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SMART MATERIALS
2015 SCHEME VTU CBCS SYLLABUS
SMART MATERIALS and MEMS
(15ME745)
PREPARED BY:
MR. AMARESH KUMAR DHADANGE

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING,
SRI VENKATESHWARA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,
VIDYANAGAR CROSS, YALAHANKA AIRFORCE STATION ROAD,
BENGALURU-562157
CONTACT:+91- 974236647
Prepared by-Amaresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., MED

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Question Papers, Prev Sem Results and More Page 1
SMART MATERIALS
2015 SCHEME VTU CBCS SYLLABUS

SMART MATERIALS and MEMS
Syllabus
Assessment Exam
Course Code Credits L-T-P
SEE CIA Duration
Smart Materials and MEMS 15ME745 03 3-0-0 60 40 3Hrs
Course Objective:
This course provides a detailed overview to smart materials, piezoelectric

materials structures and its characteristics.
The study of Smart structures and modelling helps in Vibration control using
smart materials in various applications.
Helps to understand the principles and concepts of using MEMS, ER & MR

Fluids for various applications.
MODULE 1: Introduction, Memory Alloys
(Refer Text book: Smart structures, A V Srinivasan)Chapter No.:1, 2, 3
Unit1: Introduction: Closed loop and Open loop Smart Structures.

Applications of Smart structures, piezoelectric properties. Inchworm Linear
motor, Shape memory alloys, Shape memory effect-Application, Processing and
characteristics. 5hrs
Unit 2: Shape Memory Alloys: Shape Memory Alloys: Introduction,

Phenomenology, and Influence of stress on characteristic temperatures,
modelling of shape memory effect. Vibration control through shape memory
alloys. Design considerations, multiplexing embedded NiTiNOL actuators. –
5hrs
MODULE -2: Electro rheological and Magneto rheological Fluids, Fibre

Optics
(Refer Text book: Smart structures, A V Srinivasan) Chapter No.:4, 7
Unit-3 Electro rheological and Magneto rheological Fluids: Mechanisms

and Properties, Characteristics, Fluid composition and behaviour, Discovery

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and Early developments, Summary of material properties. Applications of ER
and MR fluids (Clutches, Dampers, others). – 5hrs
Unit-4 Fibre Optics: Introduction, Physical Phenomenon, Characteristics,

Fibre optic strain sensors, Twisted and Braided Fibre Optic sensors, Optical
fibres as load bearing elements, Crack detection applications, Integration of
Fibre optic sensors and shape memory elements. – 5hrs
MODULE-3: Vibration Absorbers, Biomimetics
(Refer Text book: Smart structures, A V Srinivasan) Chapter No.:5, 8, 9
Unit 5: Vibration Absorbers: Introduction, Parallel Damped Vibration

Absorber, Analysis, Gyroscopic Vibration absorbers, analysis & experimental
set up and observations, Active Vibration absorbers. Control of Structures:
Introduction, Structures as control plants, Modelling structures for control,
Control strategies and Limitations. – 6hrs
Unit 6: Biomimetics: Characteristics of Natural structures. Fibre reinforced:

organic matrix natural composites, Natural creamers, Mollusks. Biomimetic
sensing, Challenges and oppurtunities. – 5hrs
MODULE -4: MEMS, Piezoelectric Sensing and Actuation
Unit7: MEMS: History of MEMS, Intrinsic Characteristics, Devices: Sensors

and Actuators. Microfabrication: Photolithography, Thermal oxidation, thin
film deposition, etching types, Doping, Dicing, Bonding. Microelectronics
fabrication process flow, Silicon based Process selection and design. – 5hrs
Unit 8: Piezoelectric Sensing and Actuation: Introduction, Cantilever

Piezoelectric actuator model, Properties of Piezoelectric materials, Applications.
Magnetic Actuation: Concepts and Principles, Magnetization and
Nomenclatures, Fabrication and case studies, Comparison of major sensing
and actuation methods. – 5hrs
MODULE-5: Polymer MEMS & Micro fluidics, Case Studies
Unit 9: Polymer MEMS & Micro fluidics: Introduction, Polymers in MEMS

