Earth and Life Science

Quarter 1 - Module 6
Geologic Time Scale and Geo-hazards

Lesson
Geologic Time Scale
1
What I Need to Know

Whenever we say the word a long time, it makes us think about the overlong length
of years. Even a million years are already an extraordinary length of time that seems to be
very unthinkable. Earth is a home of many living things. Its age is estimated to be 4.6
billion years.
Within those years, changes happened that seemed to be unnoticed. Some
scientists studied the past of Earth. To find answers to many questions, they kept on
looking for shreds of evidence. Their study paved the way for knowledge on the significant
events of the Earth and how long it took place. Can you imagine how volcanoes and
mountains formed? How the different gases are trapped in our atmosphere? How
dinosaurs just disappear? These are some of the questions we keep on asking ourselves.

What is It

Performing the first acti vity makes you imagine and look back at the history of the
Earth from the beginning to the present. As if you are watching a movie that shows pictures
on how Earth looked like billion years ago. Fast-forwarding, you see so many extraordinary
changes. In the beginning, there was no life on Earth. As many years went by, living things
existed, grew, flourished, and even contributed to more changes in our planet.

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 Geologic Time requires an understanding of the Laws of Nature. It means that how
things work today is the same as they were before. It never changed. The discovery of
fossils or rocks is very helpful to scientists because it can be used as an instrument to
interpret the past. The different clues helped the scientists understand that Earth has
unique features. The place where we live right now probably looked different before. And it
is expected that it will no longer be the same in the future to com e. There were a lot of
attempts to form a Geologic Time Scale that can be applied in any place on Earth. But the
detailed studies of rocks and fossils conducted by scientists resulted in the order of
geologic periods we used today. Scientists divided the history of Earth into a chain of time
intervals. These time intervals are unequal in terms of numbers of days or hours and vary
in length. The division of Geologic Time is based on the significant events on Earth. The
layers on the surface of the Earth, from the recent origin down to the most ancient, made
possible to split Geological Time into Eons, Eras and Periods. These are the periods that
divide the history and evolution of Earth.
The concept map below summarizes the geological time scale.

At present, the Geologic Time Scale is divided into big portions of time known as
EONS. Eons are further divided into ERAS. Eras are divided into PERIODS. The Precam
brian Eon is the point of time in which our planet started to form. During this time, there
was no formation of any organism . What are evident are the abiotic features of the earth.
It represents more than 80 percent of the total records of geologic time and supported with
pieces of evidence found in rocks. During the Phanerozoic Eon, living organisms like
plants and animals existed. It constitutes the time of multicellular life on Earth and the
evolutionary process happened. This eon is further divided into the Paleozoic Era,
Mesozoic Era, Cenozoic Era. Significant events of Earth are used to determine the
boundaries of every Era.

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 Eon Ea Period Biological Features
No evidence of life. Oldest fossils
PRECAMBRIAN known. Origin of Earth
Age of invertebrates
CAMBRIAN Marine algae flourish.
Abundance of marine algae.
ORDOVICIAN Appearance of first vertebrates.
Jawed Fishes appar.
SILURIAN Vascular plants invaded the lands.

First appearance of amphibians

DEVONIAN and insects. Age of fishes.
PALEOZOIC
Animals are mostly amphibians,seed
CARBONIFEROUS plants appear.
PERMIAN Reptiles, modern insects and
conifers appear
First mammal exists.
PHANEROZOIC TRIASSIC First Dinosaur appears
Age of Dinosaurs. Aves appear.
Plants with seeds are dominant
JURASSIC above the lands.
MESOZOIC
Extinction of dinosaurs and other
animals.
CRETACEOUS Placental mammals exist.
Flowering plants
appear.
Humans appear. Herbaceous
TERTIARY plants spread and diversified

CENOZOIC Age of Man Abundance of

PHANEROZOIC herbaceous plants.
QUATERNARY

What’s More (PERFORMANCE TASK 60% OF YOUR GRAE)

Activity 1. MY OWN TIMELINE

Objective: Create a timeline

of your life. Materials: Bond
paper, Pen, Ruler Procedure:
1. Place the long bond paper at the top of your arm chair in a landscape orientation.
2. Write “BIRTH” on the left most upper part of paper and “NOW” on the right most
upper part.
3. Divide the paper using ruler into a certain number of years. For example, 5, 10, 15,
etc. It depends on your age. Make a vertical line from top to bottom in every division.
4. Make a timeline of your life. Add up events that you think are unforgettable and
meaningful.
5. Make sure to write the events in sequence.

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 Below is the linear arrangement of the Geologic Time Scale that
shows relationships between time periods and time frame.

Years Ago Eon Era Period Years Ago

Present QUATERNARY 1.8 mil
65 mil CENOZOIC TERITARY 65 mil
CRETACEOUS 145 mil
MESOZOIC JURASSIC 200 mil
245 mil TRIASSIC 245 mil
Phanerozoic PERMIAN 290 mil
CARBONIFEROUS 360 mil
PALEOZOIC DEVONIAN 410 mil
SILURIAN 440 mil
ORDOVICAN 505 mil
544 mil CAMBRIAN 544 mil

Precambrian

4.6 billion

Lesson 2 Geo-hazards
2

What’s In

Early people believed that our planet is the center of the universe. They thought
that the entire surface of Earth is flat, and the gods are responsible for all natural
phenomena. Now, we are living in a com petitive world because of the advancement of
technology. Everything changed from sim ple to com plex. People polished their beliefs
into knowledge based on observations in the environment and scientific principles.

