have their drawbacks.
54 This is why the world has turned its attention to the research and experimentation of
55 sustainable energy sources led by solar energy, which provide them with hot water for all
56 their daily industrial and domestic needs.
57 Therefore, solar energy is considered one of the important sources of modern energy, it
58 is natural, non-polluting, permanent and free. One of the most important industrial
59 developments of the century is the direct conversion of solar energy into thermal or
60 photovoltaic energy [1-3], where the most important uses of solar thermal energy is air
61 heating [4-7], desalination [8-10], cooling [11-14] and water heating [15-18], these processes
62 are important in the requirements of daily living. In addition, solar energy is an important
63 source of energy that is exploited using many technologies controlled by:
64  Type, dimensions, optical characteristics and thermal behavior of the solar collector
65 [19-22].
66  Type and thermophysical characteristics of the heat transfer fluid (HTF) [23-26], as
67 there is a lot of scientific research that is currently recommended using nanofluid technology
68 to improve the convection coefficient of heat transfer fluids when using solar collectors [27-
69 30]. The thermal convection coefficient is a very important physical quantity in all heat
70 transfer phenomena [31-33], such as cooling, heating, air conditioning, refrigeration,
71 generation of saturated steam for electrical stations and industrial processes [34-36].
72 Therefore, it can be said that nanotechnology as a means of improving heat transfer
73 coefficients is a very successful approach that has witnessed significant development in the
74 field of scientific research [37-39], and this is proven by much valuable scientific research
75 carried out recently [40-42].
76  Climate conditions surrounding the studied solar system [43-45]. Also, dust and many
77 fine dirt falling on the solar collector have a direct impact on the efficacy of the solar system
78 [46].
79 Solar collectors can be used as devices for heating water [47, 48], with emphasis on the
80 solar electricity used to operate water pumps. Also, the use of suitable materials for the
81 manufacture of hot water tanks should be considered [49-51], so solar energy is the
82 sustainable and clean energy sources that can fill the vacuum left by conventional energy
83 sources designed to heat water [52-54]. Solar devices to heat water have become an urgent
84 necessity all over the world that utilize acceptable amounts of solar radiation [55, 56]. In
85 addition, solar water heaters have two very important positive points, these two points are low
86 cost, and these setups are considered friendly with the environment. Also, solar thermal
87 systems are an integral part of heating technology and are an important goal to reduce the

2
 88 consumption of fuel and its derivatives in all its forms and types, thus maintaining a cleaner
89 environment by reducing toxic emissions from combustion processes, reducing the burden on
90 the environment and climate of the land.
91 According to Ghodbane et al. [57-59], small linear Fresnel solar reflectors are simple
92 solar devices that can be used to heat water. This solar technique depends on the linear solar
93 focus [60-62]. This family of linear solar concentrators has developed in recent years in many
94 countries, where these solar reflectors depend on the use of beam radiation [63-65]. In
95 addition, this technique allows electricity production from solar energy, where the heat
96 transfer fluid temperature can easily exceed 450 °C [57, 58].
97 Many important scientific studies have been done to study linear Fresnel solar
98 collectors. Among these researches, Bellos et al. [64-66] have found that it is an attractive
99 young solar technology. Also, Bellos et al. [67] have done an experimental and numerical
100 study on linear Fresnel solar concentrator with a flat plate receiver; this study is very
101 important, as the research team saw the impact of the engineering dimension on the efficiency
102 of this type of solar concentrators. Moreover, Bellos [68], concluded his research in this field
103 with a critical study that included and collected everything related to the status of linear
104 Fresnel solar reflectors. Besides, Bellos et al. studied the possibility of improving the LFRs
105 performance using nanomaterials and absorbent inner fins [69]. In addition, Pulido-
106 Iparraguirre et al. [70], have studied the ideal shape of the linear Fresnel collector for good
107 utilization in various thermal applications. As well as in the literature it has found that
108 Ghodbane et al. [43], have studied the possibility of establishing a solar station based on the
109 Fresnel solar concentrators in the Algerian Sahara.
110 When looking at the uses of LFR technology in the literature regardless of water
111 heating, it has been found that its uses are numerous, such as air conditioning and heating
112 [71], power generation [72], combined heat and power process [73], and desalination [74]. In
113 addition, this specific technology defines significant daily development in order to improve its
114 thermal efficiency and reduce optical losses. This technique has many kinds that differ from
115 each other; for example the way they focus the direct beam or the engineering dimensions of
116 the mirrors (flat, curved), or the dimensions of the receiving system (cylindrical tubes, flat,
117 with a secondary reflector, hybrid). The most known branches of this growing technology in
118 the literature are:
119  Simple linear Fresnel reflectors (LFRs);
120  Compact linear Fresnel reflectors (CLFRs) [75, 76];
121  Beam-down linear Fresnel reflectors (BDLFRs) [77];
122  Stretched parabolic linear Fresnel reflectors (SPLFRs) [78].
123 Regarding the heat transfer fluids that are used with this solar device, they are many,
124 such as water [79], water-steam [43], MWCNTs/DW [59], industrial oils (Transcal oil [78],
125 Therminol VP-1 [71], Syltherm 800 [80], molten salt and liquid sodium [81]). All these
126 published articles on the LFR device demonstrate the ability to use it in various fields such as
127 home and industrial branches, as this technology is known for its cheap price and easy
128 maintenance compared to the rest of the solar technologies [43, 59, 68].
129 Therefore, it can be said that a small LFR can solve the problem of household heating even at
130 lower temperatures in many regions characterized by abundant solar radiation. On the other
131 hand, this small device has the ability to change the shape of the receiver system (cylindrical
132 absorber tube (s), parallel rectangular absorption system, photovoltaic cell) as needed. Having
133 mentioned the above, the idea of designing a small solar system (LFR) for use in domestic

3
134 fields, for the purpose of heating water in a very cold area in the Plain of Algeria was
135 experimentally investigated.
136 For the satisfaction of hot water needs in Algeria, the use of solar energy is to be
137 considered especially as the country benefits from a large amount of solar radiation
138 throughout the national territory [82]. This study focuses on the small linear Fresnel solar
139 concentrators, which are used to heat the water. In previous scientific papers [57, 58], the
140 components of the experimental prototype device were studied and real experimental work on
141 it was conducted. In addition, a detailed optical study on the experimental setup was recently
142 conducted by Said et al. [79], where all the basic optical factors of this solar reflector were
143 highlighted. Also, Ghodbane et al. have demonstrated that the technology of MWCNTs
144 nanoparticles improves the thermal performance of this prototype with an increase of 4.6%
145 [59]. Moreover, a numerical simulation was performed in order to demonstrate the thermal
146 behavior of the experimental prototype device with the trapezoidal cavity. This study aims to
147 fulfill the following objectives:
148  Determination of optical behavior of the linear solar receiver by using modeling,
149 where this modeling has been done using SolTrace software;
150  Determination of optical efficiency of the experimental prototype device by using
151 Matlab software;
152  Determine the thermal efficiency of the experimental prototype setup by using the
153 numerical simulation by Matlab Software, the modeling by Fluent and through experimental
154 work.
155 These steps were useful to obtain results, and help the reader to understand the thermal
156 behavior at the linear solar receiver of the experimental prototype setup. Therefore, this study
157 consists of evaluating the economic and energy efficiency of this solar water heater and do a
158 comparison of the results obtained by the three methods used in this study.
159 So, this study combines four important points for every scientific researcher in the field
160 of mechanics and thermal systems. These four points are the manufacture of a small solar
161 reflector and performing experimental investigations on it, developing a digital program on
162 the Matlab that allows simulating the thermal and optical behavior of the studied device or
163 any similar solar device, tracking the LFR optical behavior through the use of the SolTrace
164 and finally doing a CFD modeling of the studied solar system using Fluent for validation
165 purposes.