(Polyimide, SU-8, LCP, PDMS, PMMA, Parylene, Others) Applications
(Acceleration, Pressure, Flow, Tactile sensors). Motivation for micro fluidics,
Biological Concepts, Design and Fabrication of Selective components. Channels
and Valves. – 6hrs
Unit 10: Case Studies: MEMS Magnetic actuators, BP sensors, Microphone,

Acceleration sensors, Gyro, MEMS Product development: Performance,

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Accuracy, Repeatability, Reliability, Managing cost, Market uncertainties,
Investment and competition. – 5hrs
TEXT BOOKS:
1. “Smart Structures –Analysis and Design”, A. V. Srinivasan, Cambridge

University Press, New York, 2001, (ISBN: 0521650267).
2. “Smart Materials and Structures”, M. V. Gandhi and B.S.Thompson
Chapmen & Hall, London, 1992 (ISBN:0412370107)
3. “Foundation of MEMS, by Chang Liu. Pearson Education.
(ISBN:9788131764756)
COURSE OUTCOMES:
CO 1: Describe the methods of controlling vibration using smart systems and

fabrication methods of MEMS.
CO 2: Explain the principle concepts of Smart materials, structures, Fibre

optics, ER & MR Fluids.
CO 3: Explain the principle concepts of vibration controller, Biomimetics
CO 4: Analyze the properties of smart structures, MEMS, with the applications

and select suitable procedure for fabrication.
CO 5: Summarize the methods and uses of Micro fabrications, Biomimetics,

types of polymers used in MEMS, Fibre optics, piezoelectric sensing and
actuation.
Kx Blooms Knowledge Level (K1, K2, K3, K4, K5, K6)
Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, Evaluation

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MODULE 1:
Introduction, Memory Alloys
Introduction: Closed loop and Open loop Smart Structures. Applications of
Smart structures, piezoelectric properties. Inchworm Linear motor, Shape
memory alloys, Shape memory effect- Application, Processing and
characteristics. – 5hrs
Shape Memory Alloys: Introduction, Phenomenology, and Influence of stress

on characteristic temperatures, modelling of shape memory effect. Vibration
control through shape memory alloys. Design considerations, multiplexing
embedded NiTiNOL actuators. – 5hrs
PREFACE:
Smart structures or smart materials systems are those which incorporate
actuators and sensors that highly integrate into the structures and have
structural functionality, as well as highly integrated control logic, signal
conditioning, and signal power amplification electronics. Such actuating,
sensing and controlling are incorporated into a structure for the purpose of
influencing its states or characteristics, be they mechanical, thermal, optical,
chemical, electrical, or magnetic. For example, a mechanically smart structure
is capable of altering either its mechanical states (its position or velocity) or its
mechanical characteristics (its stiffness or damping). Optically smart
structures could, for example, change colour to match its background.
In the following decades, it is expected that there will be widespread application
of the technology under development, in its current and evolutionary forms.
The breath of application of this technology is expected not only towards high-
tech but also towards civilian fields.
THE NEEDS
The demand for new generations of industrial, military, commercial, medical,
automotive and aerospace products has fuelled research and development

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activities focused on advanced materials and smart structures. This situation
has been further stimulated by the intellectual curiosity of humankind in
synthesising new classes of bio-mimetic materials. And, of course, global
competition among the principal industrial nations has also been a parameter
in the equation governing the rate of technological progress. A fundamental
axiom of this field of advanced materials is that the ultimate materials are the
biological materials which replicate such characteristics and properties in
synthetic materials and which can be employed in diverse scientific and
technological applications. Thus, by integrating the knowledge bases
associated with the mega-technologies of advanced materials, information
technology and biotechnology, the creation of a new generation of Biomimetics
materials and structures can be facilitated, with inherent brains, nervous
systems and actuation systems –this is at present a mere skeleton compared
with the anatomy perceived in the not-too-distant future. This quantum jump
in materials technology will revolutionise the future in ways far more dramatic
than the way the electronic chip has impacted on our lifestyles.
These new materials are termed Smart Materials or Intelligent Materials and
they will typically feature fibrous polymeric composite materials, embedded
with powerful computer chips of gallium arsenic which will be interfaced with
both embedded sensors and embedded actuators by networks of embedded
optical-fibre wave-guides, through which large volumes of data will be
transmitted at high speeds.