What I Need to Know

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Explain the meaning of Geologic Hazard.
2. Describe the various hazards that may happen in the event of earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, and landslides.

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 What is It

Geological hazard is a geological and environmental process. It includes

earthquakes, landslides, floods, volcanic eruptions, etc. deaths of many people,
damage to properties, and destruction to our environment. In the past years, millions
of people died because of this phenomenon.
According to RA 10121 also known as Philippine Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management Act, hazard is a dangerous natural phenomenon, substance, human
activity or condition that may cause loss of life, injury or other impacts, property
damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruptions or
environmental damage. Infrastructures, public or private facilities, households,
transportation, and humans are the elements exposed to these hazards.

Philippines is a home of many active volcanoes because it is situated in a region

called the Pacific Ring of Fire. When a volcano shows signs of eruptions, geologic
events like earthquake and landslides follow. So, it is important for you to be aware on
how it happens to reduce the possible effects it may cause.
Volcanic eruptions can have an extreme impact on the lives of organisms. Water,
land, or soil and air are affected. When people see that they are no longer safe in the area,
they are forced to leave their properties and belongings to be alive. The following are the
volcano hazards and its impact:

1. Pyroclastic
Flow and Surges
A mixture of ash, rock fragments and gas materials that leave devastating effects on
the area in which they flow.

2. Ballistic Projectiles
These are rocks from an erupting volcano blasted into the air.
3. Lahar
It is a mudflow from a mixture of volcanic water and rock fragments. It moves down
the slopes of the volcano into the surrounding area and destroying everything on its way.
4. Volcanic Gases
Gases present in toxic amount trapped in cavities in volcanic rocks dissolved in
magma or lava or through groundwater and is heated by volcanic activity.
5. Ash Falls
These are ashes produced during a volcanic eruption. It can destroy vegetation,
malfunctions engine, collapse roofs, and endanger health of people. Ashfall continues
even after the explosion and can affect the neighboring areas.
6. Tsunamis
These are substantial sea waves that occur when an underwater volcano erupts. Its
wave height could be higher than 5 meters. It can cause the death of humans, animals,
and destruction of infrastructures or properties when it hits offshore.

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 Earthquake is another form of geologic hazard. It is a shaking of the ground due to
the released energy that forms seismic waves. Seismograph detects earthquakes that are
less felt. Earthquake hazards include the following:
1. Unsecured things that are open.
2. Electronic devices and appliances.
3. Grounds Breaking
It can cause mild or severe damage to properties or structures. The effects depend
on the magnitude of an earthquake or its distance from the epicenter.
4. Liquefaction
The strength and hardness of the soil are reduced. It happens when the groundwater
mixed with ground soil that makes the soil less stable.
5. Ground subsidence
Grounds sink due to earthquake.

Landslide is a geological hazard that includes movement of any debris, masses of

rock, or soil down a slope. It can occur in the offshore and coastal environment but com
posed of a weak strength of soil resting on a steep slope. Landslides hazards are falling
debris from a steep slope, pieces of rocks fall, and mudflow. Human activities like mining,
deforestation, quarrying, digging, and conversion of land to residential or industrial areas
contribute to this natural phenomenon.

What’s More

Activity 2. IDENTIFYING HAZARDS AND ITS EFFECTS

Objective: Describe the effects of the different GEO-HAZARDS Shown in the picture.
Materials: Pictures/clipart of earthquake, volcanic eruption and landslide
Paper and Pen.
Procedure:
1. Based on the pictures given, identify the different geologic hazards and
describe the effects these hazards (Give at least 3)

6
 Senior High School

NOT

EARTH AND
LIFE
SCIENCES
Quarter 2 - Module 7
NATURAL HAZARDS, MITIGATION AND
ADAPTATION

Department of Education ● Republic of the Philippines

 Introduction to Using Hazard
Maps, Identify Areas Prone to
Hazards Brought About by
Earthquakes, Volcanic Eruptions,
Lesson and Landslides

1
What I Need to Know

In this Lesson, you will know the importance of maps but specifically the hazard maps
which highlights the areas that are vulnerable to a particular hazard that can cause
damage and greater risk.

1
The image above is an example of a map that shows the Pacific ring of fire which
occurs in red lines.

Get your answer sheet and let’s think

1. What type of hazard/hazards do you think that are present on the map above?

2. Who are the most vulnerable to the hazards that might occur to the map
presented above?

3. Without these kind of maps, do you think we are prepared to any hazard that
might appear in our present time?

What Is It

WHAT IS A HAZARD MAP?

A hazard map is a map that provides understanding in certain places which highlights
areas that are vulnerable to a particular hazard. They are typically created for natural
hazards, such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides. Hazard maps help
prevent serious damage and deaths.
USES OF A HAZARD MAP

Hazard maps are created and used in concurrence with several natural disasters.
Different hazard maps have different uses. Hazard maps created for flooding are also
used in insurance rate adjustments. Hazard maps can also be useful in determining
the risks of living in a certain area. Hazard maps can assist people become aware of
the threats they might face from natural disasters in a specific range or area.

