Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Sorbents

In oil spill remediation, sorbents are widely and frequently used for final shoreline
clean-up. Sorbents could also be used to extract the remaining remnants of oil from the water
or as a substitute to other methods of recovery. Also, sorbent materials can be integrated into
other technologies in cleaning oil spill like sorbent booms that contains oil-absorbing
materials to enhance the capacity of the boom to contain oil.

2.1.1 Natural Organic Sorbents

Natural organic sorbents include human hair, dog’s hair or dog’s fur, cotton, and other
carbon-based products. Organic Sorbents can adsorb oil 3 to 15 times its weight.

I. Human Hair

Off cuts hair are commonly used for making wigs, hair extensions, beard,
eyelashes and other beauty accessories. China, India and some other parts of USA
uses hair for fertilization and most part of the America uses human hair for oil-water
separation. Human hair is a natural bio-sorbent and it is hydrophobic. It repels water
and absorbs contaminants in water such as oils. Human hair has a scaly surface and
has crack and holes in the hair shaft where the oil coats the hair, secure the oil and
penetrates the hairs as the oil slide down and slip into cracks.

In addition, a related research specified that human hair usually 50-100 um in

diameter containing dead cells which is made up of the cuticle, water, lipids, trace
elements and 65-95% proteins, mainly polymers of amino acids such as keratin and
cysteine, medulla and cortex. The cuticle is highly hydrophobic, which makes it water
repellent. It also contains various peptide bonds and CO- as well as NH- group which
forms hydrogen bonds between adjoining molecules on the human organic follicle
surface and has a highly absorbent cortex.

Furthermore, human hair is a verified material which is effective in removing

oil from water with a maximum adsorption capacity of 7470mg/g for crude oil along
with its recovery and its reusable purpose. Research study concludes that African hair
 came first, trailed by Asian hair and lastly, European hair with an adsorption capacity
of 7470, 6176 and 5246mg/g for crude oil respectively (Ukotije-Ikwut et al., 2016).

II. Dog’s Fur

A dog’s fur is one of its most identifiable physical characteristics. Whether it’s
scruffy or silky, long or short, almost every dog is covered in hair or fur. Like human
hair, it is also a good natural organic sorbent. In a related research study of University
of Technology Sydney Environmental Scientists (2020), dog fur in particular was
surprisingly good at oil spill clean-up, and felted mats from human hair and dog’s fur
were very easy to apply and remove from the spills. Commonly uses of dog’s fur is
for composting, stuffing and for pest repellent.

III. Cotton

Cotton fiber is the most important natural textile fiber and it is known to be
super effective for absorbing liquid. It came from seeds of the cotton plant of the
genus Gossypium of Malvaceae family. It widely used for commercial businesses
such as tissues, diapers, baby wipes and other products. Unprocessed cotton,
nonwoven cotton or low grade cotton shows that it is highly effective at absorbing
crude oil spills

Due to high oil sorption capability, biodegradability, and cost-effectiveness,

natural sorbent materials such as wood cotton are attractive to oil spill sorbents. Low
micronaire (air permeability of compressed fibers) cotton, made of smaller diameter
fibers, showed significantly higher crude oil sorption than high micronaire cotton
(thicker fibers) in the case of raw cotton, since the thinner fiber requires more specific
focus adsorption and interfibre capillary sites (Shinshin et al., 2020).

Besides, cotton refinement was easy and affordable, resulting in high stability,
gradual sorption, high crude oil capability, low water retention and substantial
renewability of the commodity. The modified cotton fabric, like natural cotton, could
be processed for ease of use in a variety of ways (ropes, pillows, mats).

2.2 Characteristics of Sorbents

Sorbents are insoluble materials used to recover liquids through the process
adsorption or absorption. Adsorbents are insoluble materials which the surface is coated by a
liquid without increasing the volume of the material by 50% in excess liquid. Absorbent are
insoluble materials that absorb liquid and retain liquid distributed throughout its molecular
structure causing the solid to increase in volume by 50% and must be at least 70% insoluble
in water.

These characteristics must be considered in choosing sorbents that will be used

in cleaning- up oil spills for the betterment of the environment (EPA, 1999).

