5.theory of Signal Space

Vietnam National University – University of Engineering and
Technology
Unit 5: Theory of Signal Space

‘
Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

Trường Đại học Công nghệ, ĐHQGHN Hanoi, 2017
Truyền thông số và mã hóa
Content
1. BPSK and BFSK techniques
2. Geometric representation of signals
3. The equivalent of the correlation receiver and the

matched filter receiver
4. Maximum likelihood procedure
5. The detection of a signal in noise:

Trường Đại học Công nghệ, ĐHQGHN 2 Truyền thông số và mã hóa
BPSK Technique
 BPSK (Binary Phase shift keying): The phase of carrier carrying
one bit/symbol (waveform)
 Select the waveform
1: 𝑠1 𝑡 = 2𝐸𝑏 𝑇𝑏 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
0: 𝑠2 𝑡 = 2𝐸𝑏 𝑇𝑏 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜋 = − 2𝐸𝑏 𝑇𝑏 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
𝐹𝑐 = 𝑛𝑐 𝑇𝑏
 Choose the basic functions of coordinate system:
𝜙1 𝑡 = 2 𝑇𝑏 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 , 0 ≤ 𝑡 < 𝑇𝑏
 Express by those basic functions (in signal space)

𝑠1 𝑡 = 𝐸𝑏 𝜙1 𝑡 , 𝑠2 𝑡 = − 𝐸𝑏 𝜙1 𝑡

The Signal Space of BPSK

The Transmitter and Receiver of BPSK
 𝑀 = 2, 𝑁 = 1
𝑇𝑏 𝑇𝑏
𝑠11 𝑡 = 0
𝑠1 𝑡 𝜙1 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = + 𝐸𝑏 , 𝑠21 𝑡 = 0
𝑠2 𝑡 𝜙1 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = − 𝐸𝑏

The Error Probability of BPSK
 Due to noise
𝑇𝑏
𝑥1 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝜙1 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
 The conditional probability density function, given 𝑥2 𝑡

was transmitted
1 1 2
1 1 2
𝑓𝑋1 𝑥1 |0 = exp − 𝑥 − 𝑠21 = exp − 𝑥 + 𝐸𝑏
𝜋𝑁0 𝑁0 1 𝜋𝑁0 𝑁0 1
 Probability of deciding in favor of 1

∞ ∞
1 1 2
𝑝10 = 𝑓𝑋1 𝑥1 |0 𝑑𝑥1 = exp − 𝑥 + 𝐸𝑏 𝑑𝑥1
𝜋𝑁0 𝑁0 1
0 0

Error Function
 Put
1
𝑧= 𝑥1 + 𝐸𝑏
𝑁0
∞
1 1
𝑝10 = 𝐸𝑏 𝑁0 exp −𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = erfc 𝐸𝑏 𝑁0
𝜋 2
0
∞
2
erfc 𝑢 = exp −𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧
𝜋
𝑢
 Where erfc . is the complementary error function

BER versus Eb/N0

BFSK Rechniques
 BFSK (Binary Frequency Shift Keying): Frequency of Carrier carrying one
bit/symbol (waveform)
 Choose Waveforms for 1,0 are 𝑠𝑖 𝑡 , 𝑖 = 1,2
2𝐸𝑏
𝑠𝑖 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑖 𝑡 , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑏
𝑇𝑏
0 elsewhere
𝑛𝑐 +𝑖
𝑠𝑖 = 𝑇𝑏
for some fixed integer 𝑛𝑐 and 𝑖 = 1,2
2
𝜙𝑖 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑖 𝑡 , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑏
𝑇𝑏
0 elsewhere
 Take the basic functions
0
𝑠1 = 𝐸𝑏 𝑠2 =
0 𝐸𝑏
 Express by the basic functions

The Signal Space of BFSK
Figure: Signal-space diagram for binary FSK system. The diagram also includes
two inserts showing example waveforms of the two signals 𝑠1 𝑡 and 𝑠2 𝑡

The Transmitter and Receiver of BFSK
Figure: Blocks diagrams for (a) binary FSK transmitter and (b) coherent binary FSK receiver

The Error Probability of BFSK
 Signal in channel with noise Gauss and with projection on axis 𝑠1 𝑠2 ∶
2
1 𝑦 + 𝐸𝑏
𝑓𝑌 𝑦|0 = exp −
2𝜋𝑁0 2𝑁0
∞
𝑝10 = 𝑃 𝑦 > 0|symbol 0 was sent = 𝑓𝑌 𝑦|0 𝑑𝑦

