UNIVERSITY OF ALEXANDRIA

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
PRODUCTION ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
4TH YEAR
B.SC. PROJECT (2016-2017)

PIPELINE CONSTRUCTION
(CLASSIFICATION, WELDING, CONSTRUCTING, INSPECTION)

SUPERVISED BY:

DR. ENG. ISMAIL A. ABDALLAH

PREPARED BY:

NAME SECTION NO. SEAT NO.

HASSAN IBRAHIM MAHMOUD MOHAMED 3 55
HASSAN NOUR ELDEIN ABD ELRAOUF 3 57
MOHAMED IBRAHIM AHMED HASSAN 5 102
MOHAMED ADEL MOHAMED ELSAYED 6 118
MOHAMED ALI SALEH HAMADON 6 122
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express our gratitude for everyone who helped us during the
graduation project (Pipeline construction) starting with endless thanks for our supervisor
Dr. Ismail A. Abdallah who didn’t keep any effort in encouraging us to do a great job,
providing our group with valuable information and advices to be better each time. Thanks for
the continuous support and kind communication which had a great effect regarding to feel
interesting about what we are working on.
Also, we would like to say many thanks for the Petroleum Marine Services Co.
(PMS) specially Eng. Ahmed Hafez and Eng. Mohamed El-Shabrawy, as the provided the
project team with the Industrial training and providing us with all what we need regarding
information.
Thanks extended to the Egyptian Academy (EGAC) for being our knowledge
lighthouse, the endless support and their huge effort in contacting.

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ABSTRACT

Pipelines perform vital functions. They serve as arteries, bringing life-dependent

supplies such as water, petroleum products, and natural gas to consumers through a dense
underground network of transmission and distribution lines. They also serve as veins,
transporting life-threatening waste (sewage) generated by households and industries to waste
treatment plants for processing via a dense network of sewers. Because most pipelines are
buried underground or underwater, they are out of sight and out of mind of the general public.
This project discuss a fair introduction to the pipelines and their advantages to other
ways of transporting deferent kinds of media, which is described in the first chapter. Pipelines
have two main types on-shore and the off-shore type, each type have deferent procedures in
constricting the pipeline. During the second chapter, pipeline component are described and
classified in addition to pipeline welding and inspection processes.
The case study chapter provides the main major of this project is to construct a
pipeline. So that after learning about the pipelines we start simulating the construction
process start from planning based on the pipeline designer data, passing through the
construction processes and the inspection process. And at last preparing a prototype for the
pipeline.

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Table of Contents
Acknowledgement ...................................................................................................................... i
Abstract ......................................................................................................................................ii
Table of Contents ..................................................................................................................... iii
List of terms ............................................................................................................................... v
List of figures ............................................................................................................................ vi
List of tables .............................................................................................................................. ix
CHAPTER 1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1
1.1 DEFINITION AND SCOPE ....................................................................................... 1
1.2 BRIEF HISTORY OF PIPELINES ............................................................................. 1
1.3 EXISTING MAJOR PIPELINES ................................................................................ 2
1.4 IMPORTANCE OF PIPELINES ................................................................................. 3
1.5 FREIGHT (SOLIDS) TRANSPORT BY PIPELINES ................................................ 3
1.6 TYPES OF PIPELINES............................................................................................... 5
1.7 COMPONENTS OF PIPELINES................................................................................ 5
1.8 ADVANTAGES OF PIPELINES ................................................................................ 5
CHAPTER 2 pipeline ............................................................................................................. 9
2.1 Pipeline types .............................................................................................................. 9
2.1.1 On-shore pipelines ............................................................................................. 10
2.1.2 Off-shore pipelines............................................................................................. 18
2.2 Pipeline components ................................................................................................. 24
2.2.1 Pipes ................................................................................................................... 24
2.2.2 Pipes connections ............................................................................................... 32
2.2.3 Valves ................................................................................................................ 41
2.2.4 Pumps................................................................................................................. 51
2.3 Welding of Pipeline ................................................................................................... 58
2.3.1 Preparation for welding...................................................................................... 58
2.3.2 Welding Processes ............................................................................................. 61
2.4 Inspection of pipeline ................................................................................................ 65
2.4.1 Welding inspection ............................................................................................ 65
2.4.2 Pressure Test of Piping System.......................................................................... 68
2.4.3 Welding acceptance criteria ............................................................................... 69
CHAPTER 3 Case study ...................................................................................................... 70
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 70

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 3.2 Project scope ............................................................................................................. 70
3.3 Pipeline Data ............................................................................................................. 71
3.4 Pipeline components ................................................................................................. 71
3.5 Route selection and soil preparation ......................................................................... 73
3.6 Pipeline construction process .................................................................................... 73
3.6.1 Assembly............................................................................................................ 73
3.6.2 Laying of the pipeline ........................................................................................ 75
3.6.3 Pipeline hydrostatic testing ................................................................................ 75
3.7 Selected Pipeline WPS .............................................................................................. 76
3.7.1 Applying the selected WPS to a sample of the pipeline .................................... 77
3.8 Procedure Qualification Record (PQR)..................................................................... 78
3.8.1 NDT stage .......................................................................................................... 78
3.8.2 Destructive testing ............................................................................................. 80
3.9 Pipeline sample ......................................................................................................... 83
References ................................................................................................................................ 85

iv
LIST OF TERMS

Term / Abbreviation Meaning / Explanation

API American petroleum institute

pWPS Preliminary welding procedure specification

WPS Welding procedure specifications

PQR Procedure qualification record

SMAW Shielded metal arc welding

GTAW Gas tungsten arc welding

SAW Submerged arc welding

AC Alternative current

DC Direct current

NDT Non-destructive test

KP Kilometric point

WD Water depth

OD Outer diameter

WT Wall thickness

HAZ Heat-affected zone

American society of the international association for
ASTM
testing and materials
International organization for standardization (ISO)
ISO
standards
PSL Product Specification Level

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1-1 The Big Inch pipeline under construction in 1942 ................................................. 2
Figure 1-2 A pump house of the 273-mi-long Black Mesa Coal Slurry ................................. 4
Figure 1-3 the cargo loading station of a pneumatic capsule..................................................... 4
Figure 1-4 Comparison of petroleum transportation cost by pipeline with those by other
modes. ........................................................................................................................................ 7
Figure 2-1 Onshore pipelines ................................................................................................... 10
Figure 2-2 Construction of Land Pipeline ............................................................................... 11
Figure 2-3 pipe stringing .......................................................................................................... 14
Figure 2-4 Pipe Bending .......................................................................................................... 14
Figure 2-5 pipe welding ........................................................................................................... 14
Figure 2-6 Ditching assembled pipeline .................................................................................. 15
Figure 2-7 pipes backfilling ..................................................................................................... 16
Figure 2-8 Illustration of Tunnel Boring Machine cutter head showing drilling fluid
recirculation ............................................................................................................................. 16
Figure 2-9 types of seabed ....................................................................................................... 18
Figure 2-10 Pipes supply ship .................................................................................................. 20
Figure 2-11 pipes platform....................................................................................................... 20
Figure 2-12 (a) J-lay system, (b) S-lay system ........................................................................ 21
Figure 2-13 pipes aligned......................................................................................................... 21
Figure 2-14 pipes welding ....................................................................................................... 22
Figure 2-15 NDT by Automatic Ultrasonic ............................................................................. 22
Figure 2-16 Coating of Welded Area....................................................................................... 22
Figure 2-17 S-lay System......................................................................................................... 23
Figure 2-18 J-lay System ......................................................................................................... 23
Figure 2-19 Pipes classification ............................................................................................... 24
Figure 2-20 Metallic pipes ....................................................................................................... 25
Figure 2-21 Seamed pipes ........................................................................................................ 25
Figure 2-22 Seamless pipes ..................................................................................................... 25
Figure 2-23 Nonmetallic pipes................................................................................................. 27
Figure 2-24 Connections classification according to type ....................................................... 32
Figure 2-25 Flange assembly ................................................................................................... 33
Figure 2-26 Threaded flange .................................................................................................... 34
Figure 2-27 Blind flange .......................................................................................................... 34
Figure 2-28 Slip-on flange ....................................................................................................... 34
Figure 2-29 Socket-welded flange ........................................................................................... 34
Figure 2-30 Lapped flange ....................................................................................................... 34
Figure 2-31 Welding-neck flange ............................................................................................ 35
Figure 2-32 Flat-faced flange................................................................................................... 35
Figure 2-33 Raised-face flange ................................................................................................ 35
Figure 2-34 Ring-joint flange .................................................................................................. 35
Figure 2-35 Spiral-wound gasket ............................................................................................. 36
Figure 2-36 Metal ring-joint gasket ......................................................................................... 36

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Figure 2-37 sheet gasket .......................................................................................................... 36
Figure 2-38 Elbow ................................................................................................................... 37
Figure 2-39 Tee-joint ............................................................................................................... 37
Figure 2-40 Reducers ............................................................................................................... 38
Figure 2-41 lap joint................................................................................................................. 38
Figure 2-42 A-lateral joint ....................................................................................................... 38
Figure 2-43 Half-coupling ....................................................................................................... 38
Figure 2-44 (a) Pipe plug, (b) Pipe cap .................................................................................... 38
Figure 2-45 Gate valve............................................................................................................. 44
Figure 2-46 Full-Bore Ball Valve ............................................................................................ 44
Figure 2-47 Multi-Segment Plug Valve ................................................................................... 45
Figure 2-48 GLOBE VALVE .................................................................................................. 45
Figure 2-49 Straight Through Diaphragm Valve .................................................................... 46
Figure 2-50 figure 19 Typical Butterfly Valve ....................................................................... 46
Figure 2-51 Figure 20 Needle Valve ....................................................................................... 47
Figure 2-52 Swing Check Valve ............................................................................................. 47
Figure 2-53 Operation of Tilting Disk Check Valve .............................................................. 48
Figure 2-54 Lift Check Valve ................................................................................................. 48
Figure 2-55 Sample of valve main dimensions........................................................................ 50
Figure 2-56 Pumps station ....................................................................................................... 51
Figure 2-57 pumps classification according to type ................................................................ 52
Figure 2-58 Centrifugal Pump ................................................................................................. 52
Figure 2-59 Vertical turbine pump .......................................................................................... 53
Figure 2-60 Multistage centrifugal pump ................................................................................ 53
Figure 2-61 Self-Priming Pump ............................................................................................... 54
Figure 2-62 Piston pump.......................................................................................................... 54
Figure 2-63 Diaphragm Pump ................................................................................................. 55
Figure 2-64 Screw pump .......................................................................................................... 55
Figure 2-65 Gear pump ............................................................................................................ 56
Figure 2-66 Pipeline welding ................................................................................................... 58
Figure 2-67 Pipe cutting and beveling motorized .................................................................... 58
Figure 2-68 Angle iron serving as jig for small diameter pipe ................................................ 59
Figure 2-69 Bevel pipe end preparation................................................................................... 60
Figure 2-70 align pipe ends...................................................................................................... 60
Figure 2-71 tacking locations for pipe ends ............................................................................. 60
Figure 2-72 grind the end of the tack ....................................................................................... 60
Figure 2-73 Welding Types ..................................................................................................... 61
Figure 2-74 Pipes welding positions ........................................................................................ 62
Figure 2-75 Automatic pipe welding ....................................................................................... 63
Figure 2-76 Deposition of root, filler and finished weld beads ............................................... 64
Figure 2-77 Automatic ultrasonic test...................................................................................... 67
Figure 3-1 Pulling head ............................................................................................................ 72
Figure 3-2 S-lay method .......................................................................................................... 75
Figure 3-3 Selected WPS ......................................................................................................... 76
Figure 3-4 V-butt pipe preparation .......................................................................................... 77
Figure 3-5 Tack welded sample pipe ....................................................................................... 77

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Figure 3-6 Sample pipe welding process ................................................................................. 78
Figure 3-7 Visual inspection report ......................................................................................... 78
Figure 3-8 Radiographic Films of the welded pipe ................................................................. 79
Figure 3-9 position of each specimens for each test ................................................................ 80
Figure 3-10 Tensile specimens after the test............................................................................ 81
Figure 3-11 Root bend specimens after the test ....................................................................... 81
Figure 3-12 distractive test report ............................................................................................ 82
Figure 3-13 prototype simulating the pipeline ......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1-1 Taxonomy of Pipelines .............................................................................................. 6

Table 1-2 Energy Intensiveness (EI) of Various Modes of Freight Transport ........................... 7
Table 2-1 ASME selection procedure for flanges and flanged fittings ................................... 40
Table 2-2 required data before selecting a valve ..................................................................... 49
Table 2-3 Traditional NDT Technique Comparison ................................................................ 68
Table 2-4 API 1104 Acceptance criteria .................................................................................. 69
Table 3-1 Pipeline data ............................................................................................................ 71
Table 3-2 Pipes data ................................................................................................................. 71
Table 3-3 4” pipeline pulling head........................................................................................... 72
Table 3-4 Selected route KP’s ................................................................................................. 73

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 DEFINITION AND SCOPE

The term pipe is defined herein as a closed conduit, usually of circular cross section.
It can be made of any appropriate material such as steel or plastic. The term pipeline refers to
a long line of connected segments of pipe, with pumps, valves, control devices, and other
equipment/facilities needed for operating the system. It is intended for transporting a fluid
(liquid or gas), mixture of fluids, solids, fluid- solid mixture, or capsules (freight-laden
vessels or vehicles moved by fluids through a pipe). The term pipeline also implies a
relatively large pipe spanning a long distance. This book treats all important aspects, parts,
and types of pipelines.