 Buoyancy – Sorbent materials should retain high buoyancy to be able to use

effectively in floating oils.
 Saturation – Sorbents can be easily saturated by oil. It could not really reclaim
further oil once it is saturated and should therefore be discarded as swiftly as possible
to prevent any ensuing leakage.
 Fermentation – Some organic sorbents can ferment when left in contact with water
for a long period of time. In addition to varying or modifying their compositions and
efficiency in discerningly oil recovery that give rise to recovering, storage and
disposal of the resultant sorbent/ liquid mixture.
 Rate of absorption - The rate and process of absorption depend on a number of
factors like the concentration of the substance, surface area and duration of contact,
and solubility of the material like diesel fuel, gasoline o which they have light
hydrocarbons. With lighter oil products, the absorption of oil is faster and once it is
absorbed, it will not be released anymore.
 Rate of adsorption – The rate of adsorption is affected by some factors such as
temperature, pressure, area of contact, and the nature of the interaction between the
adsorbent and the adsorbate. It is the ability of the sorbent materials to attract the
molecules of liquid and gas towards their surface after they come in contact with the
molecules. The thicker oil adhere to the surface of the adsorbent more effectively.
 Strength and Durability – It is important for sorbent material to be strong and
durable for a long period of time when in left. The source of strength of sorbent
materials comes from its durability. Once it is damaged, it will be easily lost and
another problem of contamination is added to clean-up the contaminated environment.
 Oil retention - The weight of recovered oil can cause deformation and sagging of the
structure of sorbent materials as it will lead to releasing of oil recovered. It can be a
particular problem when using organic materials with low inherent strength.
  Ease of application - Sorbents can be mechanically or passively administered to
spills using nozzles or machines. Many natural organic absorbents that are loose
materials are dusty and difficult to measure in unsustain weather conditions and
possibly hazardous if inhaled.

2.3 Crude Oil

Crude oil is an example of a fossil fuel and non-renewable source of energy made up
of hydrocarbon deposits and other organic materials. (Rogowska and Namiesnik, 2010).
Crude oil can be refined to produce usable products such as gasoline, diesel, and various
other forms of petrochemicals.

According to the Journal entitled Understanding Oil Spills And Oil Spill Response
(1999), the physical and chemical properties of oil affects the way oil spreads and break
down, the hazard it may pose, and the threat to natural and man-made resources.

2.3.1 Factors Affecting the Ability of Oil Spill to Spread

In the Journal entitled Understanding Oil Spills And Oil Spill Response (1999), three
factors are said to be affecting the ability of oil to spread; surface tension, specific gravity,
and viscosity.

 Surface tension is the property of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an external
force, due to the cohesive nature of its molecules. The higher the oil’s surface tension, the
more likely a spill will remain in place. If the surface tension of the oil is low, the oil will
spread even without help from wind and water currents. Since increase in temperature
reduces surface tension, oil often spreads in warm waters than in cold waters
 Specific gravity is an index used to measure the density of a liquid. Specific gravity is
calculated as the ratio of the density of a liquid to the density of water. According to
Energy Insights, liquids with a density lower than water, which includes most crude oil
grades and petroleum products, will have a specific gravity between 0.0 and 1.0. The
specific gravity of an oil spill can increase if the lighter substances within the oil
evaporate.
 Viscosity is the measure of a liquid’s resistance to flow. The higher the viscosity of the oil,
the greater the tendency for it to stay in one place.

2.3.2 Oil Weathering

 Apart from knowing the physical and chemical properties of the compounds of oil and
petroleum, it is essential to note how certain the works of it. Throughout a spill incident,
characteristics vary over time.

The mechanism through which oil properties change after an oil spill is referred to as
"weathering." Oil weathering is a complex process, and there are comprehensive computer
models to determine how oil properties alter the course of weathering during a spill. Oil
becomes much more viscous throughout weathering by evaporative loss of toxic components
or unwanted chemical substances and through water accumulation. As a consequence of
weathering, the degree and rate with which oil properties change varies on the form of oil and
the conditions that influence it (Federici & Mintz, 2014).

The oil slicks are then acted upon by many natural processes to eliminate the leakage
oil in the contaminated area. These processes are known as oil weathering process (OWP).
The weathering processes drastically affect the slick properties of crude oils, in particular
their density and viscosity.

Several studies have shown that slick lifespan on the sea surface is prolonged by
transient changes in the characteristic slick properties. Moreover the evolution of oil slicks is
critically influenced by initial spill conditions and initial oil properties.