Below are some examples of Hazard maps that shows some areas in Cagayan de
Oro with Lower risk to High risk areas. Lighter highlighted areas such as yellow and
other lighter colours are at low risk while as the highlighted darker colours such as red
are at high risk or more vulnerable areas.

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3
 What I Have Learned

1. What type of hazard map is shown above?

2. What are the types of hazards that you might experience?

3. Do you think it’s safe to live in the highlighted areas? Why?

4. What are the importance of using hazard maps?

5. What have you learned today?

Identify Human Activities That Speed

Lesson Up or Trigger Landslides
2
What’s In
In the previous lesson, we already know the use and importance of using
hazard maps by identifying those highlighted areas as vulnerable zones or at higher
risk to cause damage and loss of life but have you ever thought about what triggers or
speeding up these kind of hazards such as landslides?

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 Let’s Go Back In Time

Have you ever thought who are the key factors of triggering or speeding up
these hazards?

What did you and your family do to prevent or to slow it down from happening
or triggering lanslides?

Today we will learn and Identify human activities that speed up or trigger
landslides and this will help us to avoid things that will change the bad habits or doings
that we do.

What I Need to Know

The World is fast changing because of the different hazards that we experience and
most of the times one of the most common among all of these hazards are landslides
because it partners in almost all types of hazards.

Questionnaire: Experience Drop (Assessment)

This is to assess you about your knowledge in landslides. Just put a smiley face if
you agree with the statement and sad face if you disagree.

___The human activities can trigger landslides such as occupying a large area of
forest for housing.
___ I have witnessed a landslide.
___ Volcanic eruption is caused by human activity that can cause landslides.
___ Quarrying is a human activity that can cause landslides.
___ Mining is a human activity that can cause landslides.
___ Illegal logging is a human activity that can cause landslides.
___ Wild animals are the reason that landslides are triggering.
___ Wet land or soil are at lower risk to cause landslides.
___ Only the professionals that studies landslides can help prevent or slow down
landslides from happening.
___ I plant trees to help prevent or to slow down landslides from happening.

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 What Is It

What is a landslide?
A landslide is also known as a landslip the movement of a mass of rock, debris,
or earth down a slope. Landslides can also be classified as a type of "mass wasting,"
which indicates any soil and rock in a down slope movement under the direct influence
of gravity. The word "landslide" involves five modes of slope movement: flows, slides,
spreads, topples, and falls. These are further subdivided by the type of geologic
material such as debris, bedrock and/or earth. The debris flows are sometimes
commonly referred to as mudslides or mudflow and rock falls are examples of common
landslide types.
Almost every landslide has multiple causes. The movement of slope occurs when
forces acting down-slope primarily due to gravity which exceed the strength of the
earth materials that comprise the slope. There are causes which includes factors that
contribute to low or reduced strength and factors that increase the effects of down
slope forces.

What human activities can trigger or speed up landslides?

Quarrying
-An excavation or pit, that is commonly open to the air, from which building
stone, slate, or, is obtained by blasting, cutting, and etc.

Mining
-Refers to the use of explosives underground are like mini earthquakes. This
can cause a landslide. Also historic mining can cause a ground level gaps of 6-8ft. A
shift in soil can cause a ground level drop of the same measurement, leading to a
landslide.

Land Pollution
-Is the degradation of earth’s land surfaces are often triggered by human
doings/activities and its misuse. The haphazard disposal of urban and industrial
exploitation of minerals, wastes, and improper use of soil by poor agricultural practices
are a few of the contributing factors.

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Excavation
-Excavation is the processing, exposure, and recording of archaeological
remains. The excavation site or “dig” is a site being studied.

Land Use
- involves the management and modification of natural environment or
wilderness into built environment examples are construction of houses, roads and etc.

What’s More

ACTIVITY: HUMAN IMPACT POSTER PROJECT

(PERFORMANCE TASK 60% of YOUR GRADE)
You are going to make a Poster entitled “Human Impact Poster Project”.
The poster will show the effects of human activities that triggers landslides and
causes damage to properties and life.

(TAKE A PICTURE OF YOUR WORK and PASTE it in a bond paper and attach it
together with your Outputs)

Assessment: (Post-Test)

Multiple Choice. Answer the question that follows. Choose the best answer from
among the given choices.
1. What is another term for landslide?
a. Lava flow c. Landslip
b. Debris Avalanche d. Rock fall
2. Which of the following is NOT a sign of a possible landslide?
a. Trees or walls shifting
b. Door/window jams for the first time
c. Parking or paved driveways lots slowly beginning to crack
d. Two full moons two nights in a row
3. Which of the following is NOT the use of hazard map?
a. Use for leisure.
b. Use to identify flood areas.
c. To be informed if you are vulnerable to a landslide.
d. Shows highlighted areas that is risky to any hazards.
4. Another step in being prepared for a landslide is the same as with the danger
of fire; making an evacuation plan. When is it best to make this evacuation
plan?
a. While your house is slipping down a hill
b. As soon as possible, if not done already
c. I don’t need an evacuation plan
d. Whenever you have time; the chances of a landslide are very slim.
5. After a danger has passed, make sure to check your local radio or weather
station for updates on landslide. Which of the following do you NOT have do
after returning home?
a. Check foundation and chimney for damage
b. Keep all electronics turned off for a month
c. Replant ruined land
d. Stabilize land as soon as possible
7
 Senior High School
NOT