1.2 BRIEF HISTORY OF PIPELINES

The use of pipelines has a long history. For instance, more than 1,000 years ago, the
Romans used lead pipes in their aqueduct system to supply water to Rome. As early as 400
B.C., the Chinese used bamboo pipes wrapped with waxed cloth to transport natural gas to
their capital Beijing for lighting. Clay pipes were used as early as 4000 B.C. for drainage
purposes in Egypt and certain other countries.
An important improvement of pipeline technology occurred in the 18th century when
cast-iron pipes were manufactured for use as water lines, sewers, and gas pipelines. A
subsequent major event was the introduction of steel pipe in the 19th century, which greatly
increased the strength of pipes of all sizes. In 1879, following the discovery of oil in
Pennsylvania, the first long-distance oil pipeline was built in this state. It was a 6-inch-
diameter, 109-mi-long steel pipeline. Nine years later, an 87-mi-long, 8-inch-diameter
pipeline was built to transport natural gas from Kane, Pennsylvania to Buffalo, New York.
The development of high-strength steel pipes made it possible to transport fluids such as
natural gas, crude oil, and petroleum products over long distances. Initially, all steel pipes had
to be threaded together, which was difficult to do for large pipes, and they often leaked under
high pressure. The development of electric arc welding to join pipes in the late 1920s made it
possible to construct leak proof, high-pressure, large-diameter pipelines. Today, virtually all
high-pressure piping consists of steel pipe with welded joints. Large seamless steel pipe was
another major milestone achieved in the 1920s.
Major innovations in pipeline technology made since 1950 include:
I. Introduction of new pipeline materials such as ductile iron and large- diameter
concrete pressure pipes for water, and PVC (polyvinyl chloride) pipe for sewers
II. Use of pigs to clean the interior of pipelines and to perform other functions
III. Batching of different petroleum products in a common pipeline
IV. Application of cathodic protection to reduce corrosion and extend pipeline life

1
 V. Use of large side booms to lay pipes, machines to drill or bore under rivers and
roads for crossing, machines to bend large pipes in the field, x- rays to detect
welding flaws, and so forth.
Since 1970, major strides have been made in new pipeline technologies including
trenchless construction (e.g., directional drillings, which allow pipelines to be laid easily
under rivers, lakes, and other obstacles, without having to dig long trenches), pipeline
integrity monitoring (e.g., sending intelligent pigs through pipes to detect pipe wall corrosion,
cracks, and other pipe flaws), computers to control and operate pipelines, microwave stations
and satellites to communicate between headquarters and remote stations, and new pipeline
technologies to transport solids over long distances (e.g., slurry pipelines for transporting coal
and other minerals, and capsule pipelines for bulk materials transport).

1.3 EXISTING MAJOR PIPELINES

Most of the major oil and gas pipelines that exist today around the world were
constructed either during or after World War II. In most cases, they were built to meet
compelling national or international needs. For instance, the U.S. built the Big Inch and the
Little Big Inch pipelines during World War II to counter the threat of German submarine
attacks on coastal tankers.
The Big Inch was a 24-inch (61-cm) line designed to transport 300,000 bpd (barrels
per day) of crude oil, and the Little Big Inch was a 20-inch (51-cm) product pipeline designed
to deliver 235,000 bpd. Both lines extend from Texas to the East Coast. They were built
between 1942 and 1943 (during World War II) by the U.S. government, but were sold after
the war (in 1947) to the Texas Eastern Transmission Corporation (TETCO), and converted to
transport natural gas. Later, TETCO expanded both lines, and converted the Little Big Inch
back to a petroleum product line operated by a different company—the Texas Eastern
Products Pipeline Company (TEPPCO). Now it carries about 20 types of gasoline and 4 types
of fuel oil, in addition to kerosene, jet fuel, butane, propane, and alkylate. At present (2003),
both TETCO and TEPPCO are under Duke Energy, which has published an interesting
booklet on the history of the Big Inch and Little Big Inch pipelines. Figure 1-1 is a historic
photograph of the Big Inch during construction.

Figure 1-1 The Big Inch pipeline under construction in 1942

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1.4 IMPORTANCE OF PIPELINES

Pipelines are the least understood and least appreciated mode of transport. Pipelines
are poorly understood by the general public because they are most often underground and
invisible—out of sight, out of mind! Despite the low degree of recognition by the public,
pipelines are vitally important to the economic well- being and security of most nations. All
modern nations rely almost exclusively on pipelines to transport the following commodities:
I. Water from treatment plants to individual homes and other buildings
II. Sewage from homes to treatment plants
III. Natural gas all the way from wells to the consumers who may be located more than
a thousand miles away—be it a home, a factory, a school, or a power plant
IV. Crude oil from oil fields to refineries
V. Refined petroleum products (gasoline, diesel, jet fuel, heating oil, etc.) from
refineries to various cities over hundreds of miles
In addition, hundreds of other liquid, gas, and solid commodities (freight) are
transported via pipeline over long and short distances. In the U.S., pipelines of various types
transport a total of about 2.5 trillion ton- miles of cargo in liquid, gas, and solid form, more
than the total quantity of freight transported by trucks and trains combined. As discussed in
Section 1.3, major pipelines in the U.S., including the Big Inch, the Little Big Inch, the
Colonial, and the Trans-Alaskan pipelines, were all built to solve problems caused by
national crises. The U.S. has a dense network of underground pipelines in every state and
under every city, mirroring the network of roads, highways, and streets above ground. Maps
of such pipelines can be obtained from various state, federal, and local agencies. It can be
said that pipelines are the lifelines of modern nations.

1.5 FREIGHT (SOLIDS) TRANSPORT BY PIPELINES

During the past century, pipelines have been used extensively to transport solids of
various kinds, including coal and other minerals, gravels and sand, grain, cement, mail and
parcels, etc. They are transported over short as well as long distances. Pipelines that transport
solids are usually referred to as freight pipelines. The three general types of freight pipelines
are slurry pipeline, pneumatic pipeline (also called pneumo conveying), and capsule pipeline.
The slurry pipeline is used to transport fine particles of solids mixed with a liquid,
usually water, to form a paste (slurry) that can be pumped through the pipeline. It is used
commonly in mining for transporting both minerals and mine wastes (tailings). An example is
the Black Mesa Coal Slurry Pipeline, which transports 5 million tons of coal each year from
Arizona to Nevada, over a distance of 273 mi (438 km), using 18-inch-diameter steel pipe.
The slurry in this pipeline is a mixture of fine coal particles (of less than 1 mm size) and
water, at the ratio of approximately 1 to 1 by weight. Figure 1-2 is a photograph of a pump
station of the Black Mesa Pipeline.

3
 Figure 1-2 A pump house of the 273-mi-long Black Mesa
Coal Slurry

Pneumatic pipelines are used by various industries to transport hundreds of solids

such as grain, cement, plastics, and even fish for short distances—usually less than 1 mi or 1
km. They are used extensively at train stations to load and unload trains, at ports to load and
unload ships, and in factories to receive and convey bulk materials.
Capsule pipelines use either water or air to move freight-laden capsules (containers or
vessels) through pipelines. Small diameter pneumatic capsule pipelines (PCPs) have been
used for transporting mail, money, documents, and many other lightweight products. Large (1
m) diameter PCPs have been used for transporting limestone (e.g., from mine to a cement
plant) and, in one instance, for transporting excavation and construction materials during the
construction of a long tunnel in Japan. Figure 1-3 is a photograph of the loading station of a
Japanese PCP used for transporting limestone, the raw material needed for manufacturing
cement, to a cement plant. The current status and anticipated future use of freight pipelines
are discussed in an American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) Task Committee report.
According to this report, the advancement in new pipeline technologies such as capsule
pipelines will cause more kinds and greater quantities of solids to be transported by pipelines
in the future, further enhancing the importance of pipelines as a means of freight transport in
the 21st century.

Figure 1-3 the cargo loading station of a pneumatic capsule.

4
1.6 TYPES OF PIPELINES

Pipelines can be categorized in many different ways. Depending on the commodity

transported, there are water pipelines, sewer, natural-gas pipelines, oil pipelines (for crude
oil), product pipelines (for refined petroleum products such as gasoline, diesel, or jet fuel),
solid pipelines (freight pipelines) for various solids, etc.
According to fluid mechanics or the types of flow encountered, pipelines can be
classified as single-phase incompressible flow (such as water pipelines, oil pipelines, and
sewers*), single-phase compressible flow (natural gas pipelines, air pipelines, etc.), two-
phase flow of solid-liquid mixture (hydrotransport), two-phase flow of solid-gas mixture
(pneumotransport), two-phase flow of liquid-gas mixture (oil-gas pipelines), non-Newtonian
fluids, and finally, the flow of capsules.
Other methods of classifying pipelines also exist. For instance, depending on the
environment or where pipelines are used, there are offshore pipelines, inland pipelines, in-
plant pipelines, cross-mountain pipelines, etc. Depending on the type of burial or support,
pipelines may also be classified as underground, aboveground, elevated, and underwater
(submarine) types. Depending on pipe material, there are steel, cast iron, plastic, concrete,
and other types. Table 1-1 lists the classification of pipelines in various ways.

1.7 COMPONENTS OF PIPELINES

A pipeline is a complex transportation system. It includes components such as pipe,

fittings (valves, couplings, etc.), inlet and outlet structures, pumps (for liquid) or compressors
(for gas), and auxiliary equipment (flowmeters, pigs, transducers, cathodic protection
systems, and automatic control systems including computers and programmable logic
controllers).

1.8 ADVANTAGES OF PIPELINES

For the transport of large quantities of fluid (liquid or gas), a pipeline is undisputedly
the most favored mode of transportation. Even for solids, there are many instances that favor
the pipeline over other modes of transportation. The advantages of pipelines are:
I. Economical in many circumstances. Factors that favor pipelines include large
throughput, rugged terrain and hostile environment (such as transportation through
swamps). Under ordinary conditions, pipelines can transport fluids (liquids or gases)
at a fraction of the cost of transportation by truck or train (see Figure 1-4). Solid
transport by pipeline is far more complex and costly than fluid transport. Still, in
many cases, pipelines are used to transport solids because the cost is lower than for
other modes of transportation, such as trucks.

5
 II. Low energy consumption. The energy intensiveness of large pipelines is much lower
than that of trucks, and is even lower than that of rail. The energy intensiveness is
defined as the energy consumed in transporting unit weight of cargo over unit
distance, in units such as Btu per ton- mile. Table 1-2 compares the energy
intensiveness of pipelines to those for other modes of transport.

III. Friendly to environment. This is due mainly to the fact that most pipelines are
underground. They do not pose most of the environmental problems associated with
trucks and trains, such as air pollution, noise, traffic jams on highways and at rail
crossings, and killing animals that strayed on highways and railroads. Oil pipelines
may pollute land and rivers when a leak or rupture develops. However, far more spills
would occur if trucks and trains transported the same oil.
Table 1-1 Taxonomy of Pipelines

6
 Figure 1-4 Comparison of petroleum transportation cost by
pipeline with those by other modes.

IV. Safe for humans. This is especially true for liquid pipelines and liquid- solid
pipelines. The safety of natural gas pipelines is always of strong concern. Gas
pipelines under high pressure can explode; however, if trucks and trains transported
the same natural gas, it would be much more dangerous to the public. So, in general, it
can be said that pipelines are much safer than all other land-based modes of freight
transport. For instance, based on statistics published by the U.S. Department of
Transportation, during the 12-year period between 1988 and 1999, the average
number of people killed (injured) by pipelines per year was 23 (107), which includes
21(92) for natural gas pipelines, and 2(15) for hazardous liquid pipelines. In contrast,
the number of people killed (injured) by large trucks per year during the same period
was 5,162 (133, 167). This shows that there were 200 times more people killed and
1000 times more people injured by trucks than by pipelines. It can be concluded that
pipelines are enormously safer than trucks and trains.

Table 1-2 Energy Intensiveness (EI) of Various Modes of Freight Transport

7
 V. Unaffected by weather. Weather does not affect pipelines because most of them are
buried underground below the frost line.
VI. High degree of automation. This makes pipelines the least labor-intensive of all
transportation modes. Note that labor-intensive societies generally have low living
standards. The high living standard in the U.S. would not be possible without
automation.
VII. High reliability. Because pipeline operation is continuous, automatic, and unaffected
by weather, pipelines are highly reliable. Furthermore, they are least affected by labor
strikes, holidays, delivery schedules, etc. The system operates continuously around
the clock without stop.
VIII. Less sensitive to inflation. Due to high capital cost and low operational cost, pipeline
tariffs are less sensitive to inflation than tariffs for trucks and trains. However, high
capital cost is great when the interest rate is high.

IX. Convenience. Water and gas pipelines transport commodities directly to homes, a
great convenience to the public. Oil pipelines bring crude oil to refineries and bring
refined petroleum products, such as gasoline and diesel fuel, to the market without the
products leaving the pipelines. Even when one puts gasoline in a car at a filling
station, the gasoline moves through a short pipe (hose) fitted with a nozzle.
X. Less susceptible to theft. Because pipelines are mostly underground and enclosed,
the commodities transported by pipelines are less susceptible to theft than those
transported by truck and train.
XI. Efficient land use. Underground pipelines allow surface land to be used for other
purposes. This results in more efficient land use.
XII. High degree of security. Because pipelines are underground and fixed to the ground,
terrorists cannot hijack a pipeline, as they can trucks and aircraft, and use it as a lethal
weapon to destroy a major building or other important target. Also, it is far more
difficult for terrorists to attack an underground pipeline and inflict catastrophic
damage to it than to an aboveground structure such as a bridge or a power plant.
Moreover, underground pipelines are inaccessible to people except at the inlet and
outlet. Thus, they can be more easily guarded against attack or sabotage. Even though
any unguarded long pipeline right-of-way may be vulnerable to sabotage, the damage
that can be achieved is rather limited. Pipeline companies have the ability to repair a
damaged underground pipe and return it to service within hours. Such sabotage
activities can also be detected easily by spy satellites and other means of remote
sensing. For these reasons, pipelines must be low on the priority lists of targets of
terrorists. This is not to say that security should not be of concern to pipeline
companies. Two types of pipelines that require the greatest protection in terms of
security are pipelines that supply drinking water, and natural gas pipelines that pass
through densely populated areas.

8
CHAPTER 2 PIPELINE

2.1 PIPELINE TYPES

Pipeline construction involves many different requirements depending on the

application. Thus pipelines are mainly classified in three categories depending on purpose or
classified into two categories according to environment where it is constructed.