0
∞ 2
1 𝑦 + 𝐸𝑏
= exp − 𝑑𝑦
2𝜋𝑁0 2𝑁0
0
∞
𝑦 + 𝐸𝑏 1 1 𝐸𝑏
=𝑧 𝑝10 = exp −𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = erfc
2𝑁0 𝜋 2 2𝑁0
𝐸𝑏 2𝑁0
1 𝐸𝑏
𝑃𝑒 = erfc
2 2𝑁0

Compare BPSK and BFSK
1 𝐸𝑏
𝑃𝑒𝐵𝑃𝑆𝐾 = erfc
2 𝑁0
1 𝐸𝑏
𝑃𝑒𝐵𝐹𝑆𝐾 = erfc
2 2𝑁0

Geometric Representation of Signals
Figure: Blocks diagram of a generic digital communication system
 Consider a signal as the vector in vector space

 Express signal as a linear combinations of 𝑁 orthogonal basic functions
 𝑀: Number of waveform (Alphabet)
0≤𝑡≤𝑇 𝑇 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑀
𝑠𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑁 𝑠 𝜙
𝑗=1 𝑖𝑗 𝑗 𝑡 , 𝑠𝑖𝑗 = 𝑠 𝜙
0 𝑖 𝑗
𝑡 𝑑𝑡,
𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑀 𝑗 = 1,2, … , 𝑁
𝑇
1 if 𝑖 = 𝑗
𝜙𝑖 𝑡 𝜙𝑗 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝛿𝑖𝑗 ,
0 if 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗
0

Generation of Signal and Detect Signal
𝑁 0≤𝑡≤𝑇 𝑇 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑀
𝑠𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑗=1 𝑠𝑖𝑗 𝜙𝑗 𝑡 , 𝑠𝑖𝑗 = 𝑠𝜙
0 𝑖 𝑗
𝑡 𝑑𝑡,
𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑀 𝑗 = 1,2, … , 𝑁

The Gram–Schmidt Procedure
 Example
Consider the set of three finite-energy signals
𝑠1 𝑡 = 1, 0≤𝑡≤1
𝑠2 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋𝑡 , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1
𝑠3 𝑡 = cos 2 𝜋𝑡 , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1
We desire an orthogonal basis for the signal space spanned by these three signals.
 Solution
We let 𝑣1 𝑡 = 𝑠1 𝑡 and compute
𝑣1 𝑡
𝜙1 𝑡 = = 1, 0≤𝑡≤1
𝑣1
1
Next, we compute 𝑠2 , 𝜙1 = 0
1cos 2𝜋𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 0
and we set 𝑣2 𝑡 = 𝑠2 𝑡 − 𝑠2 , 𝜙1 𝜙1 = cos 2𝜋𝑡 , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 1
The second orthonormal function is found from

The Gram–Schmidt Procedure
1 2 1
And 𝑠3 , 𝜙1 = 0
cos 𝜋𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 2
Thus
𝑣3 𝑡 = 𝑠3 𝑡 − 𝑠3 , 𝜙2 𝜙2 − 𝑠3 , 𝜙1 𝜙1
1 1
= cos 2 𝜋𝑡 − 2 2cos 2𝜋𝑡 − 2 = 0
4
so that the space is two-dimensional

𝑣2 𝑡
𝜙2 𝑡 = = 2cos 2𝜋𝑡 , 0≤𝑡≤1
𝑣2
To check for another orthonormal function, we require the scalar products

1
1
𝑠3 , 𝜙2 = 2cos 2𝜋𝑡 cos 2 𝜋𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 2
4
0

Correlation and Matched filter Receiver

Equivalence of Correlation and Matched Filter
Receiver
 The output filter
∞
𝑦𝑗 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝜏 ℎ𝑗 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
−∞
 If set ℎ𝑗 𝑡 =𝜙𝑗 𝑇 − 𝑡 (Matched filter)
∞
𝑦𝑗 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝜏 𝜙𝑗 𝑇 − 𝑡 + 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
−∞
 Sampling this output at time 𝑡 = 𝑇
∞
𝑦𝑗 𝑇 = 𝑥 𝜏 𝜙𝑗 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
−∞
 Result is same the correlation output

Log-Likelihood function
𝑇 2
 Energy of signal 𝐸𝑖 = 𝑠
0 𝑖
𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁 𝑇
𝐸𝑖 = 𝑠𝑖𝑗 𝜙𝑗 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑘 𝜙𝑘 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑗 𝑠𝑖𝑘 𝜙𝑖 𝑡 𝜙𝑘 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