Earth and Life

Science
Quarter 2 - Module 8
Marine and Coastal Processes and Their Effects

Department of Education ● Republic of the Philippines

 Marine and Coastal Processes
Lesson and Their Effects
1
What I Need to Know

Coastal processes occur where waves break on the shore not only on ocean or sea coasts
but also to the other water systems like lakes and ponds. A sea can never be considered as such
without waves. Waves are formed caused by the winds and controlled by wind speed. Main
characteristics of waves are height (amplitude), wavelength, and wave period (frequency). Waves’
motion dies out with depth. There are two types of waves- the constructive and the destructive
wave. Constructive waves are small in height, has a gentle angle and has lesser energy while
destructive waves are large in height, steeper waves, and lots of energy.
We cannot deny that we love to have our vacation on beaches where we feel the heat of
the sun, soft sand dunes, and enjoying the big waves while surfing. The sea is not just all about
leisure but also it involves perfect creation and transformation of the coastal zone.
This module will introduce you the coastal processes that are caused by marine
processes. This module will also allow you to understand how such coastal formations have been
formed creatively.

What is It

The two kinds of waves were previously introduced including its

characteristics. These waves also include swash and backwash. Swash is when
rushed up the beach after a powerful wave breaks while backwash is the one that returns
to the sea and is less powerful. There is a strong swash and a weak backwash in the
constructive wave while a weak swash and strong backwash happens during the
destructive wave. It is during the destructive waves where the beach is scoured and
degraded as the strong backwash pulls sand and shingle back down the beach. The
swash and backwash are also some factors of beautiful formations of the sand in the
beaches.

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 Years before, people started building different coastal protections to protect the
lives of the people in land. Later in this module we will be discussing about the barrier
islands which are important coastal formations to at least lessen the destruction of the
inland caused by some natural phenomena.
During low tide, winds pickup drying sand
and blow it towards the land in order to form
sand dunes. Sand dunes help maintain
the barrier islands. When major storms or
hurricanes occur, it washes both sand and
the seawater landward into lagoons and
sweard from barrier islands then sand
moves back up on to the higher beach in
milder weather and the wind blows some dry sand into the dunes again. Unfortunately,
most dunes along the coasts were flattened for economical purposes like building roads,
parking areas, and houses, or to improve views of the sea.
When people start to modify the dunes of the sea, it actually upsets the
equilibrium of sand movement. It may have improve the views but with each storm a
beach gets closer until it gets too good and houses are the next to go. Bigger storm
waves will impact such structures because any protective dunes will have long when
disappeared. Since waves are one of the most powerful processes shaping the coast,
sand dunes and other natural sand formations should not be transformed much for it to
maintain the equilibrium.

Activity 1: Tell me the Problem

Given the pictures below, write down all your observations and opinions on the formation
of the coast and the development of the human did to protect the area.

Observation/Opinion:

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 What’s More

There are different processes of erosion that also happens not only in land but

also in the coastal zones. The following are the processes of erosion.

Table 1: Coastal Processes

Coastal Processes Definition

Hydraulic Action Includes the power of water

Rocks and sand that are thrown against

Abrasion
the coast

Trapped in small crevices in the rock by

Compressed Air waves which causes minute explosions

which eventually shatter the rock.

Attrition Rocks wearing off each other

Salts in seawater dissolving rock

Solution
especially the sedimentary rocks

Waves that bend on contact with coast,

Wave refraction
concentrating its effects in certain areas.

Sometimes we tend to ask how little islands near the coasts were formed which

cannot just be made by humans. The reasons of these coastal landforms may be

erosional coast, transportational coast or depositional coast. The processes of deposition

and transport basically consider the conditions like constructive waves, shelter from

strong winds/currents and gently sloping beaches to reduce wave energy. For transport,

the main process is longshore drift or littoral drift.

LONGSHORE DRIFT

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Coastal Landforms
Depositional Features Dominated by deposition of sediments and
re-working by long shore drift. Whatever
gets eroded from an area of the coast will
eventually get deposited in another area.
Coastal deposition features are often the
important economic benefits such as
tourism.
Example
 Spits It is an extended stretch of beach material
that projects out to sea and is joined to
mainland at one end.

 Barrier Islands Coastal plains that are gently slipping, with

a sandy bottom that is steeper than the
coastal plain, so it tops off landward in a
ridge called barrier island, or barrier bar.
Offshore barrier islands are a part of the
active beach, built up by the waves and
constantly shifting by wave and storm
action. Offshore barrier islands are
typically 0.4 to 4 km wind and stand less
than 3 above sea level.
 Deltas These are wetlands that are formed from
where rivers empty their water and
sediments into another body of water such
as an ocean, lake or another river.
 Beaches Beaches as we know are not only formed
from sand but also can be made of mud,
shingle and other stones but these kind of
beaches are not so attractive to tourists. In
order to form a beach, it needs a sheltered
area to trap sediments, long shore drift,
and constructive waves to deposit beach
materials.

