Department: Mechanical Engineering

Computer Science
Assignment No. 1

Topic: RAM

How does RAM work?

Random Access Memory or RAM is the best known form of computer memory. It is considered
“Random Access” because you can access any memory cell in it if you know the row and
column that intersect at that cell.

Similar to a microprocessor RAM or a memory chip is an Integrated Circuit (IC) which is made
by pairing millions of transistors and capacitors to create memory cells. Each of these memory
cells represents a single bit of data, the capacitor holds the bit of information.
Which is a (0) or a (1) and the transistor acts as a switch that lets the control circuitry on the
memory chip read the capacitor or change its state.

A capacitor in this case acts like a small bucket that is able to store electrons. To store a 1 in the
memory cell, the bucket is filled with electrons. To store a 0, it is emptied.
The problem with the capacitor's bucket is that it has a leak. In a matter of a few milliseconds a
full bucket becomes empty. Therefore, for dynamic memory to work, either the CPU or the
memory controller has to come along and recharge all of the capacitors holding a 1 before they
discharge. To do this, the memory controller reads the memory and then writes it right back.
This refresh operation happens automatically thousands of times per second.

Types of RAM

There are two main types of RAM: Dynamic RAM (DRAM) and Static RAM (SRAM).

 DRAM is widely used as a computer’s main memory. Each DRAM memory cell is made

up of a transistor and a capacitor within an integrated circuit, and a data bit is stored in

the capacitor. Since transistors always leak a small amount, the capacitors will slowly

discharge, causing information stored in it to drain; hence, DRAM has to be refreshed

(given a new electronic charge) every few milliseconds to retain data. DRAM is further

classified into its own different types.

  SRAM is made up of four to six transistors. It keeps data in the memory as long as power

is supplied to the system unlike DRAM, which has to be refreshed periodically. As such,

SRAM is faster but also more expensive, making DRAM the more prevalent memory in

computer systems. It is in most cases not user replaceable.

Types of DRAM

Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM) “synchronizes” the memory speed with CPU clock speed so that

the memory controller knows the exact clock cycle when the requested data will be ready.

Rambus DRAM (RDRAM) takes its name after the company that made it, Rambus. It was

popular in the early 2000s and was mainly used for video game devices and graphics cards

Double Data Rate SDRAM (DDR SDRAM) is a type of synchronous memory that nearly doubles

the bandwidth of a single data rate (SDR) SDRAM running at the same clock frequency by

employing a method called "double pumping,"

DDR1 SDRAM has been succeeded by DDR2, DDR3, and most recently, DDR4 SDRAM. Although

operating on the same principles, the modules are not backward-compatible. Each generation

delivers higher transfer rates and faster performance. The latest DDR4 modules being the

fastest one till now.

Frequency of RAM

Frequency number of a RAM shows how much data it can handle each second. RAM frequency is

measured in MHz and usually immediately follows the DDR version in the RAM specifications.
For example, 8GB DDR4-2400 RAM is running at a frequency of 2400MHz. which means it can

handle 2400 Mega Bytes of data per second. Frequencies of RAM typically range from 800MHz

in older DDR2 modules up to 4200MHz in DDR4. Current generation DDR4 modules start at

2133MHz.

Latency in RAM

Latency refers to the time delay between when a command is entered and when the data is available.

Latency is the gap between these two events. When the memory controller tells the memory to access a

particular location, the data must go through a number of clock cycles in the Column Address Strobe
(CAS) to get to its desired location and complete the command. With this in mind, there are two

variables that determine a module's latency:

 The total number of clock cycles the data must go through (measured in CAS Latency, or

CL, on data sheets)

 The duration of each clock cycle (measured in nanoseconds)

Combining these two variables gives us the latency equation:

Latency(ns) = clock cycle time(ns) x number of clock cycles

Below is graph of highest performing DDR4 RAM(s) by Frequency and Latency: -