166 2. EXPERIMENTAL PROTOTYPE DEVICE

167 Water heating is one of the most widespread applications of solar energy. Four essential
168 parts make up a solar water heating system; these parts are the solar thermal collector, the hot
169 water storage tank, the regulation set, and the distribution system. In this study, solar radiation
170 is captured by a small linear Fresnel solar reflector, which captures direct-normal solar
171 irradiation “DNI, (W.m-2)”. A set of flat mirrors that reflect direct solar radiation towards the
172 receiver tube that is coated with a special suitable selective surface. The heat that reached the
173 absorber tube from the Sun is recovered by the water, which heats while circulating in a
174 receiver tube placed in the central line of the trapezoidal cavity. As the studied device of small
175 size, hot water obtained can be used in many uses such as the shower, the kitchen and the
176 dishes during the winter.

4
177 2.1. Experimental setup

178 The study has been carried out in the Blida region (the coordinates are 36° 29' 00"
179 North, 2° 50' 00" East, the elevation is 229 m and the area is 53.26 km²), which is located in a
180 Mitidja plain in Algeria. The solar concentrator studied in this paper is a small linear Fresnel
181 Receiver. The total area of reflective mirrors “ST, (m²)” of this device is estimated at 1.65 m²,
182 where the solar device was installed at the level of the mechanical department at the
183 University of Blida 1, Algeria.

184
185 Figure 1. Experimental setup with a trapezoidal cavity.
186
187 The experimental device is made up of eleven mirrors that reflect direct-normal solar
188 irradiation, copper absorber tube, trapezoidal cavity, the tally interior of fixing the reflective
189 mirrors and framework support external.

a) Cross-section of
the trapezoidal
cavity.

5
 b) The 3D
appearance
of the
trapezoidal
cavity.

190 Figure 2. Arrangement of the trapezoidal cavity: a) Cross-section of the trapezoidal

191 cavity b) 3D appearance of the trapezoidal cavity.
192
193 With regard to the copper absorber tube of the experimental setup, it can be shown in
194 Fig. 3, in which the absorber tube is inside the trapezoidal cavity. This cavity is open from the
195 bottom; so that the beam radiation inverted by the flat mirrors can reach the absorber tube.
196 The primary role of this trapezoidal cavity is to recover the solar radiation that has not
197 reached the absorber tube. Therefore, it can be considered as a secondary reflector. In
198 addition, it reduces the thermal loss at the receiver tube level.

199
200 Figure 3. 1D model illustration of the copper absorber tube.
201
202 The absorber tube consists of four cylindrical tubes coated with the Al-PBS selective
203 surface is placed in parallel and connected to each other. The water enters from one
204 cylindrical entrance, then distributed inside the four tubes, and meets again to emerge from
205 the cylindrical exit as shown in Fig. 3. The dimensions of this experimental setup with the
206 trapezoidal cavity are presented in Table 1.
207 Table 1. Solar collector dimensions [7, 57].
208
Component Value
Outer diameter of the copper pipe (DA,ext) 0.022 m
Inner diameter of the linear receiver (DA,int) 0.020 m
Absorber tube length (LAb) 1.6 m
Mirror length (Lm) 1.5 m
Mirror width (W) 0.1 m
Focal distance (F) 1.3 m
Total area of reflective mirrors (ST) 1.65 m²
209

6
210 The estimated making costs of the experimental prototype is about 347€ [57], this
211 amount includes all the costs necessary to purchase the raw materials for the manufacture of
212 this small solar reflector. Table 2 contains the optical properties of the experimental device
213 components.
214 Table 2. Optical features of the studied device [7, 57, 79].
215
Features Value
Receiver tube absorptivity (αAb) 0.80
Mirror reflection coefficient ( ρm ) 0.85
Receiver tube emissivity (εAb) 0.12
216
217 Two days were selected to conduct the experimental works, which are 22/01/2015 and
218 19/02/2015. The weather conditions for these two days were good with some light clouds.

219 2.2. Uncertainty analysis

220 The energy quantity acquired by the water from the absorber tube is calculated as
221 follows [57]:
q m
  CpF  (T T ) (1)
gain fo fi
222 For this study, the water temperature when it enters the linear receiver is equal to 12 °C, and
223 the flow of water inside the tube is 0.015 kg.s-1.
224 The optical efficiency is given by the following equation [43]:
 opt = α Ab  ρ m    K t ( t )  K l ( l ) (2)

225 Where the optical coefficients (, Kl (θl) and Kt (θt)) of the studied device are shown in Fig. 4.
Kl(l) Kt(t) Intercept factor ()
1.0 1.0
Optical factors (19/02/2015)
Optical factors (22/01/2015)

0.9 0.9

0.8 0.8

0.7 0.7

0.6 0.6

0.5 0.5

0.4 0.4

0.3 0.3

0.2 0.2
55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90

226 Incidence angle (°) Incidence angle (°)

227 Figure 4. Assessment of the optical coefficients “, Kl (θl) and Kt (θt)” [79].

7
228 The thermal efficiency is given by [43]:
U A
L A, ext
 T T
Ab amb

η th  η  (3)
opt DNI  S
e
229 The global coefficient of heat loss is calculated as follows [59]:

U L  h w  ε Ab  σ  (TAb
2
 Tamb
2
)  (TAb  Tamb )  (4)

230 3. OPTICAL MODELING

231 Firstly, the distribution of heat flux on the surface of the receiver tube was carried out
232 using the SolTrace code based on the Monte-Carlo method, where SolTrace is a ray-tracing
233 model. It is a code developed by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) to
234 model the solar concentration power plants of various kinds and analyze their optical
235 performances.
236 In the present work, the optical modeling has been used to calculate the heat flow
237 intensity on the absorber tube surface and their distribution according to the beam radiation
238 and the geometrical parameters of the studied reflector. Fig. 5 illustrates the eleven arrange
239 mirrors position and the captured solar energy as presented in SolTrace.

240
241 Figure 5. Linear Fresnel solar receiver schematization by SolTrace with 25 solar beams.

8
242 The most important factors of this optical study are the optical properties of the flat
243 mirrors and the receiver tube, the variation in the beam radiation according to time, and the
244 number of the reflective mirror. In this work, the four tubes of the absorber tube are
245 represented as one plate. Since they are in fact very close and covered with a special suitable
246 selective surface. Then, the heat flux intensity and the solar flux distribution obtained from
247 the optical modeling with SolTrace were taken as a boundary condition in the wall of the
248 absorber tube, where this physical phenomenon at the absorber tube was processed and
249 analyzed by a CFD code using Fluent software. Finally, the thermal performances obtained by
250 the CFD modeling were compared with the experimental and numerical results in order to
251 validate the model used.

252 4. THERMAL MODELING

253 The physical problems encountered in this study are described by partial differential
254 equations (PDE). These equations will allow defining the thermal behavior of the energy
255 equilibrium at the receiver level. These equations strongly coupled and non-linear.
256 In this paper, the copper-coated tube with a special selective surface has been placed in
257 the focal line inside the trapezoidal cavity. Modes of the heat transfer in the receiver pipe are
258 illustrated in Fig. 6. The heat balance modes of the exhaust tube are:
259  Thermal convection between the receiver tube and the water.
260  Thermal convection between the receiver tube and the surrounding air.
261 For more details about the numerical simulation of the heat balance, the reader can go back to
262 the scientific work by Ghodbane et al. [58]. The finite difference method has been used to
263 simplify the heat balance relations. The hypotheses that were taken into account during the
264 simulation can be summarized as follows [58, 83]:
265  The study is one-dimensional, taking into account the change in time.
266  The change in water temperature causes a change in the thermophysical
267 properties.
268  The receiver tube thickness is not taken into consideration (neglected), i.e.,
269 thermal conductivity at the level of the receiver wall is neglected.
270  At the level of the absorption wall of the tube, the thermal flow intensity is
271 regular, as it is equal to the average value of the thermal flow.

272
273 Figure 6. Illustration scheme for thermal balance.