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Erosional Features These are caused by waves that attach
the base of the cliff through the processes
of abrasion, corrosion, hydraulic action
and attrition. As times go by, the cliff will
be undercut and a wave-cut notch is
formed and eventually the cliff becomes
unstable which will result collapses.
Furthermore, the cliff retreat will form a
wave-cut platform.
Examples
 Sea Caves It results where an easily eroded piece of
rock is removed by such processes.
 Sea Arch Results when a sea cave or two goes all
the way through.
 Sea stacks If the sea arch collapses, the seaward part
stands still and is stack. Sea stacks are
erosional remnants with a wave cutting
through.
 Sea stumps These are formed through coastal erosion
of headlands. The cliffs of the headlands
will contain cracks and become weak and
are prone to erosion from waves.
 Bays and headlands Body of water that is mostly surrounded by
land (usually saltwater or freshwater).
Headlands are surrounded by water on the
sides and is characterized by breaking
waves, rocky shores and steep cliffs.
 Cliffs and Wavecut Platforms Cliffs are made from more resistant rock
while wave-cut platform is a wide sloping
surface found at the base of the cliff.

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 What’s More

Activity 2: Picture Analysis

With the concept given above, let us now test your comprehension through the activity

below. Identify the type of coastal landforms are shown in the picture.

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 What Have I Learned

Activity 3: Synthesize your Learning

Answer the following questions based on your learning. Be brief and concise.

1. From your own point of view, make a list of the benefits we gain from beaches.

a.

b.

c.

2. From the different human intervention on protecting the coast, which of these are more

likely the most effective way to protect the inland communities especially during calamities

like typhoons that cause storm surge? Choose only two (2).

a.

b.

7
 Senior High School

Earth and Life

Science
Quarter 2 - Module 9
Introduction to Life Science
 What I Know

Pretest
Instruction: Read and answer the following questions. Encircle the correct answer.
1. All living organisms are able to___________.
A. use energy to work
B. grow and change
C. use their senses to their environment
D. all of the above

2. Science is basically based on_____________.

A. opinion
B. beliefs
C. consensus
D. evidences

3. A theory is________________.
A. an observation on something in the natural world
B. a testable hypothesis or prediction that is potentially falsifiable
C. an experimental procedure of many observations, facts and results
D. a belief shared with many scientists agreeing on the topic

4. The movement of material from a high concentration to lesser concentration is

called_______.
A. osmosis
B. photosynthesis
C. respiration
D. diffusion
5. The process by which cells reproduce is__________.
A. diffusion
B. osmosis
C. cell division
D. respiration

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6. The cell structures that break down food to produce energy are the____________.
A. vacuoles
B. chloroplasts
C. ribosomes
D. mitochondria
7. Animals have the following except_____________.
A. cell wall
B. ribosomes
C. mitochondria
D. cell membrane
8. Plants have the following except_____________________.
A. vacuoles
B. ribosomes
C. cell walls
D. mitochondria
9. Oxygen is carried throughout the body by________________.
A. red blood cells
B. white blood cells
C. plasma
D. guard cells

10. Which of the following works as the brain of the cell?

A. Lysosomes
B. Nucleolus
C. Nucleus
D. Mitochondria

2
 Evidences and Processes of
Lesson Evolution
1
What I Need to Know

How do we define life? We simply describe life as easy as it is recognized to be

but often much harder to define it. Animals and plants are organisms that we consider
to have life and what is common with these two is that both are made up of cells which
can be unicellular or multicellular depending to which descendant an organism
belongs. There are different characteristics of life and these are nutrition, reproduction,
excretion, growth, movement, respiration, and sensitivity. Several attempts have been
made from time to time to explain on the origin of the Earth and how life really began.
As a result, people have come up with different theories providing their own
explanation on the possible mechanism on the origin of life. This chapter is your
introduction to a slice through time. We begin with Earth’s formation and move on to
life’s chemical origins and the evolution of traits present in modern eukaryotes.

What’s New

Activity 1: My Own Origin of the Earth (PERFORMANCE TASK - 60% of your GRADE)

Make a simple diagram or sketch on how the universe and the earth was formed

based on your own understanding and prior knowledge. Write a short explanation of

your drawing on a separate piece of paper. Criteria is provided below.