2.3.3 Toxicity of Oil

Effects of toxicity of oil depends on various factors. These include the composition of
oil, physical and chemical characteristics, condition, exposure routes and regimen, and the
bioavailability of the oil. (Saadoun, 2015)

The most basic form of acute oil toxicity is narcosis. (C.Y. Lin, R.S. Tjeerdema,
2008). Narcosis is a reversible anaesthetic effect caused by the oil partitioning into the cell
membrane and nervous tissue that causes dysfunctions of the central nervous system.
(Saadoun, 2015)

Hydrocarbons have a volatile nature and, therefore, inhalation of them results in

respiratory tract irritation and narcosis of mammals and birds. (Saadoun, 2015) Some VOCs
are acutely toxic when inhaled, in addition to being potentially cancer-causing. VOCs can be
a threat especially with fresh oil spill.
 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are one constituent of crude oils known to
have negative effects on the natural environment (Allan et al., 2012; Webby and Ling, 2016).
These have oxidative and carcinogenic properties due to their ability to attack and bind to
DNA and protein. PAHs are the major contributors to toxicity, with different metabolic
pathways producing metabolites. (Saadoun, 2015)

Exposure to crude oil also causes chronic health effects for marine organisms, such as
alteration of metabolic and cardiac function (Tissier et al., 2015), impeded growth and
development (Stefansson et al., 2016) and reduced species richness and abundance
(Finlayson et al., 2015).

2.4 Behavior and Effects of Oil Spill

2.4.1 Aquatic Environment

In a journal book entitled Understanding Oil Spills and Oil Spill Response
written by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (1999), oil spilled on
land which often reaches aquatic environment where it can cause damage and bring
hazardous chemicals and substances that will harm those who live on or the vicinity
of the area.

A number of factors including the characteristics of the oil itself, depend on

the magnitude of the effect of the oil spill. In a freshwater environment and marine
environment, natural conditions such as water temperature and weather condition also
affect the behavior of oil. In addition, different types of habitat have varying
sensitivities to oil spills.

The key effect of the oil spill is on the marine ecosystem, wherein the
biodiversity of the seabed plays a major role. In this regard, the macro-fauna, such as
benthic fauna, detritivores are the fauna in the offshore sediments, suspended feeding
on organic particles either in the ocean or on the seabed are deposited. They are also
quite susceptible to particle-attached pollutants that subsequently allow the strong
measures of the biological aspects of the sediments (Ritchie, 1994 - Braer
Environmental Impact).

According to International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation

Association (2000), coral reefs are often vulnerable to oil spills because it is possible
for oil compounds to dissolve in water which potentially exposes the corals to
chemicals and substances that seem to be toxic.

2.4.2 Humans/ Wildlife

According to the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (2006), the

largest oil spill from sunken tanker MT Solar I that happened in Guimaras
continues to destroy the ecosystems, rescinding not only the Philippine coast's rich
marine resources, but also the livelihoods of people dependent on the sea.

This latest spill stems from a floating power barge accident on shore in the 13-
kilometer (8-mile) waterway between the city of Iloilo and Guimaras Island. Operator
AC Energy Inc. said the incident spilled 48,000 liters (12,700 gallons) of fuel oil into
the Iloilo River and its tributaries before being contained eight hours later. Agreeing
to Philippine Coast Guard, around 251,000 liters (66,300 gallons) of oil had spread
around the waterway. The day after, July 4, the Philippine Coast Guard estimated it
had collected 130,000 liters (34,300 gallons) of oil.

 Wildlife

Oil spill can harm wildlife in a number of ways. National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (2020) affirmed in their journal article that the
species most impacted by oil are animals such as sea otters and seabirds that
are found if the oil comes ashore on the surface of the sea or on shorelines.
Seabirds are harmed and killed in bigger quantity than other types of creatures
during most oil spills. Hazardous oil can easily hurt sea otters, as their ability
to stay warm depend on their fur remaining clean. Other terrestrial animals,
can suffer through direct physical contact, toxic contamination, destruction of
food sources and habitats, and reproductive problems if spilled oil remains on
the shore for a while

Furthermore, wildlife responders aim to mitigate when a spill happens,

wildlife and fragile habitats sustain injuries. By working with the agencies,
programs, and organization that responds in containing a clean-up spills,
wildlife responders will decrease the adverse effects of spills and reduce the
impact on natural resources from an oil spill.

 Humans
 Oil spill has a porous threat to humans who relies in aquatic
environment that serves as their source of living. Also, it has a big effect to
their health since they lived in the vicinity of the area. In a journal article of
Environmental Pollution Center (2020),the effects of oil spills on humans may
be direct and indirect, depending on the type of contact with the oil spill.