9
274 After analyzing and simplifying the energy balance equations, these two equations were
275 produced:
276  Absorber tube temperature variation
277
Δt  q (X, t)
T Ab (X, t)  T Ab, j (X, t - Δt)   absorbed
ρ A  Cp A  A A  ΔX

 h w  π  D A, ext (T Ab (X, t)  T amb (t)) (5)
 ε Ab  σ  π  D A, ext (T 4 (X, t)  T 4 (t))
Ab amb
 h F  π  D A, int (T Ab (X, t)  T HTF (X, t)) 
278  Water temperature variation
Δt  V
T HTF (X, t)  T HTF (X, t - Δt)   T (X, t) 
ΔX  π  D A, int  ΔX HTF
ρ F  Cp F T (X  ΔX, t)  V
HTF
ρ F  Cp F T (X, t)  π  D A, int  ΔX T HTF (X  ΔX, t)  (6)
HTF

1 
h F  (T Ab (X, t)  T HTF (X, t)) 

ρ F  Cp F 
T HTF (X, t) 

279 5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

280 5.1. Weather conditions

281 Algeria from countries receiving daily huge amounts of solar energy [82]. Blida is one
282 of the Algerian provinces, which is characterized by extremely cold weather accompanied by
283 humidity in the winter and it is hot and humid in the summer.
284 For the experimental study, weather data were measured from 10:00 to 16:00 at the
285 Mechanical Department of Saad Dahlab University, Blida region at Algeria. In order to
286 measure weather data these devices have been used:
287  Solar radiation: measured using the Kipp & Zonen CM 11 electronic pyranometer with
288 1% accuracy;
289  Air temperature: measured by using the type-K thermocouples with 0.01°C accuracy;
290  Wind speed: measured using the Kimo LV 110 propeller anemometer with ± 0.1 m.s-1
291 accuracy.
292 Fig. 7 shows the change in the beam radiation in terms of time for experimental
293 workdays (22/01/2015 and 19/02/2015). Fig. 7 illustrates that the extreme value of beam
294 radiation on 19/02/2015 is 760 W.m-2 at 13:00. As for 22/01/2015, it was characterized by the
295 passing of some minor clouds between 12:00 and 14:00.

10
 Direct-normal irradiation (W.m-2)
760
722
684
646
608
570
532
494
456
418
22/01/2015
380
342 19/02/2015
304
266
228
10 11 12 13 14 15 16
296 Time (Hour)
297 Figure 7. Measured values variation of direct solar radiation during the testing days.
298
299 The values are shown in Fig. 7 are real values of the direct solar beam obtained by the Kipp &
300 Zonen CM 11 electronic pyranometer with 1% accuracy. These values are very significant
301 and are measured in the winter, which is known as the very cold, especially in the Blida
302 region of Algeria.
303 Fig. 8 combines the variation in ambient air temperature and the change in wind speed
304 for the two studied days of the experimental work.
21 3.75
Ambient air temperature (°C)

20 3.50
3.25
19 3.00
Wind speed (m.s-1)

18 22/01/2015 2.75
19/02/2015 2.50
17
22/01/2015 2.25
16 2.00
19/02/2015
15 1.75
1.50
14
1.25
13 1.00
12 0.75
0.50
11 0.25
10 0.00
10 11 12 13 14 15 16

305 Time (Hour)

306 Figure 8. Variation of the climatic conditions.
307
308 The variation in weather data has a direct impact on the efficiency of the experimental
309 setup, so these important data must be carefully examined.

310 5.2. Performances evaluation

311 Now, the results obtained by SolTrace will be presented in this section. Figs. 9 and 10
312 illustrate respectively the contours of heat flow intensity and heat flow distributions to the

11
313 absorber with two values of direct-normal solar irradiation. The values selected are 760 W.m-2
314 and 246 W.m-2.

Figure 9. Flow intensity contours on the level of the absorber (W.m -2).
316
317 It is noticeable that a uniform distribution is obtained over a width equals to the width of
318 the mirror element. In addition, it can be observed that the concentration quickly falls, as one
319 goes towards the outside of this uniformly lit central part.

320 Figure 10. Flow distribution on the level of the absorber (W.m -2).
321
322 Likewise, it is observed that the intensity of the thermal flow increases with the growth of the
323 instantaneous beam radiation.
324 Fig. 11 shows the change in the heat flux intensity on the absorber tube surface. These
325 results were obtained by using SolTrace. These results are very logical, where they illustrate
326 thermal behavior on the receiver surface on three forms; the first is the maximum values of
327 the thermal flux intensity, the second is the minimum values while the third is the average
328 values. During CFD modeling by using Fluent, the average thermal flux intensity was entered
329 as data.

12
 Peak flux (19/02/2015)
8500 Avg. flux (19/02/2015) 7500
8000 Min flux (19/02/2015)

Flux intensity (W.m-2)

7000
7500 Peak flux (22/01/2015)

Flux intensity (W.m-2)

6500
7000 Avg. flux (22/01/2015)
Min flux (22/01/2015)
6000
6500
6000 5500
5500 5000
5000 4500
4500 4000
4000 3500
3500 3000
3000 2500
2500
2000 2000
1500 1500
1000 1000
500 500
250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750

330 Direct-normal solar irradiation (W.m-2)

331 Figure 11. Assessment of heat flux intensity.
332
333 Fig. 11 shows a close-up representation of the truth for the thermal flux distribution of
334 its various values on the copper absorber tube surface. Fig. 11 illustrates that the local
335 concentration ratio (LCR) can be obtained in terms of the instantaneous solar beam, as it is
336 also shown in Fig. 12, where LCR is a very important specific parameter in the LFR
337 technology, which represents the ratio of the flux density perceived by the receiver to the
338 beam radiation density.

Local concentration ratio "LCR"

Local concentration ratio "LCR"

10.5 11.0
10.0 10.5
9.5 Peak flux (22/01/2015)
10.0
Avg. flux (22/01/2015)
9.0 9.5
Min flux (22/01/2015)
8.5 9.0
Peak flux (19/02/2015)
8.0 8.5
Avg. flux (19/02/2015)
8.0
7.5 Min flux (19/02/2015)
7.5
7.0 7.0
6.5 6.5
6.0 6.0
5.5 5.5
5.0 5.0
4.5
4.5 4.0
4.0 3.5
3.5 3.0
250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750
339 Direct-normal solar irradiation (W.m-2)
340 Figure 12. Evolution of local concentration ratio « LCR ».
341
342 For the solar reflector understudy, the local concentration ratio changes from 3.42 to
343 10.21 for 22/01/2015, while it varies from 3.034 to 10.97for 19/01/2019. With regard to the
344 average optical efficiency of the studied device, it was estimated at 42.97 %.

13
 0.429925
0.429900 19/02/2015
0.429875 22/01/2015

Optical efficiencies
0.429850
0.429825
0.429800
0.429775
0.429750
0.429725
0.429700
0.429675
0.429650
0.429625
0.429600
10 11 12 13 14 15 16

345 Time (Hour)

346 Figure 13. Optical efficiencies assessment.
347
348 Therefore, the distribution of the perceived solar flux on the external surface of the absorber
349 tubes caused by the optical reflection phenomenon of direct solar radiation by reflective
350 mirrors. It is observed from Fig. 13 that the change in the optical performance of the two
351 study days from sunrise to sunset has exceeded 42.96%, as this value is very significant for
352 this class of solar concentrators.
353 Figs. 14a and 14b illustrate the evolution of thermal efficiency versus time.