Criteria:

Neatness- 15 points
Creativity- 30 points
Relevance - 15 points
Information- 20 points
Concept- 20 points

100 points

3
 What Is It

 Origin of the Universe and Earth

There were many theories inferred by different scientists on the origin of the
universe. Few of these are the Theory of Special Creation, Theory of Spontaneous
Generation, Theory of Biogenesis, Theory of Biochemical Evolution, Theory of
Panspermia, and Deep-sea hydrothermal vent theory. These theories may have or
may have not scientific basis.
Some believed that organisms were put to Earth by some divine forces (Canoy,
2016) while others say that life did not originate from Earth but from other celestial
bodies. Among the scientists, the most accepted theory is that life came from lifeless
matter. According to the primordial soup theory proposed by Alexander Oparin and

John Haldane, that life started in a primordial soup of organic molecules. Some form
of energy from lightning combined with the chemicals in the atmosphere to make the
amino acids (the building block of proteins).
Studies of the modern universe allow astronomers and physicists to propose and
test ideas about its origin (Starr et al., 2015). According to the big bang theory the
universe began in a single instant, about 13 to 15 billion years ago. In that silent
expansion, all existing matter and energy suddenly appeared and exploded outward
from one point. Simple elements such as hydrogen and helium formed within minutes.
Then over millions of years, gravity drew the gases together and they condensed to
form giant stars. The explosions of the early stars scattered heavier elements which
formed into galaxies (Starr et al., 2010). Five billion years ago, a cloud of dust and
rocks (asteroids) orbited the star which is known as the sun. When the asteroids
collided with another asteroids, it merged into bigger asteroids. The heavier these
preplanetary object became, the more gravitational pull they exerted, and the more
material they gathered. About 4.6 billion years ago, this gradual build-up of materials
had formed Earth and other planets of our solar system.

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 What Is It
The Common Ancestor of All Life

All living things are made up of cells. Some are unicellular and some are
multicellular. Unicellular organisms that are mostly known are paramecium, amoeba,
bacteria, and yeast. The multicellular cells include animal cells, plant cells, and the
human body and germ cells. Given what scientists know about relationships among
modern species. Most assume that this common ancestor was prokaryotic, meaning
it did not have a nucleus. There was a scarcity of oxygen during the early Earth’s
atmosphere so the ancestral cell must also have been anaerobic meaning capable of
living without oxygen.
What are the evidences to prove such statement? Looking for and finding signs
of early cells poses a challenge. Cells are microscopic and cannot be seen through
our naked eye and is difficult to fossilize. Furthermore, few ancient rocks that could
hold early fossils still exist. Tectonic plate movements have destroyed nearly all rocks
older than about 4 million years, most slightly younger rocks have been heated that
destroy traces of biological material. Structures formed by nonbiological mechanisms
sometimes resemble fossils. To avoid mistakes on accepting materials like genuine
fossils, scientists repeatedly analyze purported (not definitely true or real) fossil finds
and they often question one another’s conclusion.

The Oldest Fossil Cells

The divergence that separated the two prokaryotic domains, Bacteria and
Archaea, occurred rarely in the history of life, and no fossils from before this
divergence have been discovered.
It has been studied that the first form of life is believed to have appeared 3.5
billion years ago. Paleontologists are the
scientists who study fossils found microscopic
living cells known as microfossils in rocks that
formed 3.5 billion years ago after Earth cooled
and solidified using radioisotope dating (which
uses radioactive materials such as the radioactive
components of potassium-argon). The
Figure 1. Example of microfossils of sulphur-
microfossils’ filaments found in Western Australia metabolizing cells in 3.4-billion-year-old rocks of
Western Australia
resemble chains of modern photosynthetic bacteria

5
and the rocks in which they occur are thought to be remains of ancient stromatolites
which are mounded, layered structure that forms in shallow sunlit water when a mat
of photosynthetic bacteria traps minerals and sediment (Figure 1). These stromatolites
increase in size over time as new layers form over the old. These organisms have
been so abundant 1.25 billion years ago and were common worldwide.
Many types of bacteria carry out photosynthesis, but only one group,
cyanobacteria, do so by an oxygen-producing pathway. The microfossils of
cyanobacteria were among the easiest to recognize. The forms of these organisms
were remained the same and left chemical fossils in the form of broken products from
pigments. The first microfossil that showed remains of organisms with differences in
structure and characteristics was seen 1.5 billion years ago on the rocks. They are
bigger compared to bacteria and have internal membranes and thicker wall. These
findings marked the beginning of eukaryotic organisms on Earth. The evolution of
oxygen-producing photosynthesis in cyanobacteria had started on early life. About 2.5
billion years ago, oxygen released by these bacteria had begun to accumulate in
Earth’s air and creating a new, global selection pressure. Other species considered
oxygen as toxic thus evolved gradually in its absence.
How did multicellular organisms evolve? Multicellular organisms are believed
to have evolved from unicellular eukaryotes and until now it is the concept that we
believe. Single eukaryotic cells, just like unicellular algae, formed multicellular
aggregates through association with another cell producing colonies. From colonial
aggregates, the organisms evolved in order to form multicellular organisms through
cell specialization. Organisms like protozoans, sponges, and fungi came to being. The
soft-bodied animals were the first fossilized animals which were discovered 580 million
years. The continuous process of cell specialization brought the emergence of diverse
plants and animals, including human beings and including the complex ones. Charles
Darwin said that organisms change over time as a result of adaptation to their
environment in order to survive.