0 𝑗=1 𝑘=1 𝑗=1 𝑘=1 0
2
= 𝑁 𝑘=1 𝑠𝑖𝑗 = 𝒔𝑖
2
 Likelihood functions 𝐿 𝑚𝑖 = 𝑓𝑋 𝑋|𝑚𝑖 , 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑀

𝑁 𝑁
1 1 2
𝑝 𝒓|𝒔𝑖 sent = 𝑝 𝑟𝑗 |𝑚𝑖 = exp − 𝑟𝑗 − 𝑠𝑖𝑗
𝜋𝑁0 𝑁 2 𝑁0
𝑗=1 𝑗=1
 The log-likelihood functions: 𝑁

1 2
𝑙 𝑚𝑖 = log 𝐿 𝑚𝑖 =− 𝑥𝑗 − 𝑠𝑖𝑗 , 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑀
𝑁0
𝑗=1
 By definition: the likelihood function is always nonnegative.
 The logarithmic function is a monotonically decreasing functions

Coherent Detection of Signal in Noise
 Suppose from the observation vector 𝒙 (at receiver) we make the
decision
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑖
 The probability of error in this decision:
𝑃𝑒 𝑚𝑖 |𝒙 = 𝑃 𝑚𝑖 not sent|𝒙 = 1 − 𝑃 𝑚𝑖 sent|𝒙
 The decision-making criterion is to minimize the probability of error.

Optimum decision rule:
Set 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑖 if
𝑃 𝑚𝑖 sent|𝒙 ≥ 𝑃 𝑚𝑘 sent|𝒙 for all 𝑘 ≠ 𝑖
 This decision rule is called the Maximum a posteriori probability

(MAP) rule

Geometric Representation of Signal in Noise at
Receiver

The Minimum Distance Rule
 Transfer to a priori probability (Bayes’ rule)
𝑝𝑘 𝑓𝑋 𝑥|𝑚𝑘
Set 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑖 if is maximum for 𝑘 = 𝑖
𝑓𝑋 𝑥
Set 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑖 if 𝑙 𝑚𝑘 is maximum for 𝑘 = 𝑖
 When 𝑝𝑘 is equal, we have the decision rule called the Maximum likelihood
rule (ML)
 For an AWGN channel
𝑁
1 2
𝑙 𝑚𝑖 =− 𝑥𝑗 − 𝑠𝑖𝑗 , 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑀
𝑁0
𝑗=1
𝑁 2
attains maximum when 𝑗=1 𝑥𝑗 − 𝑠𝑖𝑗 is minimum or distance minimum

 The Euclidean distance between the received signal and message point
𝑁
2 2
𝑥𝑗 − 𝑠𝑘𝑗 = 𝒙 − 𝒔𝑘
𝑗=1
 In practice
𝑁 𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
2
𝑥𝑗 − 𝑠𝑘𝑗 = 𝑥𝑗2 − 2 𝑥𝑗 𝑠𝑘𝑗 + 2
𝑠𝑘𝑗
𝑗=1 𝑗=1 𝑗=1 𝑗=1
𝑁 1
Observation vector 𝒙 lies in region 𝑍𝑖 if 𝑗=1 𝑥𝑗 𝑠𝑘𝑗 − 𝐸𝑘 is maximum for
2
𝑘=𝑖

Decision Region
Figure: Illustrating the partitioning of the observation space into decision regions
for the case when 𝑁 = 2 and 𝑀 = 4; it is assumed that the 𝑀 transmitted symbols are equally likely

Probability of Error
 In M-ary modulation, the observation space 𝑍 is partitioned into a set of 𝑀
regions
 Average probability of error
𝑀
𝑃𝑒 = 𝑝𝑖 𝑃 𝒙 does not lie in 𝑍𝑖 |𝑚𝑖 sent

𝑖=1
𝑀
1
= 𝑃 𝒙 does not lie in 𝑍𝑖 |𝑚𝑖 sent
𝑀
𝑖=1
𝑀
1
=1− 𝑃 𝒙 lies in 𝑍𝑖 |𝑚𝑖 sent
𝑀
𝑖=1
𝑀
1
𝑃𝑒 = 1 − 𝑓𝑿 𝑿|𝑚𝑖 𝑑𝑿
𝑀
𝑖=1 𝑍𝑖

Diagram and Synthesis Analysis
Figure: Receiver Structure for Signal Detection in AWGN