Difference in thermal efficiency

a)

based on experimental results

Experimental (22/01/2015)
0.292125 Numerical (22/01/2015) opt=42.97% 0.000175
CFD (22/01/2015)
(Exp-CFD) 0.000150
0.292100 (Exp-Num)
Thermal efficiency

0.000125
0.292075
0.000100
0.292050 0.000075
0.292025 0.000050

0.292000 0.000025
0.000000
0.291975
-0.000025
0.291950 -0.000050
0.291925 -0.000075
10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Time (Hour)

14
 Difference in thermal efficiency
b)

based on experimental results

Experimental (19/02/2015)

0.292075
Numerical (19/02/2015)
CFD (19/02/2015) opt=42.97% 0.000100
(Exp-CFD)
0.292050 (Exp-Num)
0.000075

Thermal efficiency
0.292025
0.292000 0.000050
0.291975 0.000025
0.291950
0.291925 0.000000

0.291900 -0.000025
0.291875
-0.000050
0.291850
0.291825 -0.000075
10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Time (Hour)
354 Figure 14. Thermal efficiencies evolution: a) 22/01/2015 and b) 19/02/2015.

355 It can be noticed from Figs. 14a and 14b that the thermal efficiency is almost the same for
356 both days of study, with the presence of a small gap between the experimental, the numerical
357 simulation and CFD modeling results. This gap reflects the good adaptation and ideal mirrors
358 coordination in the direction of the sun during the practical experiments. Therefore, it can be
359 concluded that the present solar collector has a convergence in the thermal efficiency curves.
360 Based on Figs. 14a and 14b, thermal efficiency curves can be analyzed as follows:
361  The mean thermal efficiency difference between experimental and numerical results of
362 thermal efficiency for 22/01/2015 is 3.142×10-5.
363  The mean thermal efficiency difference between experimental and CFD results of
364 thermal efficiency for 22/01/2015 is 9.285×10-5.
365  The mean thermal efficiency difference between experimental and numerical results of
366 thermal efficiency for 19/02/2015 is 4.428×10-5.
367  The mean thermal efficiency difference between experimental and CFD results of
368 thermal efficiency for 19/02/2015 is 1.857×10-5.
369 As a summary of the experimental thermal efficiency of the solar system, the average thermal
370 efficiency for 22/01/2015 is 29.207 %, while its value for 19/02/2015 is 29.197 %.

371 5.3. Temperatures evaluation

372 The experimental study consists of two parts. In the first part, the pure water is stagnant
373 in the absorber tube without flow or movement in order to determine the maximum values of
374 temperature that could be reached by the linear concentrator. Initially, the tests are performed
375 with an ordinary black paint (the absorption coefficient “obp” is 0.92 and its emissivity
376 coefficient “obp” is 0.92); after that, the tests are carried out with a suitable selective coating
377 (absorption coefficient of the suitable selective surface (Al-PBS selective surface) “αss” 0.93
378 and its emissivity coefficient “ss” is 0.21).
379  The experiment was conducted using an absorber tube with an ordinary black
380 paint only, the experiment started at 11:00, where the pure water temperature is
381 equal to 18.66°C, the ambient temperature is 27.01°C and the direct-normal
382 solar irradiation is 615 W.m-2. The experiments are completed at 13:00, where
383 the direct-normal solar irradiation is equal to 708 W.m-2. It has been noted that

15
384 the pure water temperature varies proportionally with the time of exposure to the
385 sun. This variation is linear and increasing up to a temperature of 103°C. As for
386 the average temperature of the absorber tubes, it reached at 13:00 a value of 121
387 ° C. It is further noted that regardless of the exposure time the stagnant
388 temperature of the fluid does not exceed 103°C because the thermal losses are
389 equal to the incident energy.
390  Regarding the absorber tube wrapped with a suitable selective surface, the
391 stagnation temperature of pure water is 112°C and the absorber tube temperature
392 is 202°C. Compared to the previous case the conditions of the experiment are
393 almost the same except the direct-normal solar irradiation at the end of
394 measurements which is taken equal to 745 W.m-2.
395 Table 3. Summary of stagnation temperature.
Stagnation Stagnation
The timing temperature temperature
Case Envelope properties of the of absorber of pure water
experiment tube at 13:00 at 13:00
The absorption
an ordinary black coefficient “obp” is 0.92
121 °C 103 °C
paint The emissivity
coefficient “obp” is 0.92 From 11:00
a suitable The absorption to 13:00
selective surface coefficient “ss” is 0.93
202 °C 112 °C
(Al-PBS selective The emissivity
surface) coefficient “ss” is 0.21
396
397 After the comparison between the results of table (3), it can be said that the absorber tube
398 without a selective surface has a high absorption capacity for visible solar radiation, but it has
399 a low emissivity for the infrared radiation with a long wavelength. It is for this reason that a
400 selective surface suitable for the absorption of long-wave infrared radiation is used. An
401 absorber tube wrapped with a selective surface keeps a large amount of incident thermal
402 energy and loses very little heat by extended wavelength radiation when the receiver wall is
403 hot. It is noted that the pure water temperature exceeds 100 °C; this means that the water is
404 transformed into steam by absorbing a quantity of heat equivalent to the latent heat of
405 vaporization.
406 In the second part, the pure water is circulating inside the receiver tube, in order to
407 determine the collector performance. In this part, the heat results will be presented in the form
408 of a comparison between the numerical simulation by Matlab software, CFD modeling by
409 Fluent code and experimental work results, where the numerical results are obtained via
410 solving the equations 5 and 6 by using the implicit finite difference method. Fig. 15 shows
411 some of the CFD modeling results obtained by Fluent code versus the beam radiation, where
412 the distribution of the instantaneous hot water temperature in the absorber tubes is shown in
413 this figure.

16
414
415 Figure 15. Water temperatures contours obtained by CFD modeling.
416
417 Fig. 15 illustrates the variation of the water temperature over the length of the absorber
418 tubes. It increases when the water flows horizontally with the x-axis to the outlet of the
419 receiver tubes due to the large heat exchange between the internal wall of the absorber tubes
420 and the water that flows with 0.015 kg s-1. There are many factors that directly affect the heat
421 exchange between the water and the receiver tubes, the most important of which are the
422 intensity of direct solar radiation, the instantaneous temperature of the external air
423 surrounding the studied system, the instantaneous velocity of the wind and the value of the
424 mass flow of water inside the absorber tubes because the water mass flow and the energy
425 amount that water acquires by convection from contact with the inner wall of the receiver
426 tubes are changed inversely.
427 As mentioned previously, the number of reflective mirrors equals to 11, with an area of
428 1.65 m². A copper absorber tube covered with a suitable selective surface has been used.
429 Now, the results obtained will be compared. Figs. 16a and 16b illustrate the evolution of
430 absorber tube temperature versus the time for two workdays.

17
 based on experimental results (°C)
a) Experimental (22/01/2015)

Absorber tube temperature (°C)

Numerical (22/01/2015)
CFD (22/01/2015)
(Exp-CFD)
95.0

Difference in temperature
(Exp-Num) 8
92.5 7
90.0 6
87.5 5
85.0 4
82.5 3
2
80.0 1
77.5 0
75.0 -1
72.5 -2
70.0 -3
-4
67.5 -5
65.0 -6
62.5 -7
10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Time (Hour)

based on experimental results (°C)

Absorber tube temperature (°C)

b) Experimental (19/02/2015)
Numerical (19/02/2015)
CFD (19/02/2015)
(Exp-CFD)
2

Difference in temperature
(Exp-Num)
95
1

90 0

-1
85
-2

80 -3

-4
75
-5

70 -6
10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Time (Hour)
431 Figure 16. Evolution of absorber tube temperature: a) 22/012015 and b) 19/02/2015.
432
433 According to Fig. 16a and for the day of 22/01/2015, the absorber tube temperature starts to
434 increase from the beginning of the measurement until they reach the maximum at 12:00, and
435 then they decrease until it reaches the minimum value at 16:00. The clouds that crossed the
436 experimental zone between 12:00 and 14:00 had an obvious impact on the results. Since the
437 solar radiation of 19/01/2015 is stronger than that of 22/01/2015, the absorber tube
438 temperature measured on February 19 is greater than the absorber tube temperature measured
439 during the day of 22/01/2015. Therefore, depending on the Figs. 16a and 16b, receiver tube
440 temperature curves can be examined as follows:
441  The mean absorber tube temperature difference between experimental and numerical
442 results for 22/01/2015 is 1.414 °C.
443  The mean absorber tube temperature between experimental and CFD results for
444 22/01/2015 is 1.418 °C.