6
Rise of the Eukaryotes
Nucleus is not often preserved during fossilization but other traits provide
evidence that a fossilized cell was eukaryotic. These eukaryotic cells are generally
larger than the prokaryotic cells. A cell wall with complex patterns, spines, or spikes
probably belonged to a eukaryote. Researchers and scientists also look for biomarkers
(substance that occurs only or predominantly in cells of a specific type) for each
eukaryote just like the steroids found present only to eukaryotes (Figure 2).
Table 1. Difference between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
Prokaryotic Cell Eukaryotic Cell
‘pro’= pre, ‘karyon’=nucleus ‘eu’ = true , ‘karyon’= nucleus
Originated about 3.5 billion years ago Originated about 1.2 billion years ago
Primitive forms Advanced
Unicellular Multicellular
Developing nucleus True nucleus present
Small in size Larger in Size
Non-bounded membrane Membrane-bounded

Figure 2. A diagram of a Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cell.

Origin and evolution eukaryotes

Table 2. Origin of Some Organelles

Organelle Origin
 Nucleus - The DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) of the prokaryotes lies
on unenclosed in the cell’s cytoplasm while the DNA of
the eukaryotes are enclosed with an endomembrane
(group of members and organelles). The nucleus and
endomembrane system evolve when plasma membrane
of an ancestral prokaryote folded inward (See Fig.3)
 Mitochondria - Mitochondria and chloroplasts resemble bacteria in their
and Chloroplast size and shape, and they replicate independently of the
cell that holds them. Bacteria have their own DNA in the
form of a singular chromosome and have at least two
outer membranes and innermost membrane similar to
bacterial plasma membrane.
- Chloroplast is the site of photosynthesis.

7
 Table 3: Functions of Other Cell Organelles

Cell Organelles Function

 Ribosomes - Makes protein
 Golgi Apparatus - Does the packaging and processing of proteins
 Lysosomes - Contain enzymes to help break the food down
 Endoplasmic - Transports items around the cell
Reticulum
 Vacuole - For water or food storage
 Chloroplasts - Present in plants only; uses sunlight to make food
through photosynthesis
 Cell wall - Rigid; supports the cell

Figure 3. Steps in the Evolution of eukaryotic organelles.

What’s More
Activity 1: Answer the Riddle
Given the concept of the evolution of prokaryotes and the organelles. Find the
secret message by answering the questions below. Choose your answer from the table then
write the corresponding letter in the space to answer of the riddle: Did you hear the one
about a chemist who was reading a book about helium?

Nucleus Cell Lysosomes Chloroplast Endoplasmic Ribosomes Mitochondria

Membrane Reticulum
P C D L N U O
Vacuole Animal Chromosomes Cytoplasm Golgi Nucleolus Cell Wall
Cell Apparatus
U T T H I E T
Unicellular Eukaryotic Prokaryotic Multicellular
D W N O

8
_______ 1) It is a jelly-like fluid structure inside the cell that provides an area of movement for all
dissolved molecules that keep the cell working.
_______ 2) A structure found in the nucleus that helps produce ribosomes.
_______ 3) It is a thin layer around the cell but not a rigid one. It has openings to allow
transportation and exchange of materials.
_______ 4) When a cell needs energy, it brings in nutrients and break it down and supply energy
to the cell.
_______ 5) Its role is for storage.
_______ 6) It helps produce food for plants and absorbs light energy from the sun and use it to
convert C02 and H20 into sugar and oxygen.

_______ 7) It is the digestive system in an animal cell because it contains enzymes that break
down wastes and other materials.
_______ 8) These build proteins in the cell and can be found in several places in the cells which
includes in the cytosol and on the endoplasmic reticulum.
_______ 9) They do the DNA synthesis and direct the genetic information of the cell. These are
made of DNA and found in the nucleus and usually in pairs.
_______ 10) It is also known as the brain of the cell.
_______ 11) An organelle that serves as the transport system.
_______ 12) It is only found in the plant cells that support the plat which is also made of specialized
sugar called cellulose.
_______ 13) It gathers molecules and make them more complex. It also stores them or send them
into the cytosol or out of the cell. This organelle also processes the proteins produced
by the endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes.
_______ 14) It does not contain cell wall.
_______ 15) An organism made up of one cell.
_______ 16) Organism composed of many cells.
_______ 17) An organism that lacks nucleus.
_______ 18) An organism with true nucleus.

What is It

Biology is the study of life. Life does not only involve the living things itself only
but also includes its deepest characteristics. There are many characteristics of life and
some of these will be discussed below.
This is an important introduction on how you define a living and a non-living for
you to simply know how important life is.

7 Basic Characteristics of Life

1. Nutrition
2. Reproduction
3. Excretion
4. Growth
5. Movement
6. Respiration
7. Sensitivity

9
Table 4: Characteristics of Life
Life Definition/Example
Characteristic
Sensitivity Living things are able to respond to the environment through a stimulus.
Irritability is an example. Another example is a living thing’s response to light
by facing the sun and sweating as our body response to heat which is also
connected to excretion.
Reproduction Unicellular organisms reproduce by DNA replication and dividing equally as
the new cell prepares to form two new cells while multicellular organisms
often reproduce using its gametes in order to form new individuals. When
there is reproduction, genes with DNA will passed from generation to
generation to make sure that the offspring belong to the same species
having similar characteristics.