A. Direct exposure – people who live or work and where they may come
close or in contact with oil spill components:

i. By inhaling contaminated air - since oil products have

many volatile compounds which are emitted as gases from spilled
oil, the air becomes contaminated with those toxic oil products or
vapors producing specific odors that can risk the health of the
people.
ii. By direct contact with the skin - people may come in direct
contact with oil and/or oil products while walking in a
contaminated area like beaches. In addition, hazardous chemicals
may enter the body through the skin that will start a casual
irritation.

B. Indirect exposure - even when people live in places far from where
the actual oil spill took place:

i. By swmming in contaminated water 

ii. By eating contaminated food - Predators that consume
contaminated prey can be exposed to oil through ingestion. Even
though people live far away from an oil spill, if they eat food
coming from a spill area then they are affected.

According to government prohibitions and restrictions on fishing, fishermen and local

ship workers may lose their jobs for long periods of time. Thousands of square miles will be
closed before the oil spill is halted and the clean-up of all oil waste is done. This factor is
probably the most subtle and risky one, being difficult to forecast and measure in terms of
monetary losses. Fishing constraints can lead to deteriorations of economic living in the
contaminated areas, impacting fishermen and local residents alike.
2.5 OIL SPILL CLEAN UP

Oil spill disaster is considered to be unpredictable because of number of people

involved, short decision in limited time, unavailability of resources, uncertainty about the
situation, pressure and stress involved, and damage to the sea environment (Vivacqua and
Borges, 2012). Oil products are everywhere, including outdoors: car tires, roads and, yes, the
fuel that powers most motor vehicles. In addition, human error, incorrect structures or
catastrophic weather incidents have triggered significant oil spills. The cumulative impact of
any oil spill or leak, perhaps on a small or large scale, is highly harmful to the marine
environment and the economy, and health. Besides, wildlife can be destroyed by oil spills and
threaten our precious water resources. There are several cases of marine oil contamination
caused all over the world by unfortunate accidents. Then it is essential to encourage quickly
and thoroughly clean spilled oil (which could also come from shipping tankers or offshore oil
drilling rigs). But spill cleaning can be challenging.

Since oil is used in so many ways, vast quantities of it are transported to factories over
long distances that turn it into the goods that we have become concerned about having.
Millions of barrels of oil are transported about every day, mainly by tankers, each of which
can hold more than 200,000 tons. These tankers sometimes have incidents and accidents, or
destroy offshore drilling platforms and leak oil into the ocean. An alternative environmental
way engineers try to clean up spills is with sorbents of which are excellent for absorbing
materials.

In Philippines, the responsible agency for preventing and controlling pollution in the
country's territorial waters is Philippine Coast Guard (PCG) with the assistance of
Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR). The Marine Environmental
Protection Command (MEPCOM), a unit of the PCG, is the point of contact for oil spill
response operations and comprises the National Operations Center for Oil Pollution
(NOCOP). The NOCOP Commander serves as the national on-scene commander and is able
to request assistance from other government, private and military sources. In addition to the
NOCOP, there are eight Marine Environment Protection Offices under the control of the
eight Coast Guard districts.

These government agencies and organization conduct clean-up oil spill in affected
area where the accidents or incidents happened that made the marine environment
contaminated of hazardous chemicals and substance. Also, to be able to control the pollution
that may affect the people and wildlife who depend on the environment.

Oil spill that happened in Guimaras, Ilo-ilo due to an explosion of a power barge
affected not just only marine resources but also people there. And with the assistance of the
scientists of University of the Philippines to help AC Energy Corporation in coming up with
an oil spill trajectory model for solving the problem in cleaning oil spill that affected coastal
communities in Ilo-ilo. Gabino Ramon Mejia, head of plant operations of AC Energy
Corporation sought for help to do the clean-up and urged the coastal people because as he
stated that the faster to do the cleanup, the better it would be. We need more people in the
community, equipping them with the proper PPE (personnel protective equipment) to be able
to complete the cleanup. And this is the same for Guimaras as well for the improvement of
the whole province.