𝑁
𝑠𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑗 𝜙𝑗 𝑡 , 0 ≤ 𝑡 < 𝑇,
𝑗=1
𝑁 𝑁
𝑠𝑖𝑗 + 𝑛𝑗 𝜙𝑗 𝑡 + 𝑛𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑟𝑗 𝜙𝑗 𝑡 + 𝑛𝑟 𝑡
𝑗=1 𝑗=1
𝑁
𝑟𝑗 =𝑠𝑖𝑗 + 𝑛𝑗 and 𝑛𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑛 𝑡 − 𝑗=1 𝑟𝑗 𝜙𝑗 𝑡

𝑟𝑗 =𝑠𝑖𝑗 + 𝑛𝑗 , 𝜇𝑟𝑗 |𝒔𝑖 = 𝐸 𝑟𝑗 |𝒔𝑖 = 𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑗 + 𝑛𝑗 |𝑠𝑖𝑗 = 𝑠𝑖𝑗
𝟐 𝟐
𝜎𝑟𝑗 |𝒔𝑖 = 𝑬 𝑟𝑗 − 𝜇𝑟𝑗 |𝒔𝑖 = 𝑬 𝑠𝑖𝑗 + 𝑛𝑗 − 𝑠𝑖𝑗 |𝑠𝑖𝑗 = 𝐸 𝑛𝑗2 = 𝑁0 2
𝑁 𝑁
1 1 2
𝑝 𝒓|𝒔𝑖 sent = 𝑝 𝑟𝑗 |𝑚𝑖 = exp − 𝑟𝑗 − 𝑠𝑖𝑗
𝜋𝑁0 𝑁 2 𝑁0
𝑗=1 𝑗=1
∞
1 𝑣2 𝑑𝑖𝑘
𝑝 𝐴𝑖𝑘 = 𝑝 𝑛 > 𝑑𝑖𝑘 2 = exp − 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑄
𝜋𝑁0 𝑁0 2𝑁0
𝑑𝑖𝑘 2
𝑀
𝑑𝑖𝑘
𝑃𝑒 𝑚𝑖 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡 ≤ 𝑄
𝑘=1 2𝑁0
𝑘≠𝑖
∞
1 2 1 𝑧
𝑄 𝑧 =𝑝 𝑥>𝑧 = 𝑒 −𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = erfc
2𝜋 2 2
𝑧
2
𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑀−1 𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑒 ≤ 𝑀 − 1 𝑄 ≤ exp − 𝑃𝑒 ≈ 𝑀𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑄
2𝑁0 𝜋 4𝑁0 2𝑁0

A Noncoherent case
 Consider
𝐻1 : 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐺 2𝐸 𝑇 cos 𝑤1 𝑡 + 𝜃 + 𝑛 𝑡
𝐻2 : 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐺 2𝐸 𝑇 cos 𝑤2 𝑡 + 𝜃 + 𝑛 𝑡 , 0≤𝑡≤𝑇
𝐻1 : 𝑦 𝑡 = 2𝐸 𝑇 𝐺1 cos 𝑤1 𝑡 + 𝐺2 sin 𝑤1 𝑡 + 𝑛 𝑡
𝐻2 : 𝑦 𝑡 = 2𝐸 𝑇 𝐺1 cos 𝑤2 𝑡 + 𝐺2 sin 𝑤2 𝑡 + 𝑛 𝑡 , 0≤𝑡≤𝑇
 Choose the orthogonal basic set
𝜙1 𝑡 = 2𝐸 𝑇 cos 𝑤1 𝑡
𝜙2 𝑡 = 2𝐸 𝑇 sin 𝑤1 𝑡
0≤𝑡≤𝑇
𝜙3 𝑡 = 2𝐸 𝑇 cos 𝑤2 𝑡
𝜙4 𝑡 = 2𝐸 𝑇 sin 𝑤2 𝑡

Implementation by Correlator and Squarer

Implementation by Matched Filter and Envelope
Detector

Example
Consider M-ary coherent FSK in terms of signal space. The transmitted signal set is
𝑠𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐴cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑖 − 1 Δ𝑓 𝑡 , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑠
𝑚
where Δ𝑓 = , m an interger
2𝑇𝑠
Applying Gram-Schmidt procedure. Choosing
𝑣1 𝑡 = 𝑠1 𝑡 = 𝐴cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑠
𝑇𝑠
2 2 2
𝐴2 𝑇𝑠
𝑣1 = 𝐴 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =
2
0
𝑣1 2
𝜙1 𝑡 = = cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑠
𝑣1 𝑇𝑠
𝑚
It can be shown that 𝑠2 , 𝜙1 = 0 if △ 𝑓 = , so that the second orthnormal function is
2𝑇𝑠
2
𝜙2 𝑡 = cos 2𝜋 𝑓𝑐 + Δ𝑓 𝑡 , 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑠
𝑇𝑠
Similarly for 𝑀 − 2 other orthogonal functions up to 𝜙𝑀 𝑡 . Thus the number of orthonormal functions is the
same as the number of possible signals; orthonormal function as
𝑠𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐸𝑠 𝜙𝑖 𝑡

