UNIT – I DRIVE CHARACTERISTICS

Electrical drives:
Systems employed for motion control are called drives and may employ any of the prime movers such
as diesel or petrol engines, gas or steam turbines, hydraulic motors and electric motors for supplying
mechanical energy for motion control. Drives employing electric motors are known as electric drives.

Functions of power modulator.

Power modulator performs one or more of the following four functions.

 Modulates flow of power from the source to the motor in such a manner that motor is
imparted speed-torque characteristics required by the load.
 During transient operations, such as starting, braking and speed reversal, it restricts source
and motor currents within permissible values; excessive current drawn from source may
overload it or may cause a voltage dip.
 Converts electrical energy of the source in the form suitable to the motor. induction motor-
AC supply DC motor-DC supply
 Selects the mode of operation of motor ie, motoring or braking
Advantages of Electrical Drives:

 They have flexible control characteristics. The steady state and dynamic characteristics
of electrical drives can be shaped to satisfy the load requirements.
 They are available in wide range of torque, speed and power.
 Electric motors have high efficiency, low no load losses and considerable short time
overloading capability.
 They are adoptable to any operating conditions such as explosive and radioactive
environment, submerged in liquids, vertical mountings, and so on.
 Do not pollute the environment.
 Can operate in all four quadrants of the speed- torque plane.
 Unlike other prime movers, there is no need to refuel or warm-up the motor. They can be
started instantly and can be fully loaded.

Parts of Electrical Drives:

 Electrical drives have the following major parts:
 Power modulator
 Electric motors
 Source
 Control unit
Electrical Motors
Motors commonly used in electrical drives are: DC motors – shunt, series,
compound and permanent magnet; Induction motors – squirrel cage, wound rotor
and linear; Synchronous motors - wound field and permanent magnet; BLDC
motors; Stepper motors and; Switched reluctance motor.
Power Modulators
Drives may employ more than one power modulators. It can be classified in to
1. Controlled rectifiers
2. Inverters
3. AC voltage controllers
4. DC choppers
5. Cycloconverters
Sources
 In India 1- phase and 3-phase 50 Hz supplies are readily available in most of the
locations.
 Very low power drives are fed from 1-phase supply and rest of the supply fed from 3-
phase source.
 Single phase source used for economic purpose. Most of drives powered from AC source
either directly or through converter link.
 When fed directly from 50 Hz ac supply, maximum speeds of induction motor and
synchronous motor are limited to 3000 rpm.
 Low and medium power motors are generally fed from 400 V supply: for high power
ratings, motor may be rated 3.3 kV,6.6 kV, 11kV.

In case of aircraft and space applications, 400 Hz AC supply is generally used to

achieve high power to weight ratio for motors.

Control unit
 Controls for a power modulator are provided in the control unit. Control unit for a
particular drive depends on the power modulator used.
 When semiconductor converters are used, the control unit consists of firing circuits,
which employ the linear and digital integrated circuits and transistor, and a
microprocessor when sophisticated control is required. PLC is used when solid state
relays are used.
Choice of electrical drive depends on the number of factors. Some of the important factors
are:
i. Steady state operation requirements:
ii. Nature and of speed torque characteristics, speed regulation, speed range,
efficiency, duty cycle, quadrant operation.
iii. Transient operation requirements: Value of acceleration and deceleration, starting,
braking and reversing performance.
iv. Requirements related to the source: Type of source, and its capacity, magnitude of
voltage, voltage fluctuations, power factor and harmonics.
v. Capital and running cost.
vi. Space and weight restrictions.
 vii. Environment and location.
viii. Reliability.
Status of DC and AC Drives
a) In earlier period induction and synchronous motor drives are used for fixed
speed application. DC motor drives are used for variable speed applications.
b) In later day’s development of variable speed induction motor drives and
squirrel cage induction motor over DC motors, DC drives are replaced by
induction motor drives for variable speed applications.
c) Even though the induction motor is cheaper than DC motor, the control unit
and the converter of the induction motor drives is costly. So that total cost of
the induction motor drive higher than the DC drives.
d) AC drives were not as reliable as DC.
e) Development in linear and digital ICs, VLSI were helpful to improve the
performance and reliability.
f) AC drives preferred over DC drives with number of application and result.
Dynamics of Electric Drives
Fundamental Torque Equations
A motor generally used to drive the load through transmission system. When the
motor rotates load start to rotate. If the load has many parts, few parts may rotate
and some of them under go translational motion.
The motor load system is represented by convenient equivalent rotational system
as shown in the Fig 1.1