Classification according to purpose:

Classification Acording to
Purpos

Gathering Transportation Distribution

pipelines pipelines pipelines

Classification according to environment:

Classification Acording to Environment

On-shore Off-shore

9
2.1.1 On-shore pipelines

Designing and constructing a pipeline is a major undertaking, requiring a wide variety

of engineering and construction skills. While is conceivable that a large pipeline operator
would have the internal resources (both trained and experienced manpower and equipment) to
undertake all phases of pipeline construction, it is more likely that virtually all of the major
phases of construction will be contracted out to companies possessing the necessary expertise
and capacities to complete the task. While that guarantees the critical requirements of
pipeline construction will be met, it also introduces the need to control logistics to ensure that
all contractor activities are coordinated and not mutually exclusive of one another. Figure 2-1
The actual installation of the pipeline includes these major steps:
1. Clearing the ROW as needed.
2. Ditching.
3. Stringing pipe joints along the ROW.
4. Welding the pipe joints together.
5. Applying a coating and wrapping the exterior of the pipe (except for the portions of the
pipe at each end, which is sometimes coated before being delivered to the job site).
6. Lowering the pipeline into the ditch.
7. Backfilling the ditch.
8. Testing the line for leaks.
9. Cleanup and drying the pipeline after testing to prepare it for operation.
10. Reclaiming impacted environmental areas.

Figure 2-1 Onshore pipelines

10
 2.1.1.1 Construction of Land Pipeline

Figure 2-2 Construction of Land Pipeline

2.1.1.2 CONSTRUCTION PROGRAMME

I. Pre-construction activities including setting up of temporary construction compounds

and facilities.
II. Mobilization.
III. Preparation of temporary working areas.
IV. Construction of the Landfall Valve Installation.
V. Tunneling.
VI. Construction of stone road in peatland areas.
VII. Installation of the Onshore Gas Pipeline (and associated services).
VIII. Testing.
IX. Grouting of tunnel.
X. Commissioning and Reinstatement.

11
2.1.1.3 PRE-CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES

Before construction can commence, a number of preparatory activities will be carried

out. These activities, which are outlined below, involve detailed surveys and consultation
with landowners, statutory bodies and the public.

2.1.1.3.1 Consultation and Liaison

2.1.1.3.1.1 Landowners

Prior to construction a Landowner Liaison Officer (LLO) will liaise with landowners
and occupiers and, where possible, agree certain items such as temporary fencing, security,
temporary relocation of water supplies and access requirements.

2.1.1.3.1.2 Statutory Bodies

Consultation on the detailed aspects of the construction and reinstatement activities

will be carried out prior to and during construction.

2.1.1.3.1.3 Public

In parallel with direct landowner liaison, regular community updates will be published
to provide relevant information to the local community and stakeholders prior to and during
the construction phase of the project.

2.1.1.3.2 Pre-Construction Surveys (Investigation, Surveying and Testing)

Detailed ground investigations, environmental surveys and archaeological testing

required to support the construction process would be carried out and finalized at this stage.

2.1.1.4 PIPELINE CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES ON LAND (NON TUNNELLED)

Conventional ‘open-cut’ technique (‘spread technique’) will be used for the pipeline
which is on land, will be in grasslands, will be constructed through peatlands using the stone
road construction method.

12
2.1.1.4.1 Mobilization

Mobilization will include the putting in place of staff, temporary facilities, plant and
equipment, materials and systems for construction. Training in health, safety and
environmental issues will be provided for staff during the mobilization period.

2.1.1.4.2 Preparation of the Temporary Working Area on Land

The pipeline centerline and the temporary working area boundaries will be marked
out using wooden pegs. This process is known as ‘setting out’ and will be carried out in
accordance with co-ordinates detailed on project drawings and agreed in advance with
landowners/occupiers and the relevant authorities.

2.1.1.4.3 Fencing

Following the setting out process the temporary working area will be fenced off.
Linked palisade fence sections will form a continuous, 3m high fenced boundary to the
temporary working area.

2.1.1.4.4 Pipeline Assembly and Installation

Once the pipeline wayleave has been prepared (in grasslands or in peatland areas),
pipe laying activities (and installation of associated services) can begin.

2.1.1.4.4.1 Pipe Stringing

The term ‘pipe stringing’ refers to the delivery and laying out of individual pipe
lengths (each approximately 12m long) along the pipeline route. Lengths of pipe will be
transported along the temporary working area or by public road from a local storage point
(the Terminal) or directly from its storage location in accordance with the Traffic
Management Plan (TMP). The water outfall pipeline, umbilical and services will be strung
out and laid in the same trench as the gas pipeline. Figure 2-3

13
 Figure 2-3 pipe stringing
2.1.1.4.4.2 Pipe Bending

Pipe lengths will be bent on site where changes in elevation or direction occur along
the pipeline route. Special hydraulic bending machines will be used for this purpose. Pre-
formed or forged bends may also be used. Figure 2-4

Figure 2-4 Pipe Bending

2.1.1.4.4.3 Pipe Welding

Lengths of pipe will be mounted on timber skids to allow

access under the pipe for the welding process. The
pipeline will be welded together in sections along the side
of the trench prior to lifting the pipe string into the trench.
Welding will be carried out manually by suitably qualified
welders or automatically by using welding machines. The
welding process will be carried out in accordance with
approved procedures. Figure 2-5 Figure 2-5 pipe welding

14
2.1.1.4.4.4 Weld Testing and Coating

Weld quality is essential to pipeline integrity and the quality of all welds will be
checked using nondestructive inspection techniques. Strict acceptance criteria will be applied
in accordance with relevant standards. Any unacceptable defect detected will either be
repaired or the joint cut out and re-welded. The repair weld is subject to the same testing and
inspection requirements as the original weld. Additional tests may be required. Following
welding, coatings will be applied to the field joints and other areas where metal is exposed.
These coatings are electrical/thermal insulators and are resistant to the action of corrosion or
soil bacteria. The coating quality will be checked against strict acceptance criteria based on
governing codes (API, DNV,…etc).

2.1.1.4.4.5 Trenching

The trench in which the pipeline will be installed will be excavated using mechanical
excavators or a specialized trenching machine. The depth of the trench may vary but will
allow a minimum reinstated cover of 1.2m over the top of the pipeline on land, with 1.6m
provided below the clean bed of any watercourse (i.e. rivers, streams and ditches) and 1.6m
below the lowest point at road crossings (i.e. roadside drains).

2.1.1.4.4.6 Ditching

Before a length of the welded pipeline is lowered into the trench the complete section
will be inspected for adequacy of pipe coating. This will be carried out using a piece of
equipment called a holiday detector, which detects flaws in the external coating using an
electric / magnetic discharge. Any flaws identified will be rectified and re-tested.

Figure 2-6 Ditching assembled pipeline

15
2.1.1.4.4.7 Backfilling

The gas pipeline will typically be given a 150mm bedding and surround to protect its
coating and the trench will then be backfilled in suitable layers will be compacted at regular
intervals. This method prevents excessive settlement of the backfill at a later date.

Figure 2-7 pipes backfilling

2.1.1.5 TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION

Construction of the Onshore Pipeline will involve tunneling, also referred to as

segment lined tunneling. This entails the construction of a concrete lined tunnel into which
the pipeline and associated services are subsequently installed. The tunnel is bored using a
Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM) without disturbing the surface of the bay.

2.1.1.5.1 Tunneling Operations

The tunneling operation involves the use of a standard guidance/control system to

ensure that the tunnel can be excavated along a predetermined path.

Figure 2-8 Illustration of Tunnel Boring Machine cutter head showing drilling fluid
recirculation

16
2.1.1.5.1.1 Tunnel Arisings

Excavated cuttings will be crushed within the TBM and mixed with the drilling fluid
(bentonite slurry). The drilling fluid containing this material is pumped back to the bentonite
handling plant located at the tunneling compound via dedicated hoses through the advancing
tunnel bore.

2.1.1.5.1.2 Drilling Fluid

As set out above, it is proposed to use bentonite mixed with water as a drilling fluid
during the tunneling process. However, it should be noted that suitable alternative drilling
fluids, such as water mixed with polymer additives, may also be used.

2.1.1.5.1.3 Intervention Pit Tunneling Contingency

The tunneling methodology selected, including the size and power of the tunnel
boring machine (TBM), in combination with segment lining is not expected to require any
form of surface intervention. The need for surface intervention would only arise in
exceptional circumstances. The potential environmental impacts associated with the
construction of an intervention pit have been assessed for completeness only.

2.1.1.5.2 Tunneling Compound

The main equipment and facilities required for a typical tunneling compound are
described below.
I. Tunnel Starting Pit & Ramp
II. Gantry Crane
III. Storage Area for Concrete Segments
IV. Power Generation Plant
V. Storage Tanks
VI. Settlement Lagoon
VII. Bentonite Handling Plan

17
2.1.2 Off-shore pipelines

(Also, known as marine, subsea or submarine pipeline) is a pipeline that is laid on the
seabed or below it inside a trench. In some cases, the pipeline is mostly on-land but in places
it crosses water expanses, such as small seas, straights and rivers. Submarine pipelines are
used primarily to carry oil or gas, but transportation of water is also important.

2.1.2.1 Route selection

One of the earliest and most critical tasks in a submarine pipeline planning exercise is
the route selection. This selection has to consider a variety of issues, some of a political
nature, but most others dealing with geohazards, physical factors along the prospective route,
and other uses of the seabed in the area considered. This task begins with a fact-finding
exercise, which is a standard desk study that includes a survey of geological maps,
bathymetry, fishing charts, aerial and satellite photography, as well as information from
navigation authorities.

2.1.2.2 Physical factors

The primary physical factor to be considered in submarine pipeline construction is the

state of the seabed– whether it is smooth (i.e., relatively flat) or uneven (corrugated, with
high points and low points). Figure 2-9

Figure 2-9 types of seabed

18
 2.1.2.2.1 Other physical factors to be taken into account prior to building a pipeline
include the following

I. Seabed mobility: Sand waves and mega ripples are features that move with time
II. Submarine landslides: They result from high sedimentation rates and occur on steeper
slopes
III. Currents: High currents are objectionable in that they hinder pipe laying operations
IV. Waves: In shallow waters, waves can also be problematic for pipeline laying
operations
V. Ice-related issues: In freezing waters, floating ice features often drift into shallower
waters, and their keel comes into contact with the seabed
VI. Other pipelines: If and where the proposed pipeline intersects an existing one
VII. Fishing vessels: Commercial fishing makes use of heavy fishing nets dragged on the
seabed
VIII. Ship anchors
IX. Military activities

2.1.2.3 Submarine pipeline characteristics

I. Submarine pipelines generally vary in diameter from 3 inches) for gas lines, to 72
inches for high capacity lines
II. Wall thicknesses typically range from 10 mm (0.39 in) to 75 mm (3.0 in).
III. The pipe can be designed for fluids at high temperature and pressure. The walls are
made from high-yield strength steel, 350-500 MPa (50,000- 70,000 psi),
IV. Weldability being one of the main selection criteria. The structure is often shielded
against external corrosion by coatings such as bitumastic or epoxy, supplemented by
cathodic protection with sacrificial anodes.
V. Concrete or fiberglass wrapping provides further protection against abrasion. The
addition of a concrete coating is also useful to compensate for the pipeline’s negative
buoyancy when it carries lower density substances.
VI. The pipeline’s inside wall is not coated for petroleum service. But when it carries
seawater or corrosive substances, it can be coated with epoxy, polyurethane or
polyethylene;
VII. It can also be cement-lined. In the petroleum industry, where leaks are unacceptable
and system 3 pipelines are subject to internal pressures typically in the order of 10
MPa (1500 psi), the segments are joined by full penetration welds
VIII. Mechanical joints are also used. A pig is a standard device in pipeline transport, be it
on-land or offshore. It is used to test for hydrostatic pressure, to check for dents and
crimps on the sidewalls inside the pipe, and to conduct periodic cleaning and minor
repairs.

19
2.1.2.4 Construction

Pipeline construction involves two procedures: assembling a large number of pipe

segments into a full line, and installing that line along the desired route called laying.

2.1.2.4.1 Pipes supply

The pipes is being supplied to the pipe-laying ships, it comes as a single pipe or as it
comes as double , triple, quad welded jointed pipes in case of large distance piping to speed
up the piping process. Figure 2-10

Figure 2-10 Pipes supply ship

2.1.2.4.2 Transfer to the welding tower

The pipe sections are placed in the middle of the platform and using grippers and
rollers raised up to the welding tower, where they are to be welded together at the girth join.
Figure 2-11

Figure 2-11 pipes platform

20
2.1.2.4.3 Process layout

It either welded and fabricated through

 Horizontal stations in case of S-lay system. Figure 2-12 (b)
 Vertical stations in J-lay system. Figure 2-12 (a)

(a) (b)

Figure 2-12 (a) J-lay system, (b) S-lay system

2.1.2.4.4 Alignment

The pipes aligned before welding by internal clamps. Figure 2-13

Figure 2-13 pipes aligned

2.1.2.4.5 Welding

The pipes are aligned in the tower and welded by automated welding machineries it
goes through several welding stations depending on the number of passes. Frist station is the
root filling then the hot pass then to the stations equal to remaining passes. Figure 2-14

21
 Figure 2-14 pipes welding
2.1.2.5 Quality control

Each welded joint is individually tested by nondestructive techniques (NDT) and

verified by inspectors using advanced quality control techniques before being certified to be
fit for subsequent finishing processes. Figure 2-15

Figure 2-15 NDT by Automatic Ultrasonic

2.1.2.6 Joint coating

During this finishing procedure, the exposed welded joints are coated with two layers,
one made of epoxy resin and the other of polypropylene to maintain continuity with the rest
of the pipe.

Figure 2-16 Coating of Welded Area

22
2.1.2.7 Laying of the pipeline

Pipe lay Barge system will be used to build the offshore portion of the pipeline, which
consists of a mobile platform or barge where the pipeline is welded before being laid on the
seabed in a continuous fashion. Two pipe lay methods are commonly used for this type of
installation: the S-lay method and J-lay method.