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Today‟s material revolution is the cornerstone of the triumvirate of mega
technologies, which comprise the essential, integrates of this embryonic field.
These technologies will have a mutually symbiotic relationship and will
significantly impact on one another resulting in synergistic technological
advances which cannot be foreseen today. However, a natural consequence of
advancing on these technological disciplines will be the impending revolution in
smart materials and structures.
The classes of smart materials and intelligent structures are diverse and the
applications of them are largely unknown. However, what is known is that this
new generation of materials will certainly revolutionise our quality of life as
dramatically as the state-of-art materials did in the past, with stone
implements triggering the Stone Age, alloys of copper and tin triggering the
Bronze Age, and the smelting of iron ore triggering the Iron Age. The time-line
of humankind is located at the dawn of a new age, The Smart Materials Age.
History of Smart Materials

The first recorded observation of smart material transformation was
made in 1932 on Gold-Cadmium. In addition, in 1938 the Phase
Transformation was observed in Brass (Copper Zinc). It was not until 1962,
however, that Beehler and co-workers found the transformation and attendant
shape memory effect in Nickel-Titanium at the Naval Ordinance Laboratory.
They named this family of alloy NiTiNOL after their lab. A few years after the
discovery of NiTiNOL, a number of other alloy systems with the shape memory
effect were found. A number of companies began to provide Ni-Ti materials and
components, and an increasing number of products, especially medical
products, were developed to market.
Smart materials, similar to living beings, have the ability to perform both
sensing and actuating functions and are capable of adapting to changes in the
environment. In other words, smart materials can change themselves in
response to an outside stimulus (e.g. Stress, Pressure, Temperature Change,
Magnetic Field, etc.) or respond to the stimulus by producing a signal of some
kind. Hence, smart materials can be used as “sensors”, “actuators” or in some

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cases as “self-sensing actuators” or “senoric actuators” in general. Smart or
intelligent materials form a group of new and state of the art materials now
being developed that will have a significant influence on many of our
technologies.
The adjective “Smart implies that these materials are able to sense
changes in their environments and then respond to these changes in
predetermined manners--behavior that are also found in living organisms. In
addition, the concept of smart materials is being extended to rather
sophisticated systems that consist of both smart and traditional materials. The
field of smart materials attempts to combine the sensor (that detects an input
signal), actuator (that performs a responsive and adaptive function) and the
control circuit on as one integrated unit. Actuators may be called upon to
Change Shape, Position, Natural Frequency, or Mechanical Characteristics in
response to changes in Temperature, Electric Fields, and/or Magnetic fields.
Fig: Integrated Sensor-Actuator systems with controller are analogous to

biological systems.
Overview of Smart Materials
Smart Materials are materials capable of controllable response to their
environment. Smart Materials can be used as 'Actuators," "Sensors", or in some
cases as Self-Sensing Actuators. These materials present new and exciting
design opportunities leading to innovations and improved performance.
TYPES OF SMART MATERIAL

There are a number of types of smart material, some of which are already
common. Some examples are as following:
a) Piezoelectric Materials
b) Electrostrictive Materials
c) Magnetostrictive Materials
d) Magneto Electric Materials
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e) Magneto Rheological
f) Fluids Electro Rheological Fluids
g) Shape Memory Materials
h) Fiber-Optic Sensors
a) PIEZOELECTRIC MATERIALS: These materials that produce a voltage

when stress is applied. Since this effect also applies in the reverse manner, a
voltage across the sample will produce stress within the sample. Suitably
designed structures made from these materials can therefore be made that
bend, expand or contract when a voltage is applied.
b) SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS: Shape memory polymers are Thermo responsive

materials where deformation can be induced and recovered through
temperature changes.
c) MAGNETIC SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS: are materials that change their
shape in response to a significant change in the magnetic field.
d) PH-SENSITIVE POLYMERS: These materials which swell/collapse when the
pH of the surrounding media changes.
e) TEMPERATURE-RESPONSIVE POLYMERS: These materials which undergo
changes upon temperature.
f) HALOCHROMIC MATERIALS: commonly materials that change their colour

as a result of changing acidity. One suggested application is for paints that
can change colour to indicate corrosion in the metal underneath them.
g) CHROMOGENIC SYSTEMS: Change colour in response to electrical, optical
or thermal changes. These include electrochromic materials, which change
their colour or opacity on the application of a voltage (e.g. liquid crystal