Fig 1.1 Equivalent motor-load system

The following notations is adapted:
J = polar moment of inertia of the motor-load system referred to the motor
shaft,Kg-m2
wm= instantaneous angular velocity of the motor shaft, rad/ sec
Tm = developed torque of the motor, N-m
TL = the load (resisting) torque, referred to the motor shaft, N-m
Any motor-load system can be described by the following fundamental torque equation during
dynamic condition:

( )

This equation is applicable for variable inertia drives such as mines winder, industrial robots etc.
For drives with constant inertia

( )
negative sign for deceleration and positive sign for acceleration.
 Acceleration or deceleration depends on whether Tm is greater or less than TL .During
acceleration,motor should supply not only load torque TL but also an additional torque component
called inertia torque

During deceleration, dynamic torque has negative.

Therefore, it assists the motor torque energy Tm and maintains drive motion by extracting energy
from stored kinetic energy.
Multiquadrant dynamics in the speed-torque plane:
Multiquadrant Operation
A motor can operates in two modes – motoring and braking. In motoring, it converts mechanical
energy and in braking it works as a generator which will convert mechanical energy in to
electrical energy. Power developed is product of speed and torque.

Multi quadrant operation of drives

 Four quadrant operation of a motor driving a hoist load

a) The quadrant I operation of a hoist requires the movement of the cage upward. This
corresponds to the positive motor speed.
b) Since developed power is positive, this is forward motoring operation.
c) Quadrant IV operation is obtained when a loaded cage is lowered.
d) Counter weight comes down due to gravity itself, it is necessary for the motor to produce
positive torque.
e) As power and speed are negative, drive is operating in reverse braking.
f) Operation in quadrant II is obtained when empty cage is moved up. Since a counter
weight is heavier than an empty cage, it is able to pull it up.
g) Since speed is positive and developed power negative, it is forward braking operation.
h) Operation in quadrant II is obtained when empty cage is lowered.
i) Since speed is negative and developed power is positive, this is reverse motoring
operation.

Various types of load torques

Components of Load Torques

Load torque can be further divided in to following components:

 Friction torque Tf: Friction will be present in the shaft and also various part of the load.
 Windage torque Tw: When motor runs, wind generates a torque opposing the motion.
 Torque required to do the useful mechanical work TL: Nature of the torque depends on the particular application. It may
be constant and independent of speed, it may be some function of speed, it may be time invariant or time variant, and its
nature may also vary with the change in the load's mode of operation.
The friction torque ‘TF’ can be resolved into three components as shown in figure
Speed Torque Characteristics of Motor and Load:

Different types of loads exhibit the different speed torque characteristics. However most of the industrial loads can be classified
into four categories:

Constant torque type

Generator type – torque proportional to speed

Fan type - torque proportional to square of the speed

Constant power type - torque inversely proportional to speed

1. Constant torque type load – characteristics

Most of the working machines mechanical nature of work like requires constant torque
irrespective of speed. The speed torque characteristics of this type of load is given by T = K and
is shown in fig.

Speed torque characteristics of constant torque load

2. Generator type – torque proportional to speed

Separately excited DC generators connected to a constant resistance load, eddy current brakes
and calendaring machines a speed – torque given by T = Kw

Generator type – torque proportional to speed

 3.Fan type - torque proportional to square of the speed

Load torque proportional to the square of the speed. Speed torque is given by T = Kω2

4. Constant power type - torque inversely proportional to speed

Certain type of loads exhibit hyperbolic speed torque characteristics. In such loads torque is inversely
proportional to speed. This type of characteristics is given by T = K/ω
The mathematical expression for the analysis of steady state stability of equilibrium point.
Equilibrium speed of a motor-Load system can be obtained when motor torque equals the load
torque. Electric Drive system will operate in steady state at this speed, provided it is the speed of
the stable state equilibrium.
Concept of steady state stability has been developed to readily evaluate the stability of an
equilibrium point from the steady state speed-torque curve of the motor and load system.
Modes of Operation:

An electrical drive operates in three modes:

 Steady state
 Acceleration including Starting
 Deceleration including

Stopping We know that,

 steady state operation:
o According to the above expression the steady state operation takes place when
motor torque equals the load torque.
o The steady state operation for a given speed is realized by adjustment of steady
state motor speed torque curve such that the motor and load torques are equal at
this speed.
o Change in speed is achieved by varying the steady state motor speed torque curve
so that motor torque equals the load torque at the new desired speed.
o In the figure shown below when the motor parameters are adjusted to provide
speed torque curve 1, drive runs at the desired speed wm1.
o Speed is changed to wm2 when the motor parameters are adjusted to provide
speed torque curve 2.
o When load torque opposes motion, the motor works as a motor operating in
quadrant I or III depending on the direction of rotation.
o When the load is active it can reverse its sign and act to assist the motion.
o Steady state operation for such a case can be obtained by adding a mechanical
brake which will produce a torque in a direction to oppose the motion.
o The steady state operation is obtained at a speed for which braking torque equal
the load torque. Drive operates in quadrant II or IV depending upon the rotation.
Acceleration including Starting
o Acceleration and Deceleration modes are transient modes.
o Drive operates in acceleration mode whenever an increase in its speed is
required.
o For this motor speed torque curve must be changed so that motor torque
exceeds the load torque. Time taken for a given change in speed depends on
inertia of motor load system and the amount by which motor torque exceeds
the load torque.
o Increase in motor torque is accompanied by an increase in motor current. Care
must be taken to restrict the motor current with in a value which is safe for
both motor and power modulator.
o In applications involving acceleration periods of long duration, current must
not be allowed to exceed the rated value.
o When acceleration periods are of short duration a current higher than the rated
value is allowed during acceleration.
o In closed loop drives requiring fast response, motor current may be
intentionally forced to the maximum value in order to achieve high
acceleration.
o Figure shown below shows the transition from operating point A at speed wm1
to operating point B at a higher speed wm2, when the motor torque is held
constant during acceleration. The path consists of AD1E1B.
o In the figure below 1 to 5 are motor speed torque curves.
o Starting is a special case of acceleration where a speed change from 0 to a
desired speed takes place.
o All points mentioned in relation to acceleration are applicable to starting.
o The maximum current allowed should not only be safe for motor and power
modulator but drop in source voltage caused due to it should also be in
 acceptable limits.
o In some application the motor should accelerate smoothly, without any jerk.
This is achieved when the starting torque can be increased steplessly from its
zero value. Such a start is known as soft start.

Deceleration including Stopping

o Motor operation in deceleration mode is required when a decrease in its speed

is required.
o According to the equation deceleration occurs when load torque exceeds the
motor torque.
o In those applications where load torque is always present with substantial
magnitude, enough deceleration can be achieved by simply reducing the motor
torque to zero.
o In those applications where load torque may not always have substantial
amount or where simply reducing the motor torque to zero does not provide
enough deceleration, mechanical brakes may be used to produce the required
magnitude of deceleration.
o Alternatively, electric braking may be employed.
o Now both motor and the load torque oppose the motion, thus producing larger
deceleration.
o During electric braking motor current tends to exceed the safe limit.
Appropriate changes are made to ensure that the current is restricted within the
safe limit.
o Figure shown above shows paths followed during transition from point A at
speed wm1 to a point C at a lower speed wm3 .
o When deceleration is carried out using electric braking at a constant braking
torque, the operating point moves along the path AD3E3C.
o When sufficient load torque is present or when mechanical braking is used the
operation takes place along the path AD2E2C. Stopping is a special case of
deceleration where the speed of a running motor is changed to zero.
Mechanical Load:
The mechanical load usually called as machinery such as flow rates in pump, fans, robots, machine tools, trains
and drills are coupled with motor shaft.
Classification of Load torque: Various load torques are broadly classified into two categories.
A) Active Load Torque
B) Passive Load Torque

Active Load Torque

 Load torques which have the potential to drive the motor under equilibrium conditions are called active load torques.
 Such load torques usually retain their sign when the direction of the drive rotation is changed.
 Torque due to the force of gravity, hoists, lifts or elevators and locomotive trains also torques due to tension,
compression, and torsion undergone by an elastic body come under this category.

Passive Load Torque

 Load torques which always oppose the motion and change their sign on the reversal of motion
are called passive load torques

Eg: Torque due to friction, cutting etc.