2.1.2.7.1 The S-lay method

Is suitable for use both in shallow and deep-water areas (up to 2500 meters water
depth depending on pipe diameter) and involves welding the pipe sections horizontally, and
continuously ‘feeding’ the jointed sections over the barge’s pipe lay stinger in such a way
that the pipeline forms an “S” shape from the barge’s exit point up to the touchdown point on
the seafloor.

Figure 2-17 S-lay System

2.1.2.7.2 The J-lay method

The pipes are assembled and welded in a vertical mode in a tower erected on the
center or side of the barge and as the platform moves forward, the jointed pipeline is lowered
near vertically in a J-shape from the launching point down to the bottom of the sea. J-lay
method is considered to be suitable for 400 m. to 3500 m. water depth depending on pipeline
diameter. Figure 2-18

Figure 2-18 J-lay System

23
2.2 PIPELINE COMPONENTS

2.2.1 Pipes

Pipelines may be small or large, up to 48 inches in diameter. Nearly all of the

mainline pipe is buried, but other pipeline components such as pump stations are above
ground. Some lines are as short as a mile, while others may extend 1,000 miles or more.
Some are very simple, connecting a single source to a single destination, while others are
very complex, having many sources, destinations, and interconnections.

2.2.1.1 Classification

Pipes are mainly classified according to its material. Figure 2-19

Ordinary Steel Pipe

Corrugated Steel Pipe

Cast-Iron Pipe

Ductile-Iron Pipe

METALLIC PIPES

Stainless Steel Pipe

Aluminum Pipe

pipes
Copper Pipe

Other Metal Pipes PVC

NONMETALLIC PIPES Plastic Pipes PE

PP

Figure 2-19 Pipes classification

24
2.2.1.1.1 METALLIC PIPES

Most metallic pipes are stronger and harder to break also they are more conductive to
heat and electricity and less corrosive-resistant than nonmetallic pipes. Figure 2-20

Figure 2-20 Metallic pipes

2.2.1.1.1.1 Ordinary Steel Pipe

Made of wrought (carbon) steel seamless or

seamed (welded).
1. Seamed
Made of steel sheets or steel plates
rolled or press formed into circular shape,
with the edge (scam) of each pipe closed by
welding. Figure 2-21
Four types of welding
 Butt weld,
 Lap weld,
 Electric arc weld (single-welded
joint)
 Electric arc weld (double welded
joint) Figure 2-21 Seamed pipes

2. Seamless
Seamless steel pipe is made without a
longitudinal weld by hot working lengths of
steel to produce pipe of the desired size and
properties. Figure 2-22

Figure 2-22 Seamless pipes

25
2.2.1.1.1.2 Corrugated Steel Pipe

Thin-wall, large-diameter pipes made of galvanized steel sheets having either helical
or annular corrugations. Used extensively in sewer and drainage systems where both the
internal pressure (water pressure) and the external pressure (soil pressure) are low and where
leakage will not cause serious problems.

2.2.1.1.1.3 Cast-Iron Pipe

Two types: the ordinary or gray cast-iron pipe, and the ductile-iron pipe. The ordinary
cast-iron pipe made of iron containing 3 to 4% of carbon in the form of graphite flakes. Gray
cast-iron pipe has relatively strong corrosion- resistance ability and long life. Two strength
designations for cast-iron pipes: 18/40 and 21/45. In the first designation. The number 18
means that the minimum bursting tensile strength is 18,000 psi, and the number 40 means that
the minimum modules of rupture (i.e., the tensile stress that causes failure due to bending) is
40,000 psi. The meaning of the 21/45 designation is similar.

2.2.1.1.1.4 Ductile-Iron Pipe

Made of iron containing approximately 3.5% of carbon in spheroidal or nodular form,

and a magnesium alloy. Have the advantages of gray cast-iron pipe (corrosion- resistance and
long life) and steel pipe (ductility). Often lined and/or coated with cement mortar, like the
gray cast-iron pipe. Strength designation is 60/42/10.
I. 60 means a minimum tensile strength of 60,000 psi
II. 42 means a minimum yield strength of 42,000 psi
III. 10 means 10% minimum elongation

2.2.1.1.1.5 Stainless Steel Pipe

300 series such as SS304 or SS316, the most used stainless steel pipes. Steel contains
chrome-nickel alloys, and corrosion resistant. High price, used only in special applications
such as: when the fluid, or environment is rather corrosive, when no rusting of pipe can be
tolerated such as in pharmaceutical or food industries.

2.2.1.1.1.6 AluminumPipe

Corrosion resistant, Used in certain food plants and chemical plants. 1100 and 6000
series of aluminum are used for making pipes. Aluminum 1100 is low in strength but easy to
weld. 3000 or 6000 series is High-number aluminums are stronger mechanically and more
corrosion- resistant, and hard to weld. Pipes formed by a drawing or extrusion process; they
are seamless.

26
2.2.1.1.1.7 Copper Pipe

Corrosion-resistant but expensive, Used only for small pipes such as those used in
plumbing. Pipes can be formed by cold drawing, Note that many of the stainless steel,
aluminum and copper pipes are actually tubing rather than pipes.

2.2.1.1.1.8 Other Metal Pipes

Many other metal pipes are available, Made from different alloys and are used for
different purposes, such as corrosion resistance to a particular fluid, high- temperature,low-
temperatureresistance, etc.

2.2.1.1.2 NONMETALLIC PIPES

Not be as strong as metallic pipes, lighter in weight and more economical which a Have
certain other advantages such as being more corrosion resistant. There different types of
nonmetallic pipes. Figure 2-23

Figure 2-23 Nonmetallic pipes

2.2.1.1.2.1 Plastic Pipes

Three types of plastic pipes commonly used.

I. PVC (polyvinyl chloride)
II. PE (polyethylene)
III. PP (polypropylene)

27
2.2.1.2 Pipes types

2.2.1.2.1 Seamless Pipe

Seamless pipe as the name suggests is a pipe without a seam or a weld-joint in

contrast to Seam or Welded pipe. The seamless pipe does not have any such joint and thus
has uniform structure & strength all over the pipe body. Thus the seamless pipe can withstand
higher pressure, higher temperature, higher mechanical stress & corrosive atmosphere and
find wide applications in Oil & Gas, Refinery, Petrochemical, Chemical, Fertilizer, Power,
Automotive, Bearing, Mechanical & Structural applications.

2.2.1.2.2 Continuous Welded Pipe

Continuous welded pipe is defined as pipe that has one longitudinal seam produced by
the continuous welding (This is a type of butt-welded pipe).

2.2.1.2.3 Electric Welded Pipe

Electric welded pipe is defined as pipe that has one longitudinal seam produced by the
electric welding process.

2.2.1.2.4 Electric Welded Pipe

For grades higher than X42, the weld seam and the entire heat affected zone shall be
heat treated so as to simulate a normalizing heat treatment, except that by agreement between
the purchaser and the manufacturer alternative heat treatments or combinations of heat
treatment and chemical composition may be substituted. Where such substitutions are made,
the manufacturer shall demonstrate the effectiveness of the method selected using a
procedure that is mutually agreed upon. This procedure may include, but is not necessarily
limited to, hardness testing, microstructural evaluation, or mechanical testing. For grades X42
and lower, the weld seam shall be similarly heat treated, or the pipe shall be processed in
such a manner that no untampered martensite remains.
Electric welding shall be performed with a minimum welder frequency of 100 kHz.
For all grades, the weld seam and the entire heat affected zone shall be heat treated so as to
simulate a normalizing heat treatment, except that by agreement between the purchaser and
the manufacturer alternative heat treatments or combinations of heat treatment and chemical
composition may be substituted. Where such substitutions are made, the manufacturer shall
demonstrate the effectiveness of the method selected using a procedure that is mutually
agreed upon. This procedure may include, but is not necessarily limited to, hardness testing,
microstructural evaluation, or mechanical testing.

28
2.2.1.2.5 Laser Welded Pipe

Laser welded pipe is defined as pipe that has one longitudinal seam produced by the
laser welding process. The weld seam and the entire heat affected zone of laser welded pipe
shall be heat treated so as to simulate a normalizing heat treatment, except that by agreement
between the purchaser and manufacturer, an alternative process may be substituted. Where
such substitution is made, the manufacturer shall demonstrate the effectiveness of the method
selected, using a procedure that is mutually agreed upon. This procedure may include, but is
not necessarily limited to, hardness testing, microstructural evaluation, or mechanical testing.
Note: During the manufacture of laser welded pipe, the product is in motion through the
surrounding air. Normalizing is usually defined with "cooling in still air;" hence the phrase
"to simulate a normalizing heat treatment" is used here.

2.2.1.2.6 Longitudinal Seam Submerged-Arc Welded Pipe

Longitudinal seam submerged-arc welded pipe is defined as pipe that has one
longitudinal seam produced by the automatic submerged-arc welding process At least one
pass shall be on the inside and at least one pass shall be on the outside. (This type of pipe is
also known as submerged- arc welded pipe)

2.2.1.2.7 Gas Metal-Arc Welded Pipe

Gas metal-arc welded pipe is defined as pipe that has one longitudinal seam produced
by the continuous gas metal-arc welding process. At least one pass shall be on the inside and
at least one pass shall be on the outside.

2.2.1.2.8 Combination Gas Metal-Arc and Submerged-Arc Welded Pipe

Combination gas metal-arc and submerged-arc welded pipe is defined as pipe that has
one longitudinal seam produced by a combination of the welding processes. The gas metal-
arc welding process shall be continuous and first, and followed by the automatic submerged-
arc welding process with at least one pass on the inside and at least one pass on the outside.

2.2.1.2.9 Double Seam Submerged-Arc Welded Pipe

Double seam submerged-arc welded pipe is defined as pipe that has two longitudinal
seams produced by the automatic submerged-arc welding process .The seams shall be
approximately 1800 apart. For each seam, at least one pass shall be on the inside and at least
one pass shall be on the outside. All weld tests shall be performed after forming and welding.

29
2.2.1.2.10 Double Seam Gas Metal-Arc Welded Pipe

Double seam gas metal-arc welded pipe is defined as pipe that has two longitudinal
seams produced by the gas metal arc welding process. The seams shall be approximately
1800 apart. For each seam, at least one pass shall be on the inside and at least one pass shall
be on the outside. All weld tests shall be performed after forming and welding.

2.2.1.2.11 Double Seam Combination Gas Metal-Arc and Submerged-Arc Welded Pipe

Double seam combination gas metal-arc and submerged arc welded pipe is defined as
pipe that has two longitudinal seams produced by a combination of the welding processes.
The seams shall be approximately 1800 apart. For each seam, the gas metal-arc welding shall
be continuous and first, and followed by the automatic submerged-arc welding process with
at least one pass on the inside and at least one pass on the outside. All weld tests shall be
performed after forming and welding.

2.2.1.2.12 Helical Seam Submerged-Arc Welded Pipe

Helical seam submerged-arc welded pipe is defined as pipe that has one helical seam
produced by the automatic submerged- arc welding process. At least one pass shall be on the
inside and at least one pass shall be on the outside. (This type of pipe is also known as spiral
weld pipe.)

2.2.1.3 Pipes Selection

2.2.1.3.1 Published pipe standards serve three functions.

They dictate manufacturing and testing requirements and prescribed methods of

measuring the required mechanical and physical properties. Without specifications, it would
be difficult for the pipe buyer to establish a common ground of understanding with the
producer as to product requirements. When the pipe producer marks a specification on this
product they warrant that the pipe is made from prime quality steel and meets all the
requirements of the specification.
Standard pipe is manufactured and tested as prescribed by ASTM (formerly American
Society for Testing Materials), an international, non-profit technical and Scientific
organization formed for "the consensus development of standards on characteristics and
performance of materials, products, systems and services." The society operates through
more than 127 main technical committees. These committees function under regulations that
ensure balanced representation among producers, users and general interest groups.

30
The published standards, therefore, represent the consensus viewpoint of all involved. Line
pipe and Oil Country products are manufactured and tested as prescribed by the American
Petroleum Institute (API). The API operates similarly to the ASTM except that producers,
consumers, and associations with primary interests in oil or gas are involved.

2.2.1.3.2 GRADE

Grade refers to divisions within different types of seamless and ERW pipe and
designates mechanical properties such as minimum yield and tensile strengths. Grade B has
higher tensile and yield strength than Grade A. It is manufactured to higher carbon content
steel. Grade A, being a softer steel, is easier to bend and is recommended for use in close
coiling and cold bending. Grade B has higher stress values and is better suited for machining
operations.
Grade C, which is available in ASTM-106, has higher tensile and yield strength than Grades
A & B.

2.2.1.3.3 DIMENSIONS

Many changes have been made to ASTM specifications over the years. One of the
more recent has been to make the specifications fit with metric, and more correctly, with the
measurements of pipe and the related fittings.
To change the pipe outside diameter (OD) and wall thickness, simply multiply the SI
dimensions by the appropriate factor to convert to metric. However, an inch is not a real inch.
Nowhere on pipe 12" and smaller is there a corresponding measurement because this size has
no real numerical value.
To solve this problem and still retain the intent of the size designation, the inch mark
was removed from the column showing the size, and the term NPS was added as were the
following words: The dimensionless designator NPS (nominal pipe size) has been substituted
in this standard for such traditional terms as “nominal diameter,” “size,” and “nominal size.”
They are now stated as NPS 1, NPS 2, NPS 6, NPS 12, NPS 14, etc.

31
2.2.2 Pipes connections

Straight pipe sections must be connected to each other and to valves and equipment,
have changes in direction, and be interconnected between systems. This is accomplished by
using flanges and fittings. Selecting a flange or fitting requires the engineer to:
I. Know the types of flanges and fittings that can be used based on industry standards.
II. Select a material specification, material group and class, given design pressure,
temperature, and pipe material.

