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8 FUNDAMENTALS OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

In this chapter only simple cases will be dealt with and the determination of F will be
taken up in the chapter on radiation. The concept of hr is convenient, though difficult to arrive
at if temperature is not specified. The value also increases rapidly with temperature.

1.3 COMBINED MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER

Previous sections treated each mode of heat transfer separately. But in practice all the three
modes of heat transfer can occur simultaneously. Additionally heat generation within the solid
may also be involved. Most of the time conduction and convection modes occur simultaneously
when heat from a hot fluid is transferred to a cold fluid through an intervening barrier. Consider
the following example. A wall receives heat by convection and radiation on one side. After
conduction to the next surface heat is transferred to the surroundings by convection and
radiation. This situation is shown in Fig. 1.7.

1 2 1 1
T
1 Q
QR2 h1A h2A
T1 k
QR1 T
2
Qcm
T2 T
1
L
Qcm1
T
2 kA
1 1
hr1A hr2A

Fig. 1.7. Combined modes of heat transfer.

The heat flow is given by equation 1.6.

Q T∞1 − T∞ 2
=
A 1 L 1 ...(1.6)
+ +
hr1 + h1 k hr2 + h2

where hr1 and hr2 are radiation coefficients and h1 and h2 are convection coefficients.

Example 1.4: A slab 0.2 m thick with thermal conductivity of 45 W/mK receives heat from a
furnace at 500 K both by convection and radiation. The convection coefficient has a value of
50 W/m2K. The surface temperature is 400 K on this side. The heat is transferred to surroundings
at T∞ 2 both by convection and radiation. The convection coefficient on this side being 60 W/m2K.
Determine the surrounding temperature.
Assume F = 1 for radiation.
Solution: Refer Fig. 1.7. Consider 1 m2 area. Steady state condition.

Heat received = σ (T∞14 − T14 ) + h (T∞1 – T1)

|RSFG 500 IJ − FG 400 IJ |UV + 50 (500 − 400)

4 4

= 5.67
|TH 100 K H 100 K |W
= 7092.2 W.

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AN OVERVIEW OF HEAT TRANSFER 9

∆T 0.2
To determine T2, Q= or ∆T = QR = 7092.2 × = 31.57 K.

Chapter 1
R 45
∴ T2 = 400 – 31.57 = 368.43 K.
on the other side,

|RSFG 368.43IJ − FG T IJ |UV + 60 (368.43 – T

4
∞2
4
7092.2 = 5.67
|TH 100 K H 100 K |W ∞2)

FG T IJ
∞2
4
or 5.67
H 100 K + 60 T∞2 = 16056. Solving by trial

T∞2 = 263.3 K.
1.3.1. Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient: Often when several resistances for heat flow is
involved, it is found convenient to express the heat flow
as Q = U A ∆T, ...(1.7)
where U is termed as overall heat transfer coefficient having the same unit as convective
heat transfer coefficient, h. The value of U can be obtained for a given area A by equation 1.8.
1 1 1 1
= + + + ...... ...(1.8)
UA R1 R2 R3
where R1, R2, R3, ...... are the resistances in series calculated based on the reas A1, A2, A3 etc.
1.3.2. Energy Balance With Heat Transfer: There are situations when a body receives heat
by convection and radiation and transfer part of it to the surroundings and stores the remaining
in the body by means of increase in temperature. In such a situation, the rate of temperature
change can be obtained by the equation 1.9. Heat generation may also be included.
dτ (Qin – Qout) + dτ q = ρVC dT.

dT Q in − Qout + q
or = ...(1.9)
dτ ρVC
where q is the heat generation rate per unit volume and ρ, V and C are the density, Volume
and specific heat of the body.
dT
When equilibrium is reached, = 0, So
dτ
Qin = Qout ...(1.10)
Example 1.5: In a cylindrical shaped body of 30 cm diameter and 30 cm length heat is generated
at a rate 1.5 × 106 W/m3. The surface temperature is 400°C. The convection coefficient is 200
W/m2K. Heat is convected and radiated to the surroundings at 100°C. The radiation factor is
one. The solid has a density of 19000 kg/m3 and a specific heat of 0.118 kJ/kgK. Determine the
rate of change of temperature of the body at that instant in °C/s.
Solution: Refer equation 1.4 and Fig. 1.8
(q – QR – QC) dτ = ρVC dT