18
445  The mean absorber tube temperature difference between experimental and numerical
446 results for 19/02/2015 is 0.813 °C.
447  The mean absorber tube temperature difference between experimental and CFD results
448 for 19/02/2015 is 2.07 °C.
449 As a summary of the experimental absorber tube temperature of the studied collector, the
450 average value of absorber tube temperature for 22/01/2015 is 86.85 °C, while its value for
451 19/02/2015 is 82.42 °C.
452 On another hand, Figs. 17a and 17b illustrate the evolution of the pure water
453 temperature at the outlet of the absorber tube versus time for two studied days.
454

based on experimental results (°C)

a) Experimental (22/01/2015)
Numerical (22/01/2015)
CFD (22/01/2015)
Hot water temperature (°C)

Difference in temperature
77.5 (Exp-CFD) 0.0
(Exp-Num)
75.0 -0.5

72.5 -1.0
-1.5
70.0
-2.0
67.5
-2.5
65.0
-3.0
62.5 -3.5
60.0 -4.0
57.5 -4.5
10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Time (Hour)
based on experimental results (°C)
b)
Hot water temperature (°C)

82.5 3.0
Difference in temperature

80.0 1.5
0.0
77.5
-1.5
75.0 -3.0
72.5 -4.5

70.0 -6.0
Experimental (19/02/2015) -7.5
67.5 Numerical (19/02/2015)
CFD (19/02/2015)
-9.0
65.0 (Exp-CFD) -10.5
(Exp-Num)
62.5 -12.0
10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Time (Hour)
455 Figure 17. Hot water temperature assessment: a) 22/012015 and b) 19/02/2015.
456
457

19
458 It can be observed the existence of a similar space between the numerical solution, the
459 CFD modeling by Fluent and the experimental work results, which justifies a good agreement
460 between the various results. In addition, these figures indicate that the numerical simulation
461 by Matlab software is convincing and gives excellent results.
462 Based on Figs. 17a and 17b, pure water temperature curves can be resumed as follows:
463  The mean hot water temperature difference between experimental and numerical
464 values for 22/01/2015 is 1.208°C.
465  The mean hot water temperature difference between experimental and CFD values for
466 22/01/2015 is 1.677 °C.
467  The mean hot water temperature difference between experimental and numerical
468 values for 19/02/2015 is 5.653°C.
469  The mean hot water temperature difference between experimental and CFD values for
470 19/02/2015 is 3.81°C.
471 As a summary of the experimental pure water temperature of the studied reflector, the average
472 value of pure water temperature for 22/01/2015 is 67.28°C, while its value for 19/02/2015 is
473 70.99°C.
474 The change in absorber tube temperature has a direct effect on the temperature of the
475 pure water temperature because between them occurs the process of heat exchange through
476 convective heat. Table (4) shows the comparison of the maximum temperatures obtained.
477 Table 4. Comparison of temperature obtained.
Receiver tube temperature (°C) Hot Water temperature (°C)
Date
Experimental CFD Numerical Experimental CFD Numerical
22/01/2015 89.85 92.58 91.14 73.85 75.42 74.93
19/02/2015 93.85 95.06 94.16 78.85 78.98 81.10
478
479 Generally, the change in temperature is closely related to the energy gained from the
480 receiver tube. This energy is represented in terms of engineering dimensions of the
481 experimented device, optical factors of the flat mirrors and the receiver tube, and the climatic
482 conditions. It can be seen from Table (4) results that the temperature of pure water is inferior
483 to the temperature of the receiver tube, where the internal surface of the receiver wall captures
484 the infrared-emission, resulting in an increase in the copper pipe temperature. So, the exterior
485 surface temperature is lower, since the wind creates a convection phenomenon for the outside
486 absorber tube with the external environment.

487 5.4. Evaluation of the overall coefficient of heat loss

488 The overall coefficient of heat loss is an important factor. As this parameter was
489 smaller, undoubtedly the solar concentrator efficiency would be better. Figs. 18a and 18b
490 present the evolution of the overall coefficient of the heat loss versus the difference between
491 the receiver temperature and the ambient air temperature.

20
 experimental results (W/m-2.°C-1)
a) Experimental (22/01/2015)
Numerical (22/01/2015)

of heat loss "UL" (W.m-2.°C-1)

Difference in "UL" based on

1.025 CFD (22/01/2015) 0.010
(Exp-CFD)
(Exp-Num) 0.005
1.000
0.000
Overall coefficient 0.975 -0.005
-0.010
0.950
-0.015
0.925 -0.020
-0.025
0.900
-0.030
0.875 -0.035
-0.040
0.850
-0.045
0.825 -0.050
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
[TAb-Tamb] (°C)

experimental results (W/m-2.°C-1)

b) Experimental (19/02/2015)
Numerical (19/02/2015)
of heat loss "UL" (W.m-2.°C-1)

Difference in "UL" based on

1.050 CFD (19/02/2015) 0.0050
(Exp-CFD) 0.0025
1.025 (Exp-Num)
0.0000
Overall coefficient

-0.0025
1.000
-0.0050
0.975 -0.0075
-0.0100
0.950 -0.0125
-0.0150
0.925
-0.0175
0.900 -0.0200
-0.0225
0.875 -0.0250
35 40 45 50 55 60 65
[TAb-Tamb] (°C)
492 Figure 18. Assessment of heat loss coefficient “UL, (W.m-2.°C-1)”: a) 22/012015 and b)
493 19/02/2015.
494
495 It is notable that the results obtained in the three methods are very close to each other.
496 Generally, the thermal loss increases rapidly when the inlet water temperature increases or the
497 temperature of the receiver increases. The following points indicate the variation of the
498 thermal losses coefficient for the examined days:

499  The mean difference of the thermal loss coefficient between experimental and
500 numerical values for 22/01/2015 is 0.015 W.m-2.°C-1.
501  The mean difference of the thermal loss coefficient between experimental and CFD
502 value for 22/01/2015 is 0.023 W.m-2.°C-1.
503  The mean difference of the thermal loss coefficient between experimental and
504 numerical values for 19/02/2015 is 0.0133 W.m-2.°C-1.

21
505  The mean difference of the thermal loss coefficient between experimental and CFD
506 values for 19/02/2015 is 0.018 W.m-2.°C-1.
507 As a summary of the experimental overall coefficient of heat loss, the average value overall
508 coefficient of heat loss for 22/01/2015 is 0.935 W.m-2.°C-1, while its value for 19/02/2015 is
509 0.975 W.m-2.°C-1.

510 6. FINANCIAL STUDY AND PROFITABILITY

511 In this part, the economic and financial aspects of the studied solar collector have been
512 combined as shown in Table (5).
513 Table 5. A general overview of the financial status of the studied solar reflector.
Element Value
Installed solar collector surface (ST) 1.65 m²
Power installed 1.16 kW
Irradiation on the surface of the solar collector 2 086.15 kWh/m²
Energy delivered by the solar collector 896.42 kWh/m²
Energy delivered to the water 261.84 kWh/m²
Economy of Natural Gas (LNG) 88.9 m³
Emission of CO2 avoided 187.93 kg
Daily average consumption of hot water 0.4 m3
Days without consumption of hot water 214
System performance 19.57% - 545.68 kWh
346.332 € (according to the global value of the
Total investment cost
Algerian dinar in April 2016)
Cost thermal production 0.03954 €/kWh

514 Based on the results shown in Table (5), the design cost of the experimental setup can be fully
515 recovered 16 years after the beginning of its use, knowing that the Solar Water Heater is used
516 only for 151 days of each year (from 01 November to 31 March of each year).
517 One of the advantages of this device is that it is environmentally friendly and operates
518 free thermal energy, as the use of this device as a solar water heater will prevent the
519 environment from receiving an amount of CO2 estimated 187.93 kg. In addition, this
520 experimental setup is economical, where through it can reduce the bill of electricity and gas,
521 as 88.9 m3 of Liquefied natural gas has been preserved.