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displays), thermochromic materials change in colour depending on their
temperature, and photo chromic materials, which change colour in response
to light - for example, light sensitive sunglasses that darken when exposed to
bright sunlight.
h) NON-NEWTONIAN FLUID: It a liquid which changes its viscosity in response
to an applied shear rate. In other words the liquid will change its viscosity in
response to some sort of force or pressure.
SMART STRUCTURES
A smart structure has the capability to respond to a changing external

environment such as loads and shape change as well as to a changing internal
environment (such as damage or failure). Smart structure consists of a
structure provided with a set of actuators and sensors coupled by a controller;
if the bandwidth of the controller includes some vibration modes of the
structure, its dynamic response must be considered. If the set of actuators and
sensors are located at discrete points of the structure, they can be treated
separately.

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The distinctive feature of smart structures is that the actuators and
sensors are often distributed and have a high degree of integration inside the
structure, which makes a separate modeling impossible.
Smart structures are a new emerging materials system which combines

contemporary materials science with information science. The smart system is
composed of sensing, processing, actuating, feedback, self-diagnosing and self-
recovering subsystems Moreover, in some applications like vibroacoustics, the
behavior of the structure itself is highly coupled with the surrounding medium;
this also requires a coupled modeling. A Smart Structure is that which has the
ability to respond adaptively in a pre-designed useful and efficient manner to
changes in environmental conditions and changes in its own condition.
TYPES OF SMART STRUCTURES
Smart Structures Can Distinguished by two types:
1. Closed Loop Smart Structures
2. Open Loop Smart Structures
CLOSED LOOP SMART STRUCTURES
A closed-loop smart structure senses the changes to diagnose the nature of

the problem, takes action to mitigate the problem, and also stores the data of
the episode for future reference.
OPEN LOOP SMART STRUCTURES
An Open Loop smart structure means that the design is such that
structural integrity is enhanced only when needed, and the structure relapses
to its normal state when there is no need for enhanced integrity
Smart structures are on an evolutionary path, in the following sequence:
 Actively smart structures

 Very smart structures
 Intelligent structures Wise structures (moral and ethical decisions).
 Awareness in smart structures.
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 Collective consciousness
 Man-machine integration.
POTENTIAL FEASIBILITY (Possibility) OF SMART STRUCTURES
Potential Feasibility in Smart structures has features intermediate between

those of smart materials and smart systems. Actively smart structures not only
have a sensor feature and an actuator feature, but, unlike passively smart
materials, they also involve external biasing or feedback
One can make a distinction between smart structures and intelligent

structures, reserving the latter term only for applications incorporating
cognitive capabilities and adaptive learning in the design, generally entailing
the use of fast, real-time, information processing with neural networks.
POTENTIAL FEASIBLITTY IN SMART STRUCTURES
a) Improve vibration
b) Reduce acoustic noise
c) Monitor their own condition and environment
d) Automatically perform precision alignments
e) Change their shape or mechanical properties on command
f) Develop a base technology to build smart rotorcraft to actively control
External/internal noise
Rotor-induced vibration
Transmission-induced noise & vibration
Aeromechanical stability
Performance and flight stability
g) Refine key technology elements of smart structures for rotorcraft
environment, actuators, sensors (MEMS, fiber optics), controllers and
power conditioning
The design and implementation of smart structures necessitate the

integration

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a) Smart sensors and actuators,
b) Microelectronics
c) Structural modelling and design
d) Intelligent control techniques
e) Reflectivity and Emissivity of Light, Sound, and Heat
f) Control Material Properties
g) Stiffness, Shape, Damping, Thermal Properties
h) Reduce Fatigue & Extended Lifetime
i) Monitor and Adapt to operating Condition
KEY ELEMENTS OF SMART STRUCTURES
The Main Key Elements in Smart Structures is
a) Fiber optic sensor based system to detect and control stress in smart
structures.
b) Active vibration and noise control.
c) Piezoelectric sensors and actuators.
d) Modification of the parametric stability signature.
e) Sensors
f) Actuators
g) Control Systems
SENSORS
A sensor is an essential requirement for a smart structure. In biological

systems, the sensor output can be of various types, but in man-made
structures the most convenient sensor output is an electrical signal. Thus a