2.2.2.1 Classification

pipe threaded
Connections Flanges Types
Flanges Blind
Socket
Slipp on
Lapped
Weld neck
Flat
Faces Types
Raised

Ring-joint

Spiral
Gaskets Types
Metal-ring

Sheet

45° elbow
Elbow
Fittings 90° elbow

Cross
Equal
Tee Reducing
concentric
Reducer eccentric
seamless
Later butt-weld
socket-weld
Full
Coupling
Hlaf

Caps&plugs

Figure 2-24 Connections classification according to type

32
2.2.2.2 Connection types

2.2.2.2.1 Flanges

A flange is used to connect a pipe section to a piece of equipment, valve, or another

pipe in a way that will permit relatively simple disassembly. Such disassembly may be
required for maintenance, inspection or operational reasons.
A flange assembly consists of:
I. Two flanges.
II. A gasket to provide a seal between the flanges.
III. Bolting to keep the assembly together.
One flange is attached to each of the items being joined. For example, a flanged valve may be
installed in a piping system, and the pipe ends on each side of it also will have flanges. A
gasket is a resilient material that is inserted between the flanges and seated against the portion
of the flanges called the “face” or “facing”. The gasket provides the seal between the fluid in
the pipe and the outside, and thus prevents leakage. Bolts compress the gasket to achieve the
seal, and hold the flanges together against pressure and another loading. There are several
types of flanges, flange attachment methods, flange facings, and gasket types.

Figure 2-25 Flange assembly

33
2.2.2.2.1.1 Threaded Flanges

A threaded flange has pipe threads machined into its

bore, the flange is screwed to matching threads on the pipe end.
Threaded flanges are used only for small-diameter piping system. Figure 2-26 Threaded
Figure 2-26 flange

2.2.2.2.1.2 Blind flanges

Is a flat metal plate that is used to block flow in a piping

system, also it is used when a pipe end or equipment nozzle must
be blocked from flow, but there still must be an easy means of
internal access. Figure 2-27
Figure 2-27 Blind flange

2.2.2.2.1.3 Slip-on Flanges

Has an oversized bore. It is slipped over the pipe OD

and projects slightly beyond the pipe end. Slip-on flanges are
typically a lower cost alternative and requires less welding to
attach it to the pipe. Figure 2-28 Figure 2-28 Slip-on flange

2.2.2.2.1.4 Socket-Welded Flanges

A socket-welded flange has an oversized bore that is

partially machined into the end opposite the face. The pipe is
inserted into this "socket" and the flange fillet is welded to the
pipe OD. Figure 2-29
Figure 2-29 Socket-welded
flange
2.2.2.2.1.5 Lapped Flange

A lapped flange is not physically connected to the pipe. It

is slipped over a pipe stub that has a flared end, the pipe stub is
welded to the major pipe section. Figure 2-30

Figure 2-30 Lapped

flange

34
2.2.2.2.1.6 Welding-Neck Flanges

The strongest of the standard flange attachment types.

The end of the flange is butt-welded to the end of the pipe. The
flange bore is sized to match the pipe bore. A welding-neck
flange is the most widely used in refinery services because of its
greater strength and ability to be used at high temperature and in
cyclic service. Figure 2-31 Figure 2-31 Welding-neck
flange

2.2.2.2.2 Flange Faces

The area of a flange where the gasket is positioned is called the face or facing
Different types of flange faces are used as the contact surfaces to seat the sealing gasket
material.

2.2.2.2.2.1 Flat-Faced Flanges

The area where the gasket is located is at the same

elevation as the surrounding flange surface. There is no change
elevation in proceeding from the flange inside diameter to its
outside diameter. Figure 2-32 Figure 2-32 Flat-faced
flange

2.2.2.2.2.2 Raised-Face Flanges

The Raised Face flange is the most common type used in

process plant applications, and is easily to identify. It is referred
to as a raised face because the gasket surfaces are raised above
the bolting circle face. Figure 2-33
Figure 2-33 Raised-face
flange
2.2.2.2.2.3 Ring-Joint Flanges

The Ring Type Joint flanges are typically used in

high pressure and/or high temperature services above
800°F (427°C). They have grooves cut into their faces
which steel ring gaskets. The flanges seal when tightened
bolts compress the gasket between the flanges into the
grooves. Figure 2-34 Figure 2-34 Ring-joint flange

35
2.2.2.2.3 GASKET TYPES

The gasket provides the seal in a flange assembly. The three general gasket types that
are typically used in pipe flanges for process plant and pipeline applications are:
I. Sheet.
II. Spiral wound.
III. Solid metal ring

2.2.2.2.3.1 Spiral-Wound Gaskets

A spiral-wound gasket is manufactured by alternately

winding strips of metal and soft filler material around a mandrel. Figure 2-35 Spiral-
Figure 2-35 wound gasket

2.2.2.2.3.2 Metal Ring-Joint Gaskets

Metal ring gaskets come into two basic shapes, an

oval cross section. The octagonal ring seals by surface
wedging contact with the flange groove. The oval ring seals
by line contact. Figure 2-36 Figure 2-36 Metal ring-
joint gasket

2.2.2.2.3.3 Sheet Gaskets

The most common material used for sheet

gaskets is compressed asbestos. There has been
increasing concern regarding the ultimate availability of
sheet asbestos. Figure 2-37

Figure 2-37 sheet gasket

36
2.2.2.2.4 Fittings

Pipe fittings are an essential part of the piping systems. Therefore, it is important to be
familiar with their types; applications and limits imposed by associations and other industry
standards. These fittings assist the piping process in various aspects, such as diverting the
flow, tapping the process for temperature reading or pressure indication, draining or venting
the piping and so on. Therefore, to complete the picture of the piping system fittings should
be known and understood also, sometimes, it is necessary for two sections of pipe to intersect
when flows must be combined or separated. We will discusses various types of fitting to
serve this purpose. Sometimes, the intersection location between the two pipes is weakened
because a section of pipe wall must be removed to permit the two flows to split or combine.
Pipe fittings are used extensively in process plants as well as other piping systems.
They serve the overall process in many aspects such as the following:
I. Change the flow direction.
II. Bringing two or more pipes together.
III. Diverting a single flow into two branching flows or more.
IV. Altering the pipe diameter.
V. Tapping the process for temperature or pressure readings.
VI. Terminating a pipe.
There are many kinds of pipe fittings; some are standard types others could be
proprietary controlled by patent regulations. In general, there are three attachment methods
may be used for fittings, each of which has some limitations:
I. Threading.
II. Socket-welded.
III. Butt-welded.

2.2.2.2.4.1 Elbows

Elbows are used to change the direction of a pipe run.

Standard elbows change the direction by either 45° or 90°. Figure 2-38
Figure 2-38 Elbow

2.2.2.2.4.2 Tees and Crosses

Tees provide for the intersection of three sections of pipe. A

straight tee has equal diameters for both the run and branch pipe
connections.

Figure 2-39 Tee-joint

37
2.2.2.2.4.3 Reducers

Changes the diameter in a straight section of pipe, comes as either

a concentric or eccentric type. Figure 2-40

Figure 2-40 Reducers

2.2.2.2.4.4 Lap Joint Stub-End

Stub end is used in conjunction with lap joint flanges. The

lap-joint flange is first slipped over the stub end, the stub end is then
butt welded to the end of the pipe section. Figure 2-41

2.2.2.2.4.5 A lateral
Figure 2-41 lap joint

Laterals are special types of tees. In this case, the branch

connection enters the header at an angle normally 45°. Figure 2-42

2.2.2.2.4.6 Couplings or Half-Couplings Figure 2-42 A-lateral

joint

Full or half, which are primarily used to make an attachment

coupling is also sometimes used to connect two small diameters pipe
sections, rather than butt welding them together. Figure 2-43

2.2.2.2.4.7 Pipe Caps and Plugs

Figure 2-43 Half-coupling

Pipe caps are used to close off the end of a pipe section. A pipe cap rather than a blind
flange is used in situations where it is known that the pipe end will not have to be opened.
Figure 2-44

(a) (b)
Figure 2-44 (a) Pipe plug, (b) Pipe cap

38
2.2.2.3 Connections Selection

ASME B16.5, Pipe Flanges and Fittings, provides flange dimensional details and
pressure/temperature ratings for standard pipe sizes from 13 through 600 mm (1/2 through 24
in.). This Standard covers a wide range of material types, and will typically be the flange
standard used for process plant applications.
The pressure/temperature ratings that are contained within ASME B16.5 specify the
combinations of pressure and temperature that are acceptable for given flange sizes and
dimensions. The term class is used to designate groupings of acceptable
pressure/temperature combinations contained within ASME B16.5. ASME B16.5 contains
seven classes designated as classes 150, 300, 400, 600, 900, 1500, and 2500. As the number
of the class increases, the strength of the flanges within it increases. Therefore, higher flange
classes can withstand higher pressure/temperature combinations.

2.2.2.3.1 Restrictions on material usage, and further requirements in the following

areas:

I. Manufacturing details.
II. Maximum hardness limitations.
III. Heat treatment.
IV. Material chemistry.
V. Mechanical strength testing.
VI. Impact testing.
VII. Hardness testing.
VIII. Nondestructive examination.
IX. Repairs.
X. Markings.

2.2.2.3.2 Selection Procedure of the Material Group for ASME Flanges and Flanged
Fittings

The following procedure may be used to select the correct flange material and
Material Group Number. Table 2-1
I. Identify the material chemistry (such as carbon steel, 1 1/4 Cr - 1/2 Mo) that is being
used for the connected piping.
II. Identify the design temperature.
III. For pipeline applications, identify the Specified Minimum Yield Stress of the pipe
material that is being used.

39
 Table 2-1 ASME selection procedure for flanges and flanged fittings

2.2.2.3.3 Guidelines for Determining the Rating Class

Use the following procedure to determine the Class for ASME B16.5 flanges and
fittings:
I. Generic pipe material (such as Carbon Steel, C-1/2 M, 3-1/2 Ni)
II. Design Pressure, kPa (psig)
III. Design Temperature, °C (°F)
IV. Nominal Pipe Size, mm (in.)
V. Pipe material SMYS (pipeline applications), MPa (psi)

2.2.2.3.4 Dimensions

ASME B16.5, which provides dimensions for all classes. The flange & fittings
geometry is completely specified by the dimensions given. The flange dimensions for a
given class are the same for all possible flange materials.

2.2.2.3.5 SAFETY OF FLANGED JOINTS&FITTINGS ASSEMBLY

The main requirements and factors to achieve reliable flanged joints are the following:
I. Flange type, material and rating.
II. Gasket material, type and quality.
III. Appropriate surface finish of the flange rating
IV. Right bolting procedure is followed
V. Good workman ship by the people assembling the flanges.
VI. Careful inspection during the above stages as required

40
2.2.3 Valves

In process operations, fluids and their movement and transfer from place to place,
plays a large part in the process. Fluids are contained in various types of vessels and are
transported in pipelines. In order to Start or Stop fluid flow, to Control flow and to Prevent
Back-flow, various types of valves are installed in the piping. To prevent over-pressure in
piping and vessels, we use Safety Relief valves and, to isolate equipment for maintenance etc,
Block valves are installed.
Over 95% of the valves that are used in process plant and pipeline applications will be
one of the types that are discussed in this module. A number of other specialty-type valves
are also used in specific applications. These include clamp or pinch valves, diaphragm
valves, needle valves, and ram-type sampling valves.
The engineer must know the possible functions of a valve before being able to select
the appropriate valve for a particular application. Fluid flows through a pipe, and valves are
used to control the flow. A valve may be used to block flow, throttle flow, or prevent flow
reversal. The following describes the basic valve functions.
The block-flow function provides completely on or completely off flow control of a
fluid in a piping system, generally without throttling or variable control capability. It might
be necessary to block flow in order to take a piece of equipment out of service for
maintenance, while the rest of the unit remains in operation, or to separate two portions of a
single system to accommodate various operating scenarios.
To throttle flow in a piping system may increase or decrease the amount of fluid
flowing in the system and can also help control pressure at points within the system. It might
be necessary to throttle flow in order to regulate the filling rate of a pressure vessel, or to
control unit operating pressure levels.
In some cases, it might be necessary to automatically prevent the reversal of flow
beyond the valve location and not allow fluid to reverse its direction during sudden pressure
changes or system upsets. Preventing reverse flow might be necessary to avoid damage to a
pump or a compressor, or to automatically prevent backflow into the upstream part of the
system due to process reasons.
Various types of valves may be used for each function. The gate valve is the type that
is most commonly used to block flow in a process plant. The ball-, plug-, butterfly-,
diaphragm-, and globe-type valves are used to block flow to a lesser extent. The globe valve
is the type most commonly used to throttle flow in a refinery. Butterfly and diaphragm valves
are also used to throttle flow. The check valve is the only valve-type that is used to prevent
flow reversal. There are three kinds of check valves: swing, ball, and lift.
The engineer must know the various types of valves because some valves have
advantages over others in particular applications. For example, numerous valve-types will
block flow. The gate valve is most commonly used; however, the ball valve may be a better
choice based on the particular application.

41
2.2.3.1 Classification

2.2.3.1.1 Based on functions

VALVES

Special
ON.OFF REGULATION NON-RETURN
purpose

GATE GLOBE CHECK Multi-port

BALL NEEDLE Float

PLUG BUTTERFLY Foot

PISTON DIAPHRAGM Line Blind

BUTTERFLY PISTON

2.2.3.1.2 Based on the end connections:

The valves can further be classified based on the end connections. End connection
means the arrangement or attachment of the valves to the equipment or to the piping. The
types of end connections are:

I. Screwed ends.
II. Socket weld ends
III. Flanged ends
IV. Butt weld ends
V. Socketed ends
VI. Wafer type ends

42
2.2.3.1.3 Based on the materials of construction:

The valves could also be classified based on the materials of construction. There can
be any number of combinations possible with the materials of construction. It is for the
piping engineer to select the same in consultation with the process engineer to suit the
process fluid.

The environment in which the valves are installed is also to be considered for
selection of materials of construction. However, the most commonly available materials are:

I. Cast Iron
II. Bronze
III. Gun metal
IV. Carbon Steel
V. Stainless Steel
VI. Alloy Carbon Steel
VII. Poly Propylene UHMW-PE, UHMW-HDPE etc.
VIII. Special Alloys

Body could also be lined with elastomer so that process fluid will not be in contact
with the metal. The valve could also be classified based on the type of construction. Valve
manufacturers offer endless varieties of construction. Based on the operation, valves can be
broadly classified as operated valves and self-operated valves. Mainly the check valves are
self-operated and all other types come under operated valves.