522 7. CONCLUSIONS

523 This study focused mainly on the small linear Fresnel solar reflector, which is based on
524 the principle of solar concentration. The device consists of two parts:
525  Lower part which represents the support of reflective mirrors that can rotate manually
526 following the sun course to constantly redirect and focus the beam radiation to the receiver
527 tube.

22
528  The upper part which is a trapezoidal cavity containing the receiver tube, where the
529 Water is heated by flowing in these horizontal tubes. This energy is transferred to a water
530 circuit for use in several areas.
531 In this study, an optical and a thermal test were performed on a small linear Fresnel
532 solar collector in a very cold Algerian region in the winter. Pure tap water has been used as a
533 heat transfer fluid. Two days were selected to conduct this work, namely 22/01/2015 and
534 19/02/2015, respectively. In order to demonstrate the optical behavior of the studied collector,
535 the study was conducted on the SolTrace code. In addition, the optical study was supported by
536 numerical simulation on the Matlab. In terms of demonstrating the real thermal behavior of
537 the solar system, experimental work was done. The experimental results were confirmed and
538 supported using numerical simulation on the Matlab code and CFD modeling using the Fluent
539 code. With regard to the results, it is indicated that:
540  The average optical efficiency of this solar device reached 42.97 %, but the average
541 value of the experimental thermal efficiency reached 29.207% for 22/01/2015 and 29.197%
542 for 19/02/2015.
543  The average value of absorber tube temperature for 22/01/2015 is 86.85 °C, while its
544 value for 19/02/2015 is 82.42 °C.
545  The average value of pure water temperature for 22/01/2015 is 67.28 °C, while its
546 value for 19/02/2015 is 70.99 °C.
547  The average value overall coefficient of heat loss for 22/01/2015 is 0.935 W m-2 °C-1,
548 while its value for 19/02/2015 is 0.975 W m-2 °C-1.
549 Based on the convergence between the experimental, numerical and CFD modeling
550 results, it can be said that the linear Fresnel concentrator, which is designed in the present
551 work, has an acceptable optical and thermal efficiency. As a summary, it can be concluded
552 that the experimental setup is practically capable of competing with traditional water heaters
553 (electric and fossil). This solar system can be relied upon to heat water rather than electric
554 heaters and fossil fuel heaters in many fields such as water heating Swimming pools, home
555 water heating, water heating in small enterprises, etc. Moreover, the use of this concentrator
556 as a water heater is an efficient, sustainable and economical choice.
557 With regard to the future of this solar device in future research, the research team will
558 work on the development of an automated system to rotate reflective mirrors to track the sun
559 according to the incidence angle from sunrise to sunset, in order to place this experimental
560 setup on a house roof and carry out practical experiments using automatic tracking.
561
562
563
564
565
566
567
568
569
570

23
571 Appendices

572 a. Flowchart for numerical simulation by Matlab

573

24
574 b. Flowchart for CFD modeling by Fluent

575
576 Nomenclature

Latin symbols
AA,ext Exterior surface of the receiver tube m²
CpF Water specific heat capacity J kg-1 °C-1
DA,ext Outer diameter of the copper pipe m
DA,int Inner diameter of the copper pipe m
DNI Solar direct beam radiation W m -2
F Focal distance m
hF Convection coefficient between the water and the receiver tube W m-2 °C-1
hw Heat transfer coefficient of wind W m-2 °C-1
Kl (θl) Longitudinal coefficient of incidence angle modifier /
Kt (θt) Transverse coefficient of incidence angle modifier /
LAb Receiver tube length m
Lm Flat mirror length m
m Water mass flow rate inside the receiver tube Kg s-1
qabsorbed Thermal power received by the receiver tube W
qgain Energy gained by the Water W
Se Effective surface of the flat mirrors m²
ST Total area of reflective mirrors m²
TAb Temperature of copper tube °C
Tamb Air temperature °C
Tfi Water temperature entering the absorber tube °C
Tfo Water outside temperature °C
UL Global coefficient of heat loss W m-2 °C-1
V Volumetric flow rate of water inside the absorber tube m3 s-1
W Mirror width m

25
 Greek symbols
 Intercept factor /
obp Ordinary black paint absorptivity /
αAb Receiver tube absorptivity /
αss Suitable selective surface absorptivity /
∆X Length element m
εAb Receiver tube emissivity /
obp Ordinary black paint emissivity /
εss Emissivity coefficient of suitable selective surface /
o
θi Incidence angle
ρF Water density Kg m-3
ρm Mirror reflection coefficient /
σ Stefan-Boltzmann constant W m °C-4
-2

Abbreviations
BDLFRs Beam-down linear Fresnel reflectors /
CFD Computational fluid dynamics /
CLFRs Compact linear Fresnel reflectors /
HTF Heat transfer fluid /
LFR Linear Fresnel reflector /
SPLFRs Stretched parabolic linear Fresnel reflectors /
577

578 References

579 1. Kalogirou, S.A., Solar thermal collectors and applications. Progress in Energy and
580 Combustion Science, 2004. 30(3): p. 231-295.
581 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2004.02.001.
582 2. Ammar, A.A., et al., Performance study on photovoltaic/thermal solar-assisted heat
583 pump system. Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, 2019. 136(1): p. 79-87.
584 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-018-7741-6.
585 3. Al-Musawi, A.I.A., et al., Numerical study of the effects of nanofluids and phase-
586 change materials in photovoltaic thermal (PVT) systems. Journal of Thermal Analysis
587 and Calorimetry, 2019. 137(2): p. 623-636. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-018-7972-
588 6.
589 4. Raj, A.K., et al., Performance analysis of a double-pass solar air heater system with
590 asymmetric channel flow passages. Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry,
591 2019. 136(1): p. 21-38. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-018-7762-1.
592 5. Ngo, T.T. and N.M. Phu, Computational fluid dynamics analysis of the heat transfer
593 and pressure drop of solar air heater with conic-curve profile ribs. Journal of Thermal
594 Analysis and Calorimetry, 2019: p. 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-019-08709-4.
595 6. Tyagi, V.V., et al., Thermal performance evaluation of a solar air heater with and
596 without thermal energy storage: An experimental study. Journal of Thermal Analysis
597 and Calorimetry, 2012. 107(3): p. 1345–1352. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-011-
598 1617-3.
599 7. Ghodbane, M., et al., Study and numerical simulation of solar system for air heating.
600 Journal of Fundamental and Applied Sciences, 2016. 8(1): p. 41- 60,
601 http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/jfas.v8i1.3.
602 8. Seyednezhad, M., et al., Nanoparticles for water desalination in solar heat exchanger.
603 Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, 2019: p.
604 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-019-08634-6.