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10 FUNDAMENTALS OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

dT q − Q R − QC 0.3 m
∴ =
dτ ρVC
The surface area = 2πr2 + 2πrh 0.3 m
= 2π × 0.152 + 2π × 0.15 × 0.3
= 0.4241m2
Heat capacity = Volume × density × sp. heat
= πr2h × 19000 × 118 Fig. 1.8
=π× 0.152 × 0.3 × 19000 × 118
= 47543 J/°C
Heat generated = Volume × q = πr2h × 1.5 × 106 W = 31809 W or 31809 J/s
Heat convected = hA ∆T = 200 × 0.4241 × (400 – 100) = 25446 W or 25446 J/s
Heat radiated = σA (T14 – T24)
= 5.67 × 10–8 × 0.4241 [(400 + 273)4 – (100 + 273)4]
= 4468 W or 4468 J/s
Therefore, Heat generated – Heat convected – Heat radiated
= 31809 – 25446 – 4468 = 1895 W or 1895 J/s
ρcV = 47543 J/°C
dT 1895
Therefore, = = 0.03985°C/s
dτ 47543
Possible simplifications are.
(i) no heat generation, (ii) no radiation or, (iii) steady state etc, which will reduce one of
the terms to be zero.

1.4 DIMENSIONS AND UNITS

For numerical estimation of heat transfer rate units of various parameters become necessary.
All equations should be dimensionally homogeneous. Dimensions are universal and there is no
difference from country to country. But the systems of unit varies from country to country.
Three popular systems are (1) FPS (foot, pound, second, °F) (2) MKS (metre, kilogram, second
°C) and (3) SI (metre, kilogram, second, K) system of units. In this text SI system of units is
adopted. The units used for various quantities is listed in table 1.2 and conversion factors are
given separately.
Table 1.3. Units adopted for various quantities

Parameter Unit and symbol Unit multiples

Mass kilogram, kg, Ton = 1000 kg
Length metre, m cm, mm, km
Time Seconds, s, minute, hour
Force Newton, N, (kg m/s2) kN, MN

(Contd...)

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AN OVERVIEW OF HEAT TRANSFER 11

Energy, (heat) Joule, J ≡ Nm kJ, MJ

Chapter 1
Power Watt, W (J/s) kW, MW
Temperature kelvin, K, also °C
Dynamic viscosity µ, Nm/s2 Poise
Kinematic viscosity v, m2/s Stoke
Specific heat c, J/kg K kJ/kg K

The units for other parameters will be defined as and when these are used.
In solving numerical problems, consistent sets of units should be used. Otherwise the
answer will be meaningless.
Example 1.6: Convert the following units into their equivalent SI units :
(i) BTU/hr ft°F, (ii) BTU/hr ft2°F. From published tables the following are read. 1J =
9.4787 × 10–4 BTU, 1m = 39.370 inches, kg = 2.2046 lb, °C = 9/5°F.
Solution: (i) Therefore, 1 BTU = 1/9.4787 × 10–4 J = 1054.997 J, ft = (12/39.37) m
Therefore, BTU/hr ft°F = 1054.997J/3600s (12/39.37) m. (5/9)°C
= 1.7306 J/s m°C or 1.7306 W/m°C
or, 1 W/mK = 0.5778 BTU/hr ft°F.
(ii) BTU/hr ft2 °F = 1054.997J/3600s (12/39.37)2 m2 (5/9)°C
= 5.67792 W/m2°C or 1W/m2°C = 0.1761 BTU/hr ft2 °F.

1.5 CLOSURE
An overview of the field of heat transfer is presented in this chapter. Each mode of heat transfer
will be discussed in greater detail in the following chapters.
A series of steps listed below will be useful in analysing and estimating heat transfer.
1. List the available data for the problem situation. Then look for additional data from
other sources, like property listings.
2. Sketch a schematic diagram for the system involved and identify the basic processes
involved. (Physical model)
3. List the simplifying assumptions that are reasonable. This should be checked later.
4. Apply the rate equations and conservation laws to the situation. (Mathematical model).
5. Try to validate the results obtained. This is an important step, which is often overlooked
with disastrous results.

SOLVED PROBLEMS

Combined Convection and Radiation

Problem 1: A surface is at 200°C and is exposed to surroundings at 60°C and convects and
radiates heat to the surroundings. The convection coefficient is 80W/m2K. The radiation factor
is one. If the heat is conducted to the surface through a solid of conductivity 12 W/mK, determine
the temperature gradient at the surface in the solid.