2.5.1 Progressive Stages in Conducting Oil Spill Clean - up

i. Stage one - This is the initial stage of a response which focuses on the removal of
gross contamination, including floating oil at the water’s edge and thick
concentrations on the shore. Debris and solid waste should be removed and be
segregated appropriately ready for disposal;
ii. Stage two - This is the second phase of clean-up, removing moderate contamination,
stranded oil both on the surface and subsurface, and oiled beach materials;
iii. Stage three - The last stage of the clean-up, called ‘final polish’ of the impacted
area

2.5.2 Techniques in Oil Spill Clean-up

A. Manual Oil Removal

i. Oil and Debris Removal: The procedure is used along the shoreline to remove
oiled debris, trees, wildlife, sediment and gravel. Fresh material, such as sand or
gravel, may replace the old oiled shoreline surface after the oiled debris is
collected. The predicted environmental consequences are physical substratum
destruction and habitat degradation. The removal of wrecks will affect the
supply of food for shorebirds. Cut areas may have decreased plant growth and
plants will be killed in certain cases.
 ii. Cleaning and Scrubbing – in order to remove oil, use detergents in cleaning up
and scrubbing shorelines. This technique is sufficient for stranded oil, or solid
masses that can be collected manually, under light to moderate oiling
conditions.

B. Mechanical Oil Removal

To extract oiled material from the shoreline where manual work is inadequate,
mechanical oil removal uses machinery. If large quantities of oiled materials need to be
extracted, this approach is applicable. Mechanical oil removal includes:

i. Vacuuming - Oil cleaning devices such as suction technology used to extract

oil which can prevent oil from settling under rocky coasts or coasts with highly
oiled debris. With thick layers of oil, this equipment is more successfully used.
ii. Sediment Reworking and Relocation - One such technique improves the
natural filtering of the sediment by tilling, breaking up or relocating polluted
sand, pebbles or cobbles due to wave and current action. The process may
include substituting fresh or decontaminated products for the sediment, sand, or
soil. The approach is sufficient for sand to gravel beaches with subsurface oil,
where the removal of sediment is not feasible because of the issue of erosion or
disposal, as well as on sand beaches where the sediment is stained or lightly
oiled.
iii. Low and high pressure washing - These are also referred to as 'polishing'
techniques because they are usually used to extract relatively small quantities of
weathered oil securely stuck to hard substrates, especially in the field of
amenities.
iv. Flooding and Flushing - Flooding and flushing oil away with low pressure
water makes it easier to reclaim as a slick on the water, may be an efficient way
to redirect oil that has polluted the coastlines. In rock and gravel shoreline types,
this technique is more effective in heavily oiled areas where the oil is still
volatile and conforms slightly to the substrate, and where oil has infiltrated
through gravels sediments.

C. Passive Oil Removal

 Passive oil removal is a form of clean-up that doesn't even require manual or
mechanical technology for cleaning. Natural processes or the use of natural sorbent
materials are involved in this technique. If they would not want to obstruct the coastline
that they are cleaning, oil spill responders prefer to use the passive oil removal process.

2.6 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

The study focuses on assessing the comparison of human hair, dog’s fur and cotton as

effective sorbents for crude oil. Figure 2.1 and figure 2.2 shows the conceptual framework for

the making of sorbent booms and sorbent mats and decontaminating crude oil spill from

ocean water, river water respectively.

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

Sorbents (Human Preparation of Sorbent Booms

Hair, Dog’s Fur, Sorbents and Sorbent
and Cotton) Mats

Figure 2. 1 Conceptual Framework for Making Sorbent Booms and Sorbent Mats

From the figure 2.1, the input will be comprised of three sorbents; human hair, dog’s fur and
cotton. Human hair and dog’s fur will be collected from hair salon and pet shop respectively
and will be contained in a panty hose, each containing 1 kg to form the sorbent booms. The
sorbent mats composed of human hair, dog’s fur and cotton will be made using needle felting
machine to produce 60x60 cm sorbent mats. 
 INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

Ocean Water, Sorbent Booms Decontaminated

River Water, and and Sorbent Ocean water,
Soil with Crude Oil Mats River water, and
Soil

Figure 2. 2 Conceptual Framework for Decontaminating Oil Spill from Ocean water,
River Water, and Soil Using Sorbents
From the figure 2.2, the input will be comprised of three types of surface, each will be
contained in a 43x29x24 cm container with 5 liters of ocean water, river water, and soil. 50
ml of crude oil will be used to represent the oil spill. The process of decontaminating oil spill
will be done for 5 mins with three cycles for each sorbent type and surface type. The oil
sorption of the three sorbent booms and sorbent mats will be evaluated by weighing each
sorbent booms and mats before and after the adsorption. The oil will be retrieved by
squeezing and using rolling pin.