Descriptive research :

examines a situation as it is. It does not Involve changing or modifying the situation under
investigation, nor is it intended to determine cause and effect relationships.

Descriptive research design or type:

• Observation studies.
• Correlational research
• Developmental design
• Survey research.
All of which yield quantitative information that can be summarized through statistical
analyses.

What the observation studies:

 It is measure or survey member of sample without trying to affect them, the data which
primally focused on number and value. an observation study in quantitative research
might be conducted with plants rather than animals, or it might involve non-living objects
 In observation study we have a limit, pre-specified focus, a list about event I’m goanna to
observe.
 The behaviour is quantified in some way. In some situations, each occurrence of the
behaviour is counted to determine its overall frequency. In other situations, the
behaviour is rated for accuracy, intensity, maturity,mor some other dimension.
 Example of observation study:
 Observe the birds while feeding their babies, from different aspect, the time of feeding,
the ages of the babies.

TO MAINTAIN SUCH OBJECTIVITY, RESEARCHER IS LIKELY TO USE

STRATEGIES:
1. Define the observation , the behavior being studied in such a precise, concrete manner
that the behavior is easily recognized when it occurs.
2. Divide the observation period into small segments and then record whether the
behavior does or does not occur during each segment.
3. Use a rating scale to evaluate the behaviour in terms of specific dimensions .
4. Have two or three people rate the same behavior independently, without knowledge of
one another’s ratings.
5. Train the rater(s) to use specific criteria when counting or evaluating the behavior, and
continue training until consistent ratings are obtained for any single occurrence of the
behavior.

A correlational study examines the extent to which differences in one characteristic or

variable are associated with differences in one or more other characteristics or variables.
A correlation exists if, when one variable increases, another variable either increases or
decreases in a somewhat predictable fashion. Knowing the value of one variable, then, enables
us to predict the value of the other variable with some degree of accuracy .
In correlational studies, researchers gather quantitative data about two or more characteristics
for a particular group of people or other appropriate units of study.
How to know if the two variables are associated together or not ?
If the bots spread randomly, then the two variables are not related to each other. if the shape in
form sausage, then the two variables are related together .

Survey research involves acquiring information about one or more groups of people—perhaps
about their characteristics, opinions, attitudes, or previous experiences—by asking them
questions and tabulating their answers. we might call this approach a descriptive survey or
normative survey

Face-to-Face and Telephone Interviews :

Structured interview: the researcher asks certain questions in the same order so that responses
can easily be placed in similar or nothing
Semi structured interview: the researcher may follow the standard questions with one or more
individually tailored questions to get clarification or probe a person’s reasoning.

Face-to-face interviews
enabling a researcher to establish rapport with potential participants and therefore gain their
cooperation. Thus, such interviews yield the highest response rates—the percentages of people
agreeing to participate—in survey research.
but the time and expense involved may be prohibitive if the needed interviewees reside in a
variety of states, provinces, or countries.

Telephone Interviews:
Phone interviews are less time consuming and often less expensive. But the response rate is not
as high as it is for a face-to-face interview, and a researcher conducting telephone interviews
cannot establish the same kind of rapport possible in face-to-face situations.

Questionnaires:

The questionnaires can be distributed to a large number of people, which may save the expense
of the researcher's travel and long phone calls. Also, participants can answer questions
anonymously, some participants may be more honest than if they were in an in-person interview.

However, the questionnaires also have their drawbacks. For example, when questions are
distributed by mail or e-mail, the return rate is low, and the people who respond to them do not
necessarily have to be a representative of the sample originally selected.

The questionnaire must be carefully planned, constructed, and distributed. In fact, any
descriptive study requires careful planning, with close attention to each methodological
detail.

A descriptive quantitative study involves measuring one or more variables in some way.
Three techniques that can facilitate quantification of complex phenomena are :
 A checklist :is a list of behaviours or characteristics for which a researcher is
looking.
-Researcher simply indicates whether each item on the list is observed, present, or true
or, in contrast, is not observed, present, or true.

 A rating scale: is more useful when a behavior, attitude, or other phenomenon of interest
needs to be evaluated on a continuum of, say, “inadequate” to “excellent,” “never” to
“always,” or “strongly disapprove” to “strongly approve.”

ONE problem with rating scales is that people don’t necessarily agree about what
various points along a scale mean; for instance, they may interpret such labels as
“Excellent” or “Strongly disapprove” in idiosyncratic ways. Especially when researchers
rather than participants are evaluating certain behaviours—or perhaps when they are
evaluating certain products that participants have created—a more explicit alternative is a
rubric.

 A rubric includes two or more rating scales for assessing different aspects of
participants’ performance, with concrete descriptions of what performance looks like at
different points along each scale.
Guidelines: planning and conducting interviews in a quantitative study

1. Limit questions to those that will directly or indirectly help you answer your research
question.
2. As you write the interview questions, consider how you can quantify the responses, and
modify the questions accordingly.
3. Restrict each question to a single idea
4. Consider asking a few questions that will elicit qualitative information.
5. Consider how you might use a computer to streamline the process.
6. Pilot-test the questions.
7. Courteously introduce yourself to potential participants and explain the general purpose
of your study.
8. Get written permission.
9. Save controversial questions for the latter part of the interview
10. Seek clarifying information when necessary.

CONSTRUCTING AND ADMINISTERING A QUESTIONNAIRE

1. Keep it short.
2. Keep the respondent’s task simple and concrete.
3. Provide straightforward, specific instructions
4. Use simple, clear, unambiguous language.
5. Give a rationale for any items whose purpose may be unclear.
6. Check for unwarranted assumptions implicit in your questions
 7. Word your questions in ways that don’t give clues about preferred or more desirable
responses.
8. Determine in advance how you will code the responses.
9. Check for consistency.
10. Conduct one or more pilot tests to determine the validity of your questionnaire.
11. Scrutinize the almost-final product one more time to make sure it addresses your needs.
12. Make the questionnaire attractive and professional looking

CHOOSING A SAMPLE IN A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY:

In such situations, researchers typically do not study the entire population of interest. Instead,
they select a subset, or sample, of the population.

Sampling Designs :
Different sampling designs may be more or less appropriate in different situations and for
different research questions.
Here we consider eight approaches to sampling, which fall into two major categories:
 Probability sampling
In probability sampling the sample is chosen from the overall population by random
selection— that is, it is selected in such a way that each member of the population has
an equal chance of being chosen. When such a random sample is selected, the researcher
can assume that the characteristics of the sample approximate the characteristics of the
total population

 Simple Random Sampling: Every member of the population has an equal chance of
being selected. Such an approach is easy when the population is small and all of its
members are known.<300
• Stratified Random Sampling : It has three different layers (strata) of distinctly
different types of individuals. In stratified random sampling, the researcher samples
equally from each of the layers in the overall population. Stratified Sampling is
appropriate when various strata are different in size.
 ▪ Cluster Sampling Sometimes the population of interest is spread over a large area,
such that it isn’t feasible to make a list of every population member. Instead, we
might obtain a map of the area showing political boundaries or other subdivisions.
We can then subdivide the area into smaller units, or clusters—perhaps precincts,
school boundary areas, or counties. In cluster sampling, clusters should be as similar
to one another as possible, with each cluster containing an equally heterogeneous mix
of individuals.

 Systematic Sampling Systematic sampling involves choosing individuals—or perhaps

clusters—according to a predetermined sequence, with the sequence being
determined by chance. For instance, we might create a randomly scrambled list of
 units that lie within the population of interest and then select every 10th unit on the
list.
 Nonprobability sampling.