43
2.2.3.2 Valves types

2.2.3.2.1 Gate Valves

I. Gate valves are required only to fully

shut off or fully turn on flow. Figure 2-
45
II. The gate valve is available in the full
range of pipe sizes, ASME/ANSI
B16.34 pressure/temperature ratings,
and materials that are encountered in
process plant applications.
III. The gate valve is not suitable to throttle
flow.

Figure 2-45 Gate valve

2.2.3.2.2 Ball Valve

I. Ball valves usually function as block

valves to fully shut off or fully open
flow. Figure 2-46
II. The ball valve is quick-opening and
requires only a quarter-turn from full
open to full close.
III. With the ball in the open position,
straight-through flow is
accomplished. When the ball is
turned 90°, flow is blocked.
IV. In the closed position, tight shutoff is
obtained by resilient, seat-to-metal
ball-sealing contact, and to a lesser
degree, by metal-to-metal contact in metal- Figure 2-46 Full-Bore Ball Valve
seated models.

44
2.2.3.2.3 Plug Valve

I. Plug valves usually function as block valves to

fully shut off or fully open flow.
II. They are well suited for conditions where
quick on/off and/or bubble-tight shutoff are
required. Figure 2-47
III. The plug valve utilizes a cylindrical and
usually tapered plug to provide quarter-turn
operation from fully open to fully close.

Figure 2-47 Multi-Segment Plug

Valve

2.2.3.2.4 Globe valve

I. Globe valves in the past had the

spherical bodies which gave them their
name, many modern globe valves do not
have much of a spherical shape
II. In plumbing, valves with such a
mechanism are also often called stop
valves since they don't have the global
appearance, but the term stop valve may
refer to valves which are used to stop
flow even when they have other
mechanisms or designs.
III. Globe valves are used for applications
requiring throttling and frequent
operation.
IV. Globe valves are always reverse seated. Figure 2-48 GLOBE VALVE
Refer to Figure 2-48

45
2.2.3.2.5 Diaphragm Valves

I. A diaphragm valve is a linear motion valve that is used to start, regulate, and stop
fluid flow.
II. The name is derived from its flexible disk, which mates with a seat located in the
open area at the top of the valve body to form a seal. Figure 2-49
III. Diaphragm valves can also be used for throttling service.
IV. Diaphragm valves are particularly suited for the handling of corrosive fluids, fibrous
slurries, radioactive fluids, or other fluids that must remain free from contamination.

Figure 2-49 Straight Through Diaphragm Valve

2.2.3.2.6 Butterfly Valves

I. A butterfly valve is a rotary motion valve that is

used to stop, regulate, and start fluid flow. Figure
2-50
II. Butterfly valves possess many advantages over
gate, globe, plug, and ball valves, especially for
large valve applications.
III. Butterfly valves are especially well-suited for the
handling of large flows of liquids or gases at
relatively low pressures and for the handling of
slurries or liquids with large amounts of
suspended solids.

Figure 2-50 figure 19 Typical

Butterfly Valve

46
2.2.3.2.7 Needle Valves

I. A needle valve is used to make relatively fine

adjustments in the amount of fluid flow. Figure 20
II. Needle valves are often used as component parts of
other, more complicated valves. For example, they
are used in some types of reducing valves.
III. Used in some components of automatic combustion
control systems where very precise flow regulation
is necessary.

2.2.3.2.8 Check Valves Figure 2-51 Figure 20 Needle Valve

Check valves are designed to prevent the reversal of flow in a piping system. These
valves are activated by the flowing material in the pipeline. The pressure of the fluid
passing through the system opens the valve, while any reversal of flow will close the valve.
Closure is accomplished by the weight of the check mechanism, by back pressure, by a
spring, or by a combination of these means. The general types of check valves are swing,
tilting-disk, butterfly, and stop.

2.2.3.2.8.1 Swing C heck Valves

I. A swing check valve allows full, unobstructed flow and automatically closes as
pressure decreases. Figure 2-52
II. These valves are fully closed when the flow reaches zero and prevent back flow.
III. Turbulence and pressure drop within the valve are very low.

Figure 2-52 Swing Check Valve

47
2.2.3.2.8.2 Tilting Disk C heck Valves

I. The tilting disk check valve is similar to the swing check valve. Figure 2-53
II. The tilting disk type keeps fluid resistance and turbulence low because of its
straight-through design.

Figure 2-53 Operation of Tilting Disk Check Valve

2.2.3.2.8.3 Lift C heck Valves

I. A lift check valve is commonly used in piping systems in which globe valves are
being used as a flow control valve. Figure 2-54
II. Lift check valves are suitable for installation in horizontal or vertical lines with
upward flow.
III. They are recommended for use with steam, air, gas, water, and on vapor lines with
high flow velocities.

Figure 2-54 Lift Check Valve

48
2.2.3.3 Valves selection

Selecting the appropriate valve depends on the fluid in a piping system, the system's
design conditions, the service application, the functions and types of valves (as discussed
earlier in this module), and the applicable SAES and SAMSS requirements. Other
considerations for selecting valves are discussed in further detail in this section. SAES-L-
008 and the 04-SAMSS-series provide requirements and limitations for valve selection. The
valve selection procedure, as described below and summarized in Work Aid 1, is a guide for
selecting the appropriate valve for the three primary functions discussed earlier. However, it
is important to understand that selecting valves may simply be a matter of duplicating valves
from a system that has provided good performance. Similarly, good experience with a
particular valve model in one service often justifies using the same model elsewhere in an
essentially identical service.

2.2.3.3.1 Data Required

Basic piping system design and valve application data are required before a valve can
be selected.

Table 2-2 required data before selecting a valve

Review of the data that is collected will begin to narrow the choices of potentially
suitable valves. For example, if a block valve is needed, all the check valve-types are
immediately eliminated from consideration.

49
2.2.3.3.2 Valve Sizing

In most cases, valve size is identical to pipe size. In some cases, a valve must be
larger than the pipe in order to pass the required flow-rate due to pressure drop across the
particular valve-type being used. In other cases, it might be advantageous for a valve to be
smaller for economic reasons.
When fluid is flowing steadily in a long, straight pipe of uniform diameter, the flow pattern
assumes a certain characteristic form.
Any disruption, such as due to friction, will cause a drop in pressure. Valves also disrupt the
flow pattern and, therefore, cause a pressure drop in the piping system. The loss of pressure
produced by a valve consists of:
I. The pressure drop within the valve itself.
II. The pressure drop in the upstream and downstream piping that exceeds what would
normally occur if there was no valve in the line.

Equations are used to calculate the pressure drop across a valve, based on the flow
characteristics of the particular valve- type. It must be determined whether the pressure drop
is acceptable for the process design requirements. Since the pressure drop caused by valves
can affect the size of the valve, it can also influence the selection of one valve-type over
another, since different valve-types have different pressure-drop characteristics. It is also
normally the process design engineer who determines whether the system pressure drop is
acceptable.

Figure 2-55 Sample of valve main dimensions

50
2.2.4 Pumps

In a broad sense, the word pump refers to any machine in a pipeline that forces the
fluid, be it a liquid or gas, to move through the pipe. The basic function of a pump is to
convert mechanical energy or power to fluid energy or power. Most commonly, a pump is
mechanically connected to an electrical motor through a shaft. The motor drives the pump,
which in turn drives the fluid. In doing so, electrical energy or power is converted to
mechanical energy or power, which in turn is converted to fluid energy or power.
Alternatively, a pump may be driven by something other than an electric motor, such as a
gasoline or diesel engine which converts the energy or power derived from burning fuel into
mechanical energy or power to drive the pump. In doing so, fluid energy or power is
converted to mechanical energy or power, which in turn is converted to electrical energy or
power. Mechanical pumps serve in a wide range of applications such as pumping water from
wells, aquarium filtering, pond filtering and aeration, in the car industry for water-cooling
and fuel injection.

Figure 2-56 Pumps station

2.2.4.1 Classification

Pumps may be classified on the basis of the applications they serve (figure 2-57), the
materials from which they are constructed, the liquids they handle. All pumps may be divided
into two major categories:
I. Dynamic, in which energy is continuously added to increase the fluid velocities
within the machine to values greater than those occurring at the discharge so
subsequent velocity reduction within or beyond the pump produces a pressure
increase.
II. Displacement, in which energy is periodically added by application of force to one
or more movable boundaries of any desired number of enclosed, fluid-containing
volumes, resulting in a direct increase in pressure up to the value required to move
the fluid through valves or ports into the discharge line.

51
 Self-Priming
Centrifugal
Multistage
Dynamic
centrifugal
Jet Pumps

Pumps Piston Pumps

Cylinder (chamber)

Piston
Diaphragm Pumps
single rotor
Positive
Rotary PD Pumps
displacement
multiple rotor
Screw Pumps

Gear

Figure 2-57 pumps classification according to type

2.2.4.2 Pumps types

2.2.4.2.1 Dynamic pumps

May be further subdivided into several varieties of centrifugal and other special-effect
pumps. Figure (2-57) presents in outline form a summary of the significant classifications and
sub classifications within this category.

2.2.4.2.1.1 Centrifugal Pumps

Centrifugal Pump can be defined as a mechanical device used to transfer liquid of

various types. As the name suggests, it relies on the principal of Centrifugal force. It converts
the energy provided by a prime mover, such as an electric motor, steam turbine, or gasoline
engine, to energy within the liquid being pumped. As shown figure 2-58

Figure 2-58 Centrifugal Pump

52
Types of Centrifugal Pumps

a) Vertical turbine pump

Vertical turbine pumps are centrifugal pumps

specially designed to move water from an
underground well or reservoir. They are also known a
deep well turbine pumps or a line shaft turbine pumps.
While submersible pumps have an electric motor
located underwater at the bottom of the pump.
However, the electric motor of a vertical turbine pump
is located above ground, connected via a long vertical
shaft to impellers at the bottom of the pump. Despite
the name, these pump types have nothing to do with
turbines. As shown in figure 2-59

Figure 2-59 Vertical turbine pump

b) Multistage centrifugal pumps

A centrifugal pump containing two or more impellers is called a multistage

centrifugal pump. The impellers may be mounted on the same shaft or on different shafts. If
we need higher pressure at the outlet we can connect impellers in series. If we need a higher
flow output we can connect impellers in parallel. All energy added to the fluid comes from
the power of the electric or other motor force driving the impeller. As shown I figure 2-60

Figure 2-60 Multistage centrifugal pump

53
 c) Self-Priming Pumps
This type of pump differs from a standard centrifugal pump in that it has a water
reservoir built into the unit which enables it to rid pump and suction line of air by
recirculating water within the pump on priming cycle. This water reservoir may be above the
impeller or in front of the impeller. In either case, the "self-priming" capability of the pump
comes from the pump ability to retain water after the very first prime. As shown in figure 2-
61

Figure 2-61 Self-Priming Pump

2.2.4.2.1.2 Jet Pumps

Jet pumps are based on the conversion of fluid momentum (kinetic energy) to
pressure. When a jet is issued in a pipe in the main flow direction, the momentum of the jet
will be converted to fluid pressure downstream where the jet is diffused and dispersed.
However, since much of the kinetic energy of the jet is dissipated into heat during this
conversion. Most jet pumps have an efficiency of less than 30%, which is much lower than
those of the aforementioned types of pumps.

2.2.4.2.2 Displacement pumps

Displacement pumps are essentially divided into reciprocating and rotary types, depending on
the nature of movement of the Pressure- producing members. Each of these major
classifications may be further subdivided into several specific types of commercial
importance.

Types of displacement pumps

2.2.4.2.2.1 Piston pump

A piston pump is a type of reciprocating pump that moves

and pressurizes fluid by using one or more reciprocating
pistons; it is typically driven by an electric motor through
a crankshaft and connecting rod. As shown in figure 2-62 Figure 2-62 Piston pump

54
2.2.4.2.2.2 Diaphragm Pump

Cars often use a Diaphragm Pump to move

gasoline from the gas tank to the carburetor or fuel
injection plugs. The gasoline diaphragm pump is
operated by a cam geared directly to rotating parts of
the engine. The cam pushes a pushrod. The brown rod
shown in this drawing is moved by the pushrod. It
pushes the diaphragm in (a spring forces it back out.)
Fuel pumps like this one operate continuously but have
a safety valve which returns fuel to the input side of the
pump if pressure rises above a set level. As shown in
figure 2-63
Figure 2-63 Diaphragm Pump

2.2.4.2.2.3 Rotary Pumps

By definition, positive displacement (PD) pumps displace a known quantity of

liquid with each revolution of the pumping elements. This is done by trapping liquid
between the pumping elements and a stationary casing. Pumping element designs include
gears, lobes, rotary pistons, vanes, and screws. A rotary pump traps fluid in its closed casing
and discharges a smooth flow. They can handle almost any liquid that does not contain hard
and abrasive solids, including viscous liquids.

2.2.4.2.2.4 Screw pump

A screw pump is a more complicated type of rotary pump that uses two or three
screws with opposing thread. One screw turns clockwise and the other counterclockwise. The
screws are mounted on parallel shafts that have gears that mesh so the shafts turn together
and everything stays in place. The screws turn on the shafts and drive fluid through the pump.
As with other forms of rotary pumps, the clearance between moving parts and the pump's
casing is minimal. As shown in figure 2-64

Figure 2-64 Screw pump

55
2.2.4.2.2.5 Gear pumps

Gear pumps are widely used in modern hydraulic systems due to their high
performance, long service life and low pur-chase and maintenance costs. Product
development has made it possible to achieve high operating pressures, excellent volumetric
and mechanical efficiency, and lower noise levels, in operation.

Figure 2-65 Gear pump

2.2.4.3 Pumping System Selection

The first step is to define the requirements and conditions under which the equipment
will operate. Then we selected pump and motor.