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12 FUNDAMENTALS OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

Solution: Refer equation 1.10

Heat convected + heat radiated = heat conducted considering 1m2,
h(T1 – T2) + σ(T14 – T24) = – kdT/dx
dT
Therefore, 80(200 – 60) + 5.67 {[(200 + 273)/100]4 – [(60 + 273)/100]4} = – 12
dx
dT
Therefore = – (11200 + 2140.9)/12 = – 1111.7°C/m.
dx
Problem 2: Heat is conducted through a material with a temperature gradient of – 9000 °C/m.
The conductivity of the material is 25W/mK. If this heat is convected to surroundings at 30°C
with a convection coefficient of 345W/m2K, determine the surface temperature.
If the heat is radiated to the surroundings at 30°C determine the surface temperature.
Solution: In this case only convection and conduction are involved.
– kAdT/dx = hA(T1 – T2). Considering unit area,
– 25 × 1 × (– 9000) = 345 × 1 (T1 – 30)
Therefore, T1 = 682.17°C
In this case conduction and radiation are involved.
Heat conducted = Heat radiated
– 25 × 1 × (– 9000) = 5.67 [(T1/100)4 – (303/100)4]
Therefore, T1 = 1412.14K = 1139°C.
Problem 3: There is a heat flux through a wall of 2250W/m2. The same is dissipated to the
surroundings by convection and radiation. The surroundings is at 30°C. The convection
coefficient has a value of 75W/m2K. For radiation F = 1. Determine the wall surface temperature.
Solution: For the specified condition, Consider unit area.
The heat conducted = heat convected + heat radiated
Using the rate equations, with absolute temperature
T2 − 303
2250 = + 5.67 × 1[(T2/100)4 – (303/100)4]
1 / 75 × 1
= 75T2 – 22725 + 5.67(T2/100)4 – 477.92
or, (T2 /100)4 + 13.2275T2 – 4489.05 = 0.

Ts = 30°C
T1
Radiation convection
2 T2 Ts
h = 75 W/m K
2
2250 W/m
T
Radiation
T2

Fig. 1.9

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AN OVERVIEW OF HEAT TRANSFER 13

This equation can be solved only by trial. It may be noted that the contribution of
(T2/100)4 is small and so the first choice of T2 can be a little less than 4489/13.227 = 340K. The

Chapter 1
values of the reminder for T2 = 300, 310, 320, 330 are given below:

Assumed value of T2 300 310 320 330 330.4 330.3

Remainder – 439.80 – 296.2 – 15.1 – 5.38 0.484 – 0.98

So, the temperature T2 is near 330K. By one more trial T2 is obtained as 330.4K or
57.4°C.
Check: Q = 75(330.4 – 303) + 5.69(3.3044 – 3.034)
= 2047.5 + 206 = 2253.5 W.
Problem 4: The outside surface of a cylindrical cryogenic container is at – 10°C. The outside
radius is 8 cm. There is a heat flow of 65.5 W/m, which is dissipated to the surroundings both
by radiation and convection. The convection coefficient has a value of 4.35 W/m2K. The radiation
factor F = 1. Determine the surrounding temperature.
Solution:

Ts

Radiation T1 = – 10°C Q
Convection
2
4.35 W/m K T1 Ts

T
Radiation

r2 = 0.08 m

Fig. 1.10
In this case, heat conducted = heat convected + heat radiated.
Temperature should be in Kelvin consider unit length:
65.5 = 2 × π × 0.08 [4.35 {Ts – 263} + 5.67 {(Ts/100)4 – (263/100)4}]
This reduces to (Ts/100)4 + 0.767 Ts – 272.6 = 0
This equation has to be solved by trial.
The first trial value can be chosen near 272.6/0.767 = 355.4 K.

Chosen value of Ts 290 280 275 278 277.75

Residue 20.6 3.6 – 4.4 0.4 0.0

The surrounding temperature is 277.75K or 4.75°C.

Check: Q = hA(Ts – T1) + σA[(Ts/100)4 – (263/100)4]
= 4.35 × π × 0.08 × 2 (277.75 – 263) + 5.67 × 2 × π × 0.08 × 1[2.77754 – 2.634]
= 32.25 + 33.26 = 65.51 W checks to a very reasonable value.

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