Growth and Organisms grow and develop according to its genes that gives instruction
Development that will direct the cellular growth and development ensure that the offspring
will grow up and manifest many of the same characteristics from the parents.
Mitosis and meiosis play an important role in this matter.
Nutrition Living things take in minerals and food from the environment in order to
survive and grow. It is the process of which organism obtain energy and raw
materials from nutrients such as fats, carbohydrates and proteins.
Respiration It is the process in which the energy from the food eaten is being released
in al living cells. Organisms break down the food within their cells with a
specific process to carry out the following processes.
Movement All living things move. Animals move from one place to another. Plants also
move but not as usually observable than animals. Plants move in different
ways in order to grow and their movement may be so slow that people
cannot even recognize. A Makahiya leaf being touched is an example of
movement through thigmotrophism
Excretion All living things also excrete but in different ways. Excretion is the result of
many chemical reactions happening in cells which they have to remove the
waste products which might poison the cells. Excretion is the removal of
toxic minerals in excess from the organism.

What’s More

Activity 2: Case Analysis

With the given concept above, answer the following situations with the characteristics
of life. Write your answer on the second table.

Statement Characteristic of Life

Jannine married Frank after dating for four
years. After 2 months, Jannine thought she
Reproduction
just had difficulty having menstruation then
she found out she was pregnant.

10
You throw a piece of seed into your
backyard. After a few weeks, there was a
seedling started to grow.
Stomata are small openings present on plant
leaves. On a hot dry day, the stomata
openings remain closed to reduce the loss of
water. Which characteristic of living things is
described here?
Puppies have inherited genes from both
parents and share many of the same
characteristics.

Eggs—tadpoles—adult frogs

Snakes shed their skin.

Mary was running fast because she was late

in her Biology class. When she entered the
classroom, she was sweating a lot.

pollen carried from flower to flower

A triathlon ate plenty of fruits and vegetable

as a preparation for his competition next
week.

Guttation in plants gradually happen.

11
 What Have I Learned

Activity 6: Synthesizing your Learning

Answer the following questions based on your learning. Be brief and concise.

1. Based from your opinion, why do we need to study the beginning of the universe?
Give at least five (2) reasons.
a.

b.

2. From the seven characteristics of life, choose top three which you consider as
important characteristics of life. Explain why to each of the characteristic below.

a.

b.

c.

What Can I Do
(PERFORMANCE TASK 60% of your GRADE)
We learned that bacteria are unicellular and can be either be benefited by humans or
endanger humans. Your activity is to fill in “the hands” some ways to keep yourself
away from being infected by some bacteria or viruses especially during the pandemic.
Color “the hand”. At the center of the hand, make your own slogan about the
importance of hygiene and hand washing.

12
Summary

 There are different theories proposed on how the universe was formed such as
Theory of Special Creation, Theory of Spontaneous Generation, Theory of
Biogenesis, Theory of Biochemical Evolution, Theory of Panspermia, and
Deeps-sea Hydrothermal Vent Theory.

 Big Bang Theory is the theory that is widely accepted and states that the
universe was formed 13 to 15 billion years ago.

 The age of the earth was proven and studied with the use of fossils (remains of
the past).

 Paleontologists discovered microfossils in rocks that formed 3.5 billion years

ago using radioisotope dating.

 All living organisms are made up of cells.

 Multicellular organisms evolved from unicellular eukaryotes with a process.

 Nucleus is not often preserved during fossilization but other traits that a
fossilized cell was eukaryotic.

 Prokaryotic cells are unicellular.

 Eukaryotic cells are multicellular.

 There are different characteristics of life namely, Sensitivity, Reproduction,

Growth and Development, Nutrition, Respiration, Movement, and Excretion.

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Post-Assessment
Instruction: Read and answer the following questions. Encircle the letter of your
choice.

1. According to the big bang theory, ________________.

a. the universe expanded out from a single point
b. earth and our sun formed simultaneously
c. C and O were the first elements to form
d. all of the above

2. The first eukaryotes were ___________.

a. fungi
b. plants
c. protists
d. animals

3. Evidence that Mars ____ suggests that It may have supported or still supports
life.
A. has an ozone layer
B. has water
C. is about the same size as Earth
D. all of the above

4. The evolution of _______ resulted in the increase in the levels of atmospheric

oxygen.
a. DNA-based genomes
b. aerobic respiration
c. sexual reproduction
d. photosynthesis that releases oxygen

5. Bacteria that cause the disease typhus are close relatives of bacteria evolved
into ______.
a. protists
b. protocells
c. chloroplasts
d. mitochondria

6. An RNA that functions as an enzyme is a ___________.

a. protein
b. protocell
c. ribosome
d. ribozyme

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7. A stromatolite is a structure ____________.
a. produced by endosymbiosis
b. that formed only on the early Earth
c. consisting of layered bacteria and sediment
d. that expels hot water from deep in the Earth

8. _________ refers to the sum of chemical reactions of an organism.

a. Photosynthesis
b. Respiration
c. Metabolism
d. Homeostasis

9. It is the ability of living things to produce new individuals closely resembles

them.
a. Excretion
b. Reproduction
c. Respiration
d. Creation

10. It is a theory stating that the beginning of the universe was due to a supreme
being creating the planets, galaxies, asteroids and other heavenly bodies.

a. Theory of Special Creation

b. Theory of Spontaneous Generation
c. Theory of Biogenesis
d. Theory of Biochemical Evolution

15