56
2.2.4.3.1 Pumps Selection

As stated previously, the selection of pump type for a particular application is

influenced by such factors as the fluid characteristics, required materials of construction,
system flow requirements, intended equipment life, energy cost, and availability of certain
utilities, such as cooling water. Accuracy in these areas is critical for proper selection of
pumps. Material selection is affected both by the pumped fluid and the environment.
Resistance to corrosion and erosion are of prime importance. This requires that an evaluation
be made comparing the more expensive longer life material to a less expensive material,
which may provide a shorter pump life. Requirements such as continuous or intermittent
operation, critical or non-critical service and plant life cycle should be considered when
selecting materials. Pumps are commonly available in cast iron, ductile iron, bronze, carbon
steel, alloy steels, and in some cases composite materials or special alloys such as Titanium.

2.2.4.3.2 Driver Selection and Pumping power

The choice of driver type for a pumping service is as important as the pump selection.
Factors that affect the driver choice are capital cost, driver type availability, operating
reliability and the availability and cost of utilities. Constant speed electric motors are most
economical when only the first cost is considered. Often there is excess steam available
within a facility that, when compared to the cost of electricity, will justify the extra cost of a
steam turbine.

57
2.3 WELDING OF PIPELINE

Pipe operating conditions in the handling of oil, gases, water, and other substances
range from high vacuum to pressure of several thousand pounds per square inch. Mechanical
joints are not satisfactory for many of these services. Electric arc or oxyacetylene welding
provide effective joints in these services and also reduce weight, increase the strength, and
lower the cost of pipe installations. As shown in figure 2-66

Figure 2-66 Pipeline welding

2.3.1 Preparation for welding

2.3.1.1 Pipe Beveled by Manufacturer

Pipe to be welded is usually supplied with a single V bevel of 32-1/2 degrees with a
1/16-in. (1.6-mm) root face for pipe thicknesses up to 3/4 in. (19.1 mm). A single U groove is
used for heavier pipe. If the pipe has not been properly beveled or has been cut in the field, it
must be beveled prior to welding.

2.3.1.2 Cutting, Beveling and Facing of Pipe

This operation is necessary when pipe must be cut to

suit a specific length requirement. To ensure a leak proof
welded joint, the pipe must be cut in a true circle in a plane
perpendicular to the center line of the pipe. This may be
accomplished by using a strip of heavy paper, cardboard,
leather belting, or sheet gasket material with a straight edge
longer than the circumference of the pipe to be welded. The
material is wrapped around the pipe and overlapped and the
pipe marked along the edge of the material with a soapstone
pencil. Pipe with a wall thickness exceeding 1/8 in. (3.2 mm)
should be cut first with a straight cut, then beveled with a
hand torch to a 30 to 35 degree angle, leaving a shoulder of Figure 2-67 Pipe cutting and
beveling motorized
approximately 1/8 in. (3.2 mm). As shown in figure 2-67

58
2.3.1.3 Cleaning of Pipe

After beveling, remove all rust, dirt, scale, or other foreign matter from the outside of
the pipe in the vicinity of the weld with a file, wire brush, grinding disk, or other type of
abrasive. If the bevels are made by oxyacetylene cutting, the oxide formed must be entirely
removed. The inside of the pipe in the vicinity of the weld may be cleaned by a boiler tube
and flue cleaner, by sandblasting, by tapping with a hammer with an air blast follow up, or by
any other suitable method, depending on the inside diameter of the pipe. Care must be taken
to clean the scarf faces thoroughly.

2.3.1.4 Alignment the Joint

A pipe lineup clamp should be used to align and securely hold the pipe ends before tack
welding. A spacing tool to separate the pipe ends can be made from an old automobile spring
leaf. The spacing for oxyacetylene welding should be approximately 1/8 in. (3.2 mm); for arc
welding, the spacing depends on the size of the electrode used for the root pass.
If a pipe lineup clamp is not available, the pipe section must be set in a jig so that their center
lines coincide and the spacing of the pipe ends is uniform prior to tack welding. An angle iron
will serve as a jig for small diameter pipe, while a section of channel or I-beam is satisfactory
for larger pipe. As shown in figure 2-68

Figure 2-68 Angle iron serving as jig for small diameter pipe

When a backing ring is used and it is desired to weld to the backing ring, the spacing
should not be less than the diameter of the electrode used for the root pass. When welding to
the backing ring is not desired, the spacing should not exceed one half the electrode diameter,
and varies from this diameter to zero, depending on whether a small or large angle of bevel is
used.

59
2.3.1.5 Open Root Joint Preparation

a) Bevel pipe end to 37.5° (standard pipe bevel)

leaving a 1/16 to 3/32 in. (1.6 to 2.4 mm)
land. As shown in figure 2-69

Figure 2-69 Bevel pipe end preparation

2- Align pipe ends together leaving a minimum of1/8

in. (3.2 mm) gap. As shown in figure 2-70

Figure 2-70 align pipe ends

3- Tack pipe ends together in four locations

approximately 90° apart and 1 in. (25.4 mm) long on
pipe that is 6 in. (152.4 mm) or larger diameter. Use
appropriate sized tack welds on smaller pipe. As
shown in figure 2-71

Figure 2-71 tacking locations for pipe

ends

4- Grind each end of the tack weld to a feather

edge (knife edge). As shown in figure 2-72

Figure 2-72 grind the end of the tack

60
2.3.2 Welding Processes

2.3.2.1 General

The most commonly used processes for joining pipe are the manual oxyacetylene
process and manual shielded metal-arc process. Automatic and semiautomatic submerged arc,
inert gas metal-arc, and atomic hydrogen welding are also used particularly in shop
operations. The manual shielded metal-arc process may be used for welding all metals used
in piping systems, whereas manual oxyacetylene welding is generally limited to small size
piping or to welding operations where clearances around the joints are small. The equipment
required for the oxyacetylene process is also much less expensive and more portable than that
required for shielded metal-arc welding.

2.3.2.2 Welding Classification

Types of Welding

Fusion Pressure
Welding Welding

Chemical
Electric Arc Gas Welding Cold Pressure
Reaction

Metal Arc Oxy-acetylene Thermit Resistance

Welding Welding Welding Welding

Inert Gas Explosive

Welding Welding

Submerged Friction
Arc Welding Welding

Carbon Arc Diffusion

Welding Bonding

Figure 2-73 Welding Types

61
2.3.2.3 Shielded Metal-Arc Process

The shielded metal-arc process can be used for welding pipe materials such as
aluminum, magnesium, and high chromium-nickel alloys that are difficult to weld by other
processes. In shielded metal-arc welding, the number of passes required for welding ferrous
metal piping varies with the pipe thickness, the welding position, the size of the electrode,
and the welding current used.
The number of passes required for welding low alloy and low carbon steel pipe
depends on the thickness of the pipe, the welding position, the size of the electrode, and the
current used but, in general, is approximately one pass for each 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) of pipe
thickness. When welding in the horizontal or rolled position, the number of layers is usually
increased 25 to 30 percent. Smaller electrodes are used to lessen the heat concentration and to
ensure complete grain refinement of the weld metal.
The electrodes used vary from 1/8 to 5/32 in. (3.2 to 4.0 mm) diameter for the first
pass, 5/32 in. (4.0 mm) diameter for the intermediate passes, and up to 3/16 in. (4.8 mm) for
the top passes and reinforcement.

2.3.2.4 Position of Welding

In manual shielded metal-arc welding, as much welding as possible is done in the flat
or down hand position using suitable power driven equipment for rotating the pipe at a speed
consistent with the speed of welding. When the pipe is in a fixed horizontal position, the weld
is usually made from the bottom upward. With thin or medium thickness pipe, the welding is
done downward. More metal is deposited when welding upward. Complete grain refinement
is easier to achieve, and welding downward requires a much higher degree of manual skill.
As shown in figure 2-75

Figure 2-74 Pipes welding positions

62
 When the pipe is in a fixed vertical position, it is customary to deposit the filler metal
in a series of overlapping string beads, using 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) maximum electrodes, and
allowing 25 to 30 beads per square inch of weld area.
When welding by the oxyacetylene process, the directions of welding as described
above will, in general, apply. Backhand welding is used when welding downward, and
forehand welding is used when welding upward. As shown in figure 2-75

Figure 2-75 Automatic pipe welding

63
2.3.2.5 Multi pass Arc Welding

2.3.2.5.1 Root beads

If a lineup clamp is used, the root bead is started at the bottom of the groove while the
clamp is in position. When no backing ring is used, take care to build up a slight bead on the
inside of the pipe. If a backing ring is used, the root bead must be carefully fused to it. As
much root bead as the bars of the lineup clamp permit should be applied before the will
clamp is removed. Complete the bead after the clamp is removed. As shown in figure2-77

Figure 2-76 Deposition of root, filler and finished weld beads

2.3.2.5.2 Filler beads

Ensure the filler beads are fused into the root bead in order to remove any undercut
caused by the deposition of the root bead. One or more filler beads around the pipe will usually
be required.

2.3.2.5.3 Cap beads

The finish beads are applied over the filler beads to complete the joint. Usually, this is
a weave bead about 5/8 in. (15.9 mm) wide and approximately 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) above the
outside surface of the pipe when complete. The finish weld is shown at D.

64
2.4 INSPECTION OF PIPELINE

2.4.1 Welding inspection

Focus NDT employees place an emphasis on safety and compliance while efficiently
using time and financial resources. Our technology-based procedures collect accurate and
valuable data to detect flaws and irregularities in pipelines before resulting in severe damage.
Both intrusive and non-intrusive methods are performed through every stage in the life-span
of pipeline equipment and assets. Such continual attention leads to early detection and
regularly scheduled repair and replacement, saving clients from unexpected losses.
Evaluation for the Pipeline Industry:
I. Automated / Advanced Ultrasonic examination of long seams and butt welds
II. Shear Wave Inspection (UT)
III. Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI)
IV. Radiography Inspections (RT)
V. Liquid Penetrant Inspection (LPI)

2.4.1.1 Nondestructive Testing

Nondestructive testing (NDT) is the process of inspecting, testing, or evaluating

materials, components or assemblies for discontinuities, or differences in characteristics
without destroying the serviceability of the part or system. In other words, when the
inspection or test is completed the part can still be used. The following Table 2-3 presents a
comparison between traditional NDT techniques.

2.4.1.1.1 Visual testing (VT)

Visual testing is the most commonly used test method in industry. Because most test
methods require that the operator look at the surface of the part being inspected, visual
inspection is inherent in most of the other test methods. As the name implies, VT involves
the visual observation of the surface of a test object to evaluate the presence of surface
discontinuities. VT inspections may be by Direct Viewing, using line-of sight vision, or may
be enhanced with the use of optical instruments such as magnifying glasses, mirrors,
borescopes, charge-coupled devices (CCDs) and computer-assisted viewing systems (Remote
Viewing). Corrosion, misalignment of parts, physical damage and cracks are just some of the
discontinuities that may be detected by visual examinations.

65
2.4.1.1.2 Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)

Magnetic Particle Testing uses one or more magnetic fields to locate surface and near-
surface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials. The magnetic field can be applied with a
permanent magnet or an electromagnet. When using an electromagnet, the field is present
only when the current is being applied. When the magnetic field encounters a discontinuity
transverse to the direction of the magnetic field, the flux lines produce a magnetic flux
leakage field of their own. Because magnetic flux lines don't travel well in air, when very
fine colored ferromagnetic particles ("magnetic particles") are applied to the surface of the
part the particles will be drawn into the discontinuity, reducing the air gap and producing a
visible indication on the surface of the part. The magnetic particles may be a dry powder or
suspended in a liquid solution, and they may be colored with a visible dye or a fluorescent
dye that fluoresces under an ultraviolet ("black") light.

2.4.1.1.3 Liquid penetrant testing (PT)

The basic principle of liquid penetrant testing is that when a very low viscosity
(highly fluid) liquid (the penetrant) is applied to the surface of a part, it will penetrate into
fissures and voids open to the surface. Once the excess penetrant is removed, the penetrant
trapped in those voids will flow back out, creating an indication. Penetrant testing can be
performed on magnetic and non-magnetic materials, but does not work well on porous
materials. Penetrants may be "visible", meaning they can be seen in ambient light, or
fluorescent, requiring the use of a "black" light. The visible dye penetrant process. When
performing a PT inspection, it is imperative that the surface being tested is clean and free of
any foreign materials or liquids that might block the penetrant from entering voids or fissures
open to the surface of the part. After applying the penetrant, it is permitted to sit on the
surface for a specified period of time (the "penetrant dwell time"), then the part is carefully
cleaned to remove excess penetrant from the surface. When removing the penetrant, the
operator must be careful not to remove any penetrant that has flowed into voids. A light
coating of developer is then be applied to the surface and given time ("developer dwell time")
to allow the penetrant from any voids or fissures to seep up into the developer, creating a
visible indication. Following the prescribed developer dwell time, the part is inspected
visually, with the aid of a black light for fluorescent penetrants. Most developers are fine-
grained, white talcum-like powders that provide a color contrast to the penetrant being used.

2.4.1.1.4 Radiographic test (RT)

Industrial radiography involves exposing a test object to penetrating radiation so that

the radiation passes through the object being inspected and a recording medium placed
against the opposite side of that object. For thinner or less dense materials such as,
electrically generated x-radiation (X-rays) are commonly used, and for thicker or denser
aluminum materials, gamma radiation is generally used.

66
Gamma radiation is given off by decaying radioactive materials, with the two most
commonly used sources of gamma radiation being Iridium-192 (Ir-192) and Cobalt-60 (Co-
60). IR-192 is generally used for steel up to 2-1/2 - 3 inches, depending on the Curie strength
of the source, and Co-60 is usually used for thicker materials due to its greater penetrating
ability.

2.4.1.1.5 Ultrasonic testing (UT)

Ultrasonic testing uses the same principle as is used in naval SONAR and fish
finders. Ultra-high frequency sound is introduced into the part being inspected and if the
sound hits a material with a different acoustic impedance (density and acoustic velocity),
some of the sound will reflect back to the sending unit and can be presented on a visual
display. By knowing the speed of the sound through the part (the acoustic velocity) and the
time required for the sound to return to the sending unit, the distance to the reflector (the
indication with the different acoustic impedance) can be determined.
The most common sound frequencies used in UT are between 1.0 and 10.0 MHz,
which are too high to be heard and do not travel through air. The lower frequencies have
greater penetrating power but less sensitivity (the ability to "see" small indications), while the
higher frequencies don't penetrate as deeply but can detect smaller indications.