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sensor is usually a transducer involving a specific transduction principle for
transforming a particular form of energy input into an electrical signal.
Smart Sensors: Accelerometers; Force Sensors; Load Cells; Torque Sensors;

Pressure Sensors; Microphones; Impact Hammers; MEMS Sensors; Sensor
Arrays
ACTUATORS
Like sensors, actuators are also an essential component of most of the

conceivable smart structures. An actuator creates controllable mechanical
motion from other forms of energy. Micro actuators offer special advantages,
but they should be, by and large, compatible with the materials and processing
technologies of silicon microelectronics. They should be capable of being
powered and controlled electrically, thus allowing full utilisation of integration
with on-chip electronics. There are two types of micro actuators: „mechanisms‟
which provide displacement through rigid-body motion; and „deformable
microstructures‟ which provide displacement by mechanical deformation or
straining.
Smart Actuators: Displacement Actuators; Force Actuators; Power Actuators;

Vibration Dampers; Shakers; Fluidic Pumps; Motors
SMART TRANSDUCERS:
Ultrasonic Transducers; Sonic Transducers; Air Transducers Measurement,
Signal Processing, Drive and Control Techniques
Quasi-Static and Dynamic Measurement Methods; Signal-Conditioning
Devices; Constant Voltage, Constant Current and Pulse Drive Methods;
Calibration Methods; Structural Dynamics and Identification Techniques;
Passive, Semi-Active and Active Control; Feedback and Feed forward Control
Strategies.

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APPLICATIONS OF SMART STRUCTURES
Smart structures Mainly Applied in the Field of
a) Electrical Engineering
b) Mechanical Engineering
c) Aerospace Engineering
d) Civil Engineering
e) Engineering Mechanics
Some of the other Applications are
a) Fast response valves

b) High-power-density hydraulic pumps
c) Active bearings for reduction of machinery noise
d) Footwear
e) Sports equipment
f) Precision machining
g) Vibration and acoustic sensors
h) Dampers
i) Carbon Fibre Reinforced Concrete
j) Smart Concrete
PIEZOELECTRIC MATERIALS
The piezoelectric effect was discovered in 1880 by the Jacques and Pierre
Curie brothers. They found out that when a mechanical stress was applied on
crystals such as tourmaline, tourmaline, topaz, quartz, Rochelle salt and cane
sugar, electrical charges appeared, and this voltage was proportional to the
stress. First applications were piezoelectric ultrasonic transducers and soon
swinging quartz for standards of frequency (quartz clocks). An everyday life
application example is your car's airbag sensor. The material detects the
intensity of the shock and sends an electrical signal which triggers the airbag.

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The Piezoelectric Effect
In physics, the piezoelectric effect can be described as the link between

electrostatics and mechanics. The piezoelectric effect describes the relation
between a mechanical stress and an electrical voltage in solids. It is reversible:
an applied mechanical stress will generate a voltage and an applied voltage will
change the shape of the solid by a small amount (up to a 4% change in
volume). Piezoelectricity is the ability of some materials (notably crystals and
certain ceramics) to generate an electric charge in response to applied
mechanical stress.
If the material is not short-circuited, the applied charge induces a voltage

across the material. The piezoelectric effect is reversible, that is, the
piezomaterials exhibit. The direct piezoelectric effect – the production of
electricity when stress is applied.
The converse piezoelectric effect – the production of stress and/or strain when
an electric field is applied. (For example, lead zirconate titanate crystals will
exhibit a maximum shape change of about 0.1% of the original dimension.)
Simple molecular model for explaining the piezoelectric effect
Figure shows Simple molecular model for explaining the piezoelectric effect:
an unperturbed molecule [left], the molecule subjected to an external force
[middle], a polarizing effect on the material surfaces [right].

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 Before subjecting the material to some external stress: the centres of the
negative and positive charges of each molecule coincide, the external
effects of the charges are reciprocally cancelled, as a result, an
electrically neutral molecule appears.
 After exerting some pressure on the material: the internal structure is
deformed, that causes the separation of the positive and negative centers
of the molecules, as a result, little dipoles are generated.
 Eventually: the facing poles inside the material are mutually cancelled, a
distribution of a linked charge appears in the material‟s surfaces and the
material is polarized, the polarization generates an