When projected into the observation space, 𝑦(𝑡) has 𝑀 coordinates, the ith one of which is given by
𝑇𝑠
𝑍𝑖 = 𝑦 𝑡 𝜙𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 where 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑛(𝑡)
0
If 𝑠𝑙 𝑡 is transmitted, the decision rule becomes
𝑀
2
𝑑2 = 𝑍𝑖 − 𝐸𝑠 𝛿𝑙𝑗 = minimum over 𝑙 = 1,2, … , 𝑀
𝑗=1
Take the square root and writing the sum out, this can be expressed as
2
𝑑= 𝑍12 + 𝑍22 + ⋯ + 𝑍𝑙 − 𝐸𝑠 2
+ ⋯ + 𝑍𝑀 = minimum
∞
𝑑2 = 𝑍𝑗2 + 𝐸𝑠 − 2 𝐸𝑠 𝑍𝑙 = minimum
𝑛=1
Since the sums over 𝑗 and 𝐸𝑠 are independence of 𝑙, 𝑑2 can be minimined with respect to 𝑙 by
choosing as the possible transmitted signal the one that will maximize the last term; that is, the
decision rule becomes: Choose the possible transmitted signal 𝑠𝑙 (𝑡) such that
𝑇
𝐸𝑠 𝑍𝑙 = maximum or 𝑍𝑙 = 0
𝑦 𝑡 𝜙𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = maximum with respect to 𝑙

Revision
 The signal waveform is considered a vector in the vector space

 Analyze the set of waves by finding the basis of the vector space
according to the Gram schmidt rule
 Design of transmitter and receiver is based on the linear
combination of the basis functions
 Nguyên tắc thu tín hiệu là cực tiểu xác suất lỗi. Từ đây suy ra 2
phương pháp:
 The principle for signal detection is minimum the error
probability. From here come to two methods:
 Maximum a Posteriori Probability (MAP)
 Maximum Likelihood (ML)


5.theory of Signal Space

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5.theory of Signal Space

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Vietnam National University – University of Engineering and

Unit 5: Theory of Signal Space

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

1. BPSK and BFSK techniques

2. Geometric representation of signals

3. The equivalent of the correlation receiver and the

4. Maximum likelihood procedure

5. The detection of a signal in noise:

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

𝜙1 𝑡 = 2 𝑇𝑏 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 , 0 ≤ 𝑡 < 𝑇𝑏

 Express by those basic functions (in signal space)

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

 The conditional probability density function, given 𝑥2 𝑡

 Probability of deciding in favor of 1

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

 Where erfc . is the complementary error function

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

𝑝10 = 𝑃 𝑦 > 0|symbol 0 was sent = 𝑓𝑌 𝑦|0 𝑑𝑦

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

Figure: Blocks diagram of a generic digital communication system

 Consider a signal as the vector in vector space

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

so that the space is two-dimensional

To check for another orthonormal function, we require the scalar products

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

𝐸𝑖 = 𝑠𝑖𝑗 𝜙𝑗 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑘 𝜙𝑘 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑗 𝑠𝑖𝑘 𝜙𝑖 𝑡 𝜙𝑘 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

 Likelihood functions 𝐿 𝑚𝑖 = 𝑓𝑋 𝑋|𝑚𝑖 , 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑀

 The log-likelihood functions: 𝑁

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

𝑃𝑒 𝑚𝑖 |𝒙 = 𝑃 𝑚𝑖 not sent|𝒙 = 1 − 𝑃 𝑚𝑖 sent|𝒙

 The decision-making criterion is to minimize the probability of error.

𝑃 𝑚𝑖 sent|𝒙 ≥ 𝑃 𝑚𝑘 sent|𝒙 for all 𝑘 ≠ 𝑖

 This decision rule is called the Maximum a posteriori probability

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

Set 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑖 if 𝑙 𝑚𝑘 is maximum for 𝑘 = 𝑖

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

𝑃𝑒 = 𝑝𝑖 𝑃 𝒙 does not lie in 𝑍𝑖 |𝑚𝑖 sent

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

Figure: Receiver Structure for Signal Detection in AWGN

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

 Choose the orthogonal basic set

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding

 The signal waveform is considered a vector in the vector space

Khoa Điện tử - Viễn thông Digital Communications and Coding