2.4.1.1.6 Automatic ultrasonic test

Traditionally, pipeline girth welds made during pipeline construction in the UK have
been manufactured using the Manual Metal Arc (MMA) welding process and inspected using
100% X-radiography. There is some degree of radiation hazard to the public and operators in
using x-rays and Transco have considered whether this can be reduced or removed. In 1981
work was conducted by British Gas to assess five ultrasonic scanner systems to replace x-rays
but they were all found to have deficiencies, especially in discriminating different defect
types. Since then there has been several technical
developments so that, today, the use of automated
ultrasonic testing (AUT) of girth welds is becoming
increasingly accepted as a reliable and beneficial
alternative to radiographic testing (RT). Confidence has
been generated by an extensive list of pipeline
construction projects where it has been used
successfully. While the basic approach is similar from
most suppliers, there are significant differences as well
as new developments in response to the demands of the
marketplace. It was decided to conduct a trial of several Figure 2-77 Automatic ultrasonic test
AUT systems to establish the capabilities.

67
 Table 2-3 Traditional NDT Technique Comparison

2.4.2 Pressure Test of Piping System

2.4.2.1 HYDROSTATIC TEST

As a rule, test shall be hydrostatic, using fresh water or industrial water. The water
shall have a suitable corrosion inhibitor which meets Owner approval. Where the use of sea
water is unavoidable, agreement between Owner and Construction Contractor shall be made,
before proceeding with the work. When sea water is used, quick draining and sufficient
cleaning by fresh water shall be performed after completion of the testing.
Where atmospheric temperature is 0 ºC or below water shall not be used unless water
is heated by steam or other heat source, and maintained at temperature of 4ºC or above during
the testing. If there is a possibility of damage due to freezing, or if the operating fluid or
piping material would be adversely affected by the water, any other suitable liquid such as oil
or kerosene may be used with agreement between Owner and Construction Contractor.

2.4.2.2 PNEUMATIC TEST

As a rule, test shall be pneumatic, using air. The use of other test fluid shall be
subject to agreement between owner Pneumatic testing shall be made with oil free air. If the
piping is tested pneumatically, the test pressure shall be 110% of the design pressure of the
system. If the test pressure exceeds 6 bars written approval of the Owner shall be obtained.
Welds of piping subject to pneumatic strength test above 6 bars shall be %100 radio graphed.

68
2.4.3 Welding acceptance criteria

Table 2-4 API 1104 Acceptance criteria

Defect type Acceptance limit Remarks
misalignment Not exceeds 1.59 Mm 7.2
Incomplete Individual IP not exceeds 25.4 mm
9.3.1.a
penetration Aggregate IP not exceeds 25.4 mm
9.3.1.b
without HI-LO 30.48 cm weld length
(IP)
Incomplete Individual IP not exceeds 50.8 mm 9.3.2.a
penetration with Aggregate IP not exceeds 76.2mm 9.3.2.b
HI-LO (IP) 30.48 cm weld length
Individual IF not exceeds 25.4 mm 9.3.4.a
Incomplete
Aggregate IF not exceeds 25.4 mm 9.3.4.b
fusion (IF)
30.48 cm weld length
Individual CL not exceeds 50.8 mm 9.3.5.a
Cold lap (CL) Aggregate CL not exceeds 25.4 mm 9.3.5.b
30.48 cm weld length
The density of the concave area shall not exceed the
Internal density of the adjacent of the base metal and if the
9.3.6
concavity (IC) density is more the burn through acceptance limits
should be applied
Individual BT not exceeds 6.35 mm 9.3.7.a
Burn through
Aggregate BT not exceeds 12.7 mm 9.3.7.b
(BT)
30.48 cm weld length 9.3.7.c
Individual elongated SI shall not exceed 50.8 mm in
9.3.8.a
length and 1.6 mm in width
9.3.8.b
Slag inclusion Aggregate elongated SI shall not exceed 50.8 mm in
9.3.8.c
(SI) length in30.48 cm weld length
9.3.8.d
Individual isolated SI shall not exceed 12.7 mm in
9.3.8.e
length and 3.17 mm in width
Individual pore size shall not exceed 3.17 mm cluster
porosity longest diameter shall not exceed 12.7mm
Porosity (P) 9.3.9
And the individual cluster porosity pore diameter shall
not exceed 1.59 mm
Individual BT not exceeds 12.7mm
Hollow bead
Aggregate BT not exceeds 50.8 mm 9.3.9.4
(HB)
30.48 cm weld length
Only star cracks and crater cracks are permitted with
Cracks 9.3.10
length shall not exceed 3.96 mm
Undercut length shall not exceed 50.8 mm in 30.48 cm
Undercut (UC) 9.3.11
weld length

69
CHAPTER 3 CASE STUDY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

General Petroleum Company "GPC" indents to construct two new offshore platforms
at NAO and HH oil fields in about 22 m water depth in the Gulf of Suez. The oil production
from the two new offshore platforms shall be transported to the existing Amer-8 platform via
a new 4" subsea pipeline (8 km long) and an In-line Tee required for the subsea gathering of
the two platforms oil production.
Enppi Company role is to design the required pipeline data and select the required
pipeline components, which meets the line required properties (pressure, life time,
permissible residual forces, etc.). And PMS Company is the contractor for this pipeline, the
company use the pipeline data from the designer company then use it to construct the
pipeline. Many factors must be considered during the construction process.
During this chapter we will pass through construction processes and considerations
which must be taken among the process.

3.2 PROJECT SCOPE

The main scope of the project is to construct a new pipeline between NAO and HH oil
fields about 8 km long in about 22m water depth in the Gulf of Suez. Construction process
passes through many stages starting with the material supply plan and the required pipeline
component according to the design data, the selecting the pipeline route take place as the
selected route effects directly the construction process. The following stage is select the
proper pipe laying method and the required pipeline production stages will be needed. At the
end and before starting the constructing process the contractor must prepare a WPS which
describes the welding specification required for the pipeline, the PQR for the selected WPS to
ensure the quality of this welding which let them decide to start the construction process or
make an new WPS. Each of this stages will be described later in this chapter.

70
3.3 PIPELINE DATA

As mentioned before the following data are produced by the designer company Ennpi.

Table 3-1 Pipeline data

Type Offshore
Media Oil
Pipeline length 7.662 Km
Outside Diameter 4" (O.D 101mm)
Steel Grade API 5L-X52
Wall Thickness (6 mm)
Anti-Corrosion Coating Type Polyethylene
Anti-Corrosion Coating 3.0 mm
Thickness
Anti-Corrosion Coating Density 950 kg/m3
Concrete Coating Thickness 40 mm
Concrete Coating Density 2880 kg/m3
Max. water depth 24 m
Design life 20 years
Design pressure 42 bar
Design temperature 70 °c
Product density 673 to 961 kg/m3
Sea water density 1028 kg/m3

3.4 PIPELINE COMPONENTS

Table 3-2 Pipes data

Pipe
Material Carbon steel API 5l X52,PSL2 seamless
Outside diameter 101 mm
Material strength factor 0.96
Maximum fabrication factor 1.0
Wall thickness fabrication tolerance -/+ 0.125t
Pipe out of roundness 0.015 D

71
Table 3-3 4” pipeline pulling head
4"PIPELINE pulling heads
Item description QTY
Head pipe 4" x 6mm thickness 1
Main plate Steel grade 36 1
Cheek plate Steel grade 36 2
Split plate Steel plate thick. 20 mm grade 36 Trimmed at 45° 2
Ball valve 2" ball valve 2
Flange ANSI B16.5 ,ASTM A694 F52 , 4" 600 # RTJ , weld neck 1
Protection half pipe protection W.TH=4 mm -
Pig 1 contingency pig 1
Padeye Lifting Padeye fit to shackle 4.75 ton G-2130 2
Stopper welded 2" plug 1
Gasket Gaskets oval ring type, Soft Iron, 4"/R45 1

Figure 3-1 Pulling head

72
3.5 ROUTE SELECTION AND SOIL PREPARATION

Planning and designing are the first things to do before installing offshore pipeline
system. Before the pipeline design is made, a series of surveys is done to determine the best
plan (the safest, the cheapest, and the most environmental friendly) for the pipeline project.
One aspect of planning that impacts a pipeline project from beginning to end, is its route
selection. In the planning stage, there is one key component that all pipeline projects have in
common-how the initial routing of the pipeline will affect the eventual interface of all
activities required for the project.

Table 3-4 Selected route KP’s

Kp’s Water depth (m) Soil type

0.00 0.903 22.1-23.8 Medium to coarse sand
0.903 1.848 23.8-23.5 Calcareous marine plantation
1.848 5.027 22.6-23.6 Medium to coarse sand
5.027 5.421 23.5-22.6 Calcareous marine plantation
5.421 6.275 22.7-23.3 Medium to coarse sand
6.275 7.662 21.8-22.3 Calcareous marine plantation

Stability requirements is to resting on seabed with 40 mm concrete coating of

2880kg /m3 density.

3.6 PIPELINE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

Pipeline construction involves two procedures: assembling a large number of pipe

segments into a full line, and installing that line along the desired route called laying.

3.6.1 Assembly

3.6.1.1 Pipeline supply

The required pipes type are being supplied to the pipe-laying ships by a material
suppling ship.

3.6.1.2 Transfer to the welding tower

The pipe sections are placed in the middle of the platform and using grippers and
rollers raised up to the welding tower.

73
3.6.1.3 Process layout

Welding and fabricated through a horizontal station.

3.6.1.4 1st Station “Alignment”

The pipes are first aligned together with internal clamps

3.6.1.5 2nd station “Welding”

The pipes are welded goes through several welding stations

1) 1st welding station: root welding
2) 2nd welding station: hot pass
3) 3rd welding station: filling pass
4) 4th welding station: cap pass

3.6.1.6 3rd station “Quality control”

Each welded joint is individually tested by nondestructive techniques (NDT) and

verified by inspectors using advanced quality control techniques before being certified to be
fit for subsequent finishing processes.

3.6.1.7 4th station “Joint coating”

During this finishing procedure, the exposed welded joints are coated with external
anti-corrosion protection in the form of Fusion Bonded Epoxy (FBE) and three-layer
polyethylene/polypropylene external pipe coating systems in alliance with international
coating companies.

74
3.6.2 Laying of the pipeline

According to our construction factors we are selecting the S-lay method (figure 3-1)
which the pipes continuously ‘feeding’ the jointed sections over the barge’s pipe lay stinger
in such a way that the pipeline forms an “S” shape from the barge’s exit point up to the
touchdown point on the seafloor.

Figure 3-2 S-lay method

3.6.3 Pipeline hydrostatic testing

Pipeline is designed to operate at a certain maximum operating pressure (MOP), it

must be tested to ensure that it is structurally sound and can withstand the internal pressure
before being put into service. Generally, pipelines are hydro-tested by filling the test section
of pipe with water and pumping the pressure up to a value that is higher than maximum
allowable operating pressure (MAOP) and holding the pressure for a period of four to eight
hours.

75
3.7 SELECTED PIPELINE WPS

Figure 3-3 Selected WPS

76
3.7.1 Applying the selected WPS to a sample of the pipeline

The previous WPS prevent all welding parameters starting from the pipe pre wilding
preparation. Then the welding process followed by its all required data. A sample 4” pipe are
welded according the previous WPS. This sample will be tested to ensure the quality of the
selected WPS.

1) Pipe preparation

Figure 3-4 V-butt pipe preparation

2) Root gab and tack weld

Figure 3-5 Tack welded sample pipe

77
 3) Pipe welding

Figure 3-6 Sample pipe welding process

3.8 PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION RECORD (PQR)

The procedure qualification record (PQR) take place after preparing the welding
sample of the 4” pipe. According to the API 1104 standard the sample which we want to test
must pass through two stages.

3.8.1 NDT stage

3.8.1.1 Visual inspection

Figure 3-7 Visual inspection report

78
3.8.1.2 Radiographic Inspection

Figure 3-8 Radiographic Films of the welded pipe

79
3.8.2 Destructive testing

After the sample passes the Visual and the radiographic inspection, a destructive tests
take place. According to API 1104, for the 4” pipe we must do 2 tensile tests and two root
bend test.

Figure 3-9 position of each specimens for each test

80
3.8.2.1 Tensile test

The two test specimen passes as it breaks out the welding area (Base metal break).

Figure 3-10 Tensile specimens after the test

3.8.2.2 Root bend test

Figure 3-11 Root bend specimens after the test

81
3.8.2.3 Destructive test report

Figure 3-12 distractive test report

82
3.9 PIPELINE SAMPLE

After the sample passes the PQR. The contractor could proceeds the construction
process.
At the end of our case study we made a small prototype simulating a part of the
previous pipeline. In order to complete our case study.

Figure 3-13 Prototype Simulating Pipeline

83
Figure 3-14 Exploded View for the prototype

84
REFERENCES

[1] PIPING HANDBOOK Mohinder L. Nayyar, P.E. ASME Fellow Seventh Edition.

[2] Piping/Mechanical Handbook 1996:Rev.2.

[3] MILLER Pipe welding handbook M-247 250B 2012−07.

[4] WELDING PRESSURE PIPELINES & PIPING SYSTEMS Procedures and

Techniques by LINCOLN ELECTRIC.

[5] API (American Petroleum Institute), 2005, Welding Pipeline and Related Facilities,
20th edition, API STANDARD 1104, American Petroleum Institute.

[6] API, 2000, Specification for the Line Pipe, 47th ed., API Spec. 5L, American
Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C.

[7] PIPELINE ENGINEERING, Henry Liu, Boca Raton London New York Washington,
D.C.

[8] Pipe welding, Egyptian Welding Academy Paper, Document NO. 001W/2004 PP.

[9] ASME B31.3-2008 (Revision of ASME B31.3-2006).

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