26
605 9. Kariman, H., et al., Energy and economic analysis of evaporative vacuum easy
606 desalination system with brine tank. Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry,
607 2019: p. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-019-08945-8.
608 10. Tlili, I., et al., Water management and desalination in KSA view 2030. Journal of
609 Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, 2019: p. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-019-
610 08700-z.
611 11. Sheikhani, H., et al., A review of solar absorption cooling systems combined with
612 various auxiliary energy devices. Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, 2018.
613 134(3): p. 2197–2212. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-018-7423-4.
614 12. Mahesh, A. and S.C. Kaushik, Solar adsorption refrigeration system using different
615 mass of adsorbents. Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, 2013. 111(1): p.
616 897–903. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-012-2264-z.
617 13. Sarbu, I. and C. Sebarchievici, Review of solar refrigeration and cooling systems.
618 Energy and Buildings, 2013. 67: p. 286-297.
619 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2013.08.022.
620 14. Rahman, S., et al., Performance enhancement of a solar powered air conditioning
621 system using passive techniques and SWCNT /R-407c nano refrigerant. Case Studies
622 in Thermal Engineering, 2019. 16: p. 100565.
623 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2019.100565.
624 15. Pandey, A.K., et al., Thermal performance evaluation of direct flow solar water
625 heating system using exergetic approach. Journal of Thermal Analysis and
626 Calorimetry, 2015. 121(3): p. 1365–1373. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-015-4566-4.
627 16. Shukla, R. and K. Sumathy, Design approach of a density-driven solar water heater
628 system: A study in North Dakota. Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, 2019.
629 136(1): p. 113–120. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-018-7723-8.
630 17. Shukla, R. and K. Sumathy, Design approach of a density-driven solar water heater
631 system. Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, 2019. 136(1): p. 113-120.
632 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-018-7723-8.
633 18. Mehmood, A., et al., Performance evaluation of solar water heating system with heat
634 pipe evacuated tubes provided with natural gas backup. Energy Reports, 2019. 5: p.
635 1432-1444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2019.10.002.
636 19. Kalogirou, S.A., Performance of solar collectors, in Solar energy engineering :
637 processes and systems. 2009, Academic Press of Elsevier. p. 219-250.
638 20. Kalogirou, S.A., Solar Energy Engineering : Processes and Systems. 1st ed. 2009:
639 Academic Press.
640 21. Bellos, E. and C. Tzivanidis, A review of concentrating solar thermal collectors with
641 and without nanofluids. Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, 2019. 135(1):
642 p. 763-786. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-018-7183-1.
643 22. Rajendran, D.R., et al., Review on influencing parameters in the performance of
644 concentrated solar power collector based on materials, heat transfer fluids and
645 design. Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, 2019: p.
646 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-019-08759-8.
647 23. Said, Z., et al., Fuzzy modeling and optimization for experimental thermophysical
648 properties of water and ethylene glycol mixture for Al2O3 and TiO2 based nanofluids.
649 Powder Technology, 2019. 353: p. 345-358.
650 24. Said, Z., et al., Enhancing the performance of automotive radiators using nanofluids.
651 Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2019. 112: p. 183-194.
652 25. Sheikholeslami, M., M. Darzi, and Z. Li, Experimental investigation for entropy
653 generation and exergy loss of nano-refrigerant condensation process. International

27
654 Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 2018. 125: p. 1087-1095.
655 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2018.04.155.
656 26. Sheikholeslami, M., S.A. Shehzad, and Z. Li, Water based nanofluid free convection
657 heat transfer in a three dimensional porous cavity with hot sphere obstacle in
658 existence of Lorenz forces. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 2018.
659 125: p. 375-386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2018.04.076.
660 27. Hussein, A.K., Applications of nanotechnology to improve the performance of solar
661 collectors – Recent advances and overview. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
662 Reviews, 2016. 62: p. 767-792. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.04.050.
663 28. Hussein, A.K., Applications of nanotechnology in renewable energies—A
664 comprehensive overview and understanding. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
665 Reviews, 2015. 42: p. 460-476. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.10.027.
666 29. Bellos, E., Z. Said, and C. Tzivanidis, The use of nanofluids in solar concentrating
667 technologies: A comprehensive review. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2018. 196: p.
668 84-99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.06.048.
669 30. Michael Joseph Stalin, P., et al., Experimental and theoretical investigation on the
670 effects of lower concentration CeO2/water nanofluid in flat-plate solar collector.
671 Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, 2019. 135(1): p. 29-44.
672 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-017-6865-4.
673 31. Sheikholeslami, M., M. Darzi, and M.K. Sadoughi, Heat transfer improvement and
674 pressure drop during condensation of refrigerant-based nanofluid; an experimental
675 procedure. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 2018. 122: p. 643-650.
676 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2018.02.015.
677 32. Sheikholeslami, M., M. Jafaryar, and Z. Li, Nanofluid turbulent convective flow in a
678 circular duct with helical turbulators considering CuO nanoparticles. International
679 Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 2018. 124: p. 980-989.
680 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2018.04.022.
681 33. Sheikholeslami, M., et al., Nanofluid heat transfer augmentation and exergy loss
682 inside a pipe equipped with innovative turbulators. International Journal of Heat and
683 Mass Transfer, 2018. 126: p. 156-163.
684 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2018.05.128.
685 34. Hachicha, A.A., et al., A review study on the modeling of high-temperature solar
686 thermal collector systems. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2019. 112: p.
687 280-298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.05.056.
688 35. Said, Z., et al., Enhancing the performance of automotive radiators using nanofluids.
689 Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2019. 112: p. 183-194.
690 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.05.052.
691 36. Said, Z., S. Arora, and E. Bellos, A review on performance and environmental effects
692 of conventional and nanofluid-based thermal photovoltaics. Renewable and
693 Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2018. 94: p. 302-316.
694 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.06.010.
695 37. Loni, R., et al., Energy and exergy investigation of alumina/oil and silica/oil
696 nanofluids in hemispherical cavity receiver: Experimental Study. Energy, 2018. 164:
697 p. 275-287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2018.08.174.
698 38. Loni, R., et al., GMDH modeling and experimental investigation of thermal
699 performance enhancement of hemispherical cavity receiver using MWCNT/oil
700 nanofluid. Solar Energy, 2018. 171: p. 790–803.
701 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2018.07.003.

28
702 39. Loni, R., et al., Thermal performance comparison between Al2O3/oil and SiO2/oil
703 nanofluids in cylindrical cavity receiver based on experimental study. Renewable
704 Energy, 2018. 129: p. 652-665. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.06.029.
705 40. Sheikholeslami, M., et al., Heat transfer of nanoparticles employing innovative
706 turbulator considering entropy generation. International Journal of Heat and Mass
707 Transfer, 2019. 136: p. 1233-1240.
708 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2019.03.091.
709 41. Alkanhal, T.A., et al., Simulation of convection heat transfer of magnetic
710 nanoparticles including entropy generation using CVFEM. International Journal of
711 Heat and Mass Transfer, 2019. 136: p. 146-156.
712 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2019.02.095.
713 42. Sheikholeslami, M., A. Arabkoohsar, and M. Jafaryar, Impact of a helical-twisting
714 device on the thermal–hydraulic performance of a nanofluid flow through a tube.
715 Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, 2019: p.
716 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-019-08683-x.
717 43. Ghodbane, M., et al., A numerical simulation of a linear Fresnel solar reflector
718 directed to produce steam for the power plant. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2019.
719 231: p. 494-508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.05.201.
720 44. Villarini, M., et al., Influence of the incident radiation on the energy performance of
721 two small-scale solar Organic Rankine Cycle trigenerative systems: A simulation
722 analysis. Applied Energy, 2019. 242: p. 1176-1188.
723 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.03.066.
724 45. Barba, F.J., et al., Solar radiation as a prospective energy source for green and
725 economic processes in the food industry: From waste biomass valorization to
726 dehydration, cooking, and baking. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2019. 220: p. 1121-
727 1130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.02.175.
728 46. Hachicha, A.A., I. Al-Sawafta, and Z. Said, Impact of dust on the performance of
729 solar photovoltaic (PV) systems under United Arab Emirates weather conditions.
730 Renewable Energy, 2019. 141: p. 287-297.
731 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.04.004.
732 47. Hohne, P.A., K. Kusakana, and B.P. Numbi, Optimal energy management and
733 economic analysis of a grid-connected hybrid solar water heating system: A case of
734 Bloemfontein, South Africa. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments, 2019.
735 31(273-291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2018.12.027).
736 48. Hohne, P.A., K. Kusakana, and B. P.Numbi, A review of water heating technologies:
737 An application to the South African context. Energy Reports, 2019. 5: p. 1-19.
738 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2018.10.013.
739 49. Kumar, P.M. and K. Mylsamy, Experimental investigation of solar water heater
740 integrated with a nanocomposite phase change material: Energetic and exergetic
741 approach. Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, 2019. 136(1): p. 121–132.
742 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-018-7937-9.
743 50. Sheikholeslami, M., et al., Hybrid nanoparticles dispersion into water inside a porous
744 wavy tank involving magnetic force. Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry,
745 2019: p. DOI
746 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-019-08858-6.
747 51. Sheikholeslami, M., et al., Second law analysis of a porous structured enclosure with
748 nano-enhanced phase change material and under magnetic force. Journal of Thermal
749 Analysis and Calorimetry, 2019: p. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-019-08979-y.
750 52. Shafieian, A., M. Khiadani, and A. Nosrati, Thermal performance of an evacuated
751 tube heat pipe solar water heating system in cold season. Applied Thermal