7. A motor drive two loads. One has rotation motion. It is coupled to the motor through a
reduction gear with a=0.1 and efficiency of 90%. The load has a moment of inertia of 10kg –m2
and a torque of 10N-M. Other load has translation motion and consist of 1000kg weight to be
lifted up at an uniform speed of 1.5 m\s. coupling between this load and motor has an efficiency
85%.Motor has an inertia of 0.2kg-m2 and runs at a constant speed of 1420 rpm. Determine
equivalent inertia referred to the motor shaft and power developed by the motor.
Classes of Motor Duty in Electrical Drives:

IS: 4722-1968 categorizes various load time variations encountered in practice into eight standard
Classes of Motor Duty in Electrical Drives:

 Continuous duty.
 Short time duty.
 Intermittent periodic duty.
 Intermittent periodic duty with starting.
 Intermittent periodic duty with starting and braking.
 Continuous duty with intermittent periodic loading.
 Continuous duty with starting and braking.
 Continuous duty with periodic speed changes.

Classes of Motor Duty in Electrical Drives

These Classes of Motor Duty in Electrical Drives are explained below.

1. Continuous Duty (Fig. 4.2(a)):

It denotes the motor operation at a constant load torque for a duration long enough for the motor
temperature to reach steady-state value. This duty is characterized by a constant motor loss. Paper
mill drives, compressors, conveyers, centrifugal pumps and fans are some examples of Classes of
Motor Duty in Electrical Drives.
2. Short Time Duty (Fig. 4.2(b)):

In this, time of drive operation is considerably less than the heating time constant and machine is
allowed to cool off to ambinent temperature before the motor is required to operate again. In this
operation, the machine can be overloaded until temperature at the end of loading time reaches the
permissible limit. Some examples are: crane drives, drives for household appliances, turning bridges,
sluice-gate drives, valve drives, and many machine tool drives for position control.
3. Intermittent Periodic Duty (Fig. 4.2(c)):

It consists of periodic duty cycles, each consisting of a period of running at a constant load and a rest
period. Neither the duration of running period is sufficient to raise the temperature to a steady-state
value, nor the rest period is long enough for the machine to cool off to ambient temperature. In this
Classes of Motor Duty in Electrical Drives, heating of machine during starting and braking
operations is negligible. Some examples are pressing, cutting and drilling machine drives.
4. Intermittent Period Duty with Starting (Fig. 4.2(d)):

This is intermittent periodic duty where heat losses during starting cannot be ignored. Thus, it
consists of a period of starting, a period of operation at a constant load and a rest period; with
operating and rest periods, being too short for the respective steady-state temperatures to be attained.

In this duty, heating of machine during braking is considered to be negligible, because mechanical
brakes are used for stopping or motor is allowed to stop due to its own friction. Few examples are
metal cutting and drilling tool drives, drives for fork lift trucks, mine hoist etc.
5. Intermittent Periodic duty with Starting and Braking (Fig. 4.2(e)):
This is the intermittent periodic duty where heat losses during starting and braking cannot be ignored.
Thus, it consists of a period of starting, a period of operation with a constant load, a braking period
with electrical braking and a rest period; with operating and rest periods being too short for the
respective steady state temperatures to be attained.

Billet mill drive, manipulator drive, ingot buggy drive, schrewdown mechanism of blooming mill,
several machine tool drives, drives for electric suburban trains and mine hoist are some examples of
this duty.
6. Continuous Duty with Intermittent Periodic Loading:

It consists of periodic duty cycles, each consisting of a period of running at a constant load and a
period of running at no load, with normal voltage across the excitation winding. Again the load
period and no load period being too short for the respective temperatures to be attained. This Classes
of Motor Duty in Electrical Drives is distinguished from the intermittent periodic duty by the fact
that a period of running at a constant load is followed by a period of running at no load instead of
rest. Pressing, cutting, shearing and drilling machine drives are the examples.
7. Continuous Duty with Starting and Braking:

Consists of periodic duty cycle, each having a period of starting, a period of running at a constant
load and a period of electrical braking; there is no period of rest. The main drive of a blooming mill
is an example.
8. Continuous Duty with Periodic Speed Changes:

Consists of periodic duty cycle, each having a period of running at one load and speed, and another
period of running at different speed and load; again both operating periods are too short for
respective steady-state temperatures to be attained. Further there is no period of rest.