29
752 Engineering, 2019. 149: p. 644-657.
753 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2018.12.078.
754 53. Karki, S., K.R. Haapala, and B.M. Fronk, Investigation of the combined efficiency of a
755 solar/gas hybrid water heating system. Applied Thermal Engineering, 2019. 149: p.
756 1035-1043. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2018.12.086.
757 54. Daniels, J.W., E. Heymsfield, and M. Kuss, Hydronic heated pavement system
758 performance using a solar water heating system with heat pipe evacuated tube solar
759 collectors. Solar Energy, 2019. 179: p. 343-351.
760 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2019.01.006.
761 55. Pandey, A.K., et al., Thermal performance evaluation of direct flow solar water
762 heating system using exergetic approach. Journal of Thermal Analysis and
763 Calorimetry, 2015. 121(3): p. 1365-1373. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-015-4566-4.
764 56. Manoj Kumar, P. and K. Mylsamy, Experimental investigation of solar water heater
765 integrated with a nanocomposite phase change material. Journal of Thermal Analysis
766 and Calorimetry, 2019. 136(1): p. 121-132. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-018-7937-
767 9.
768 57. Ghodbane, M., B. Boumeddane, and N. Said, Design and experimental study of a
769 solar system for heating water utilizing a linear Fresnel reflector. Journal of
770 Fundamental and Applied Sciences, 2016. 8(3): p. 804-825,
771 http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/jfas.v8i3.8.
772 58. Ghodbane, M., B. Boumeddane, and N. Said, A linear Fresnel reflector as a solar
773 system for heating water: theoretical and experimental study. Case Studies in Thermal
774 Engineering, 2016. 8(C): p. 176-186, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2016.06.006.
775 59. Ghodbane, M., et al., Performance assessment of linear Fresnel solar reflector using
776 MWCNTs/DW nanofluids. Renewable Energy, 2019: p.
777 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.10.137.
778 60. Barbón, A., et al., Optimization of the distribution of small scale linear Fresnel
779 reflectors on roofs of urban buildings. Applied Mathematical Modelling, 2018.
780 59(July 2018): p. 233-250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apm.2018.01.040.
781 61. Barbón, A., et al., Parametric study of the small scale linear Fresnel reflector.
782 Renewable Energy, 2018. 116(February 2018): p. 64-74.
783 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2017.09.066.
784 62. Barbón, A., et al., Theoretical elements for the design of a small scale Linear Fresnel
785 Reflector: Frontal and lateral views. Solar Energy, 2016. 132( July 2016): p. 188-202.
786 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2016.02.054.
787 63. Bellos, E., C. Tzivanidis, and A. Papadopoulos, Daily, monthly and yearly
788 performance of a linear Fresnel reflector. Solar Energy, 2018. 173(517-529.
789 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2018.08.008).
790 64. Bellos, E., C. Tzivanidis, and A. Papadopoulos, Secondary concentrator optimization
791 of a linear Fresnel reflector using Bezier polynomial parametrization. Solar Energy,
792 2018. 171: p. 716-727. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2018.07.025.
793 65. Bellos, E. and C. Tzivanidis, Development of analytical expressions for the incident
794 angle modifiers of a linear Fresnel reflector. Solar Energy, 2018. 173: p. 769-779.
795 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2018.08.019.
796 66. Bellos, E. and C. Tzivanidis, Assessment of linear solar concentrating technologies
797 for Greek climate. Energy Conversion and Management, 2018. 171: p. 1502-1513.
798 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2018.06.076.
799 67. Bellos, E., et al., Experimental and numerical investigation of a linear Fresnel solar
800 collector with flat plate receiver. Energy Conversion and Management, 2016. 130: p.
801 44-59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2016.10.041.

30
802 68. Bellos, E., Progress in the design and the applications of Linear Fresnel Reflectors –
803 A critical review. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress, 2019. 10(May 2019): p.
804 112-137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsep.2019.01.014.
805 69. Bellos, E., C. Tzivanidis, and A. Papadopoulos, Enhancing the performance of a
806 linear Fresnel reflector using nanofluids and internal finned absorber. Journal of
807 Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, 2019. 135(1): p. 237-255.
808 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-018-6989-1.
809 70. Pulido-Iparraguirre, D., et al., Optimized design of a Linear Fresnel reflector for solar
810 process heat applications. Renewable Energy, 2019. 131: p. 1089-1106.
811 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.08.018.
812 71. Dabwan, Y.N., et al., Performance analysis of integrated linear fresnel reflector with
813 a conventional cooling, heat, and power tri-generation plant. Renewable Energy,
814 2019. 138: p. 639-650. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.01.098.
815 72. Wang, G., et al., Experimental and optical performances of a solar CPV device using
816 a linear Fresnel reflector concentrator. Renewable Energy, 2020. 146: p. 2351-2361.
817 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.08.090.
818 73. Marefati, M. and M. Mehrpooya, Introducing and investigation of a combined molten
819 carbonate fuel cell, thermoelectric generator, linear fresnel solar reflector and power
820 turbine combined heating and power process. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2019.
821 240: p. 118247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.118247.
822 74. Gang, W., et al., Direct utilization of solar linear Fresnel reflector on multi-effect
823 eccentric horizontal tubular still with falling film. Energy, 2019. 170: p. 170-184.
824 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2018.12.150.
825 75. Zhu, J. and Z. Chen, Optical design of compact linear fresnel reflector systems. Solar
826 Energy Materials and Solar Cells, 2018. 176: p. 239-250.
827 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2017.12.016.
828 76. Rungasamy, A.E., K.J. Craig, and J.P. Meyer, Comparative study of the optical and
829 economic performance of etendue-conserving compact linear Fresnel reflector
830 concepts. Solar Energy, 2019. 181: p. 95-107.
831 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2019.01.081.
832 77. Sánchez-González, A. and J. Gómez-Hernández, Beam-down linear Fresnel reflector:
833 BDLFR. Renewable Energy, 2020. 146: p. 802-815.
834 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.07.017.
835 78. Zhu, Y., et al., Design and experimental investigation of a stretched parabolic linear
836 Fresnel reflector collecting system. Energy Conversion and Management, 2016. 126:
837 p. 89-98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2016.07.073.
838 79. Said, Z., et al., Optical performance assessment of a small experimental prototype of
839 linear Fresnel reflector. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering, doi:
840 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2019.100541., 2019.
841 80. Bellos, E., et al., Energy and financial investigation of a cogeneration system based on
842 linear Fresnel reflectors. Energy Conversion and Management, 2019. 198: p. 111821.
843 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2019.111821.
844 81. Bellos, E., C. Tzivanidis, and A. Papadopoulos, Optical and thermal analysis of a
845 linear Fresnel reflector operating with thermal oil, molten salt and liquid sodium.
846 Applied Thermal Engineering, 2018. 133: p. 70-80.
847 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2018.01.038.
848 82. Ghodbane, M. and B. Boumeddane, Estimating solar radiation according to semi
849 empirical approach of PERRIN DE BRICHAMBAUT: application on several areas
850 with different climate in Algeria. International Journal of Energetica, 2016. 1(1): p. 20-
851 29. https://www.ijeca.info/index.php/IJECA/article/view/12.

31
852 83. Ghodbane, M., Étude et optimisation des performances d'une machine de
853 climatisation a éjecteur reliée à un concentrateur solaire in Département de génie
854 Mécanique 2017, Université Saad Dahleb, Blida 1, Algérie p. 200.
855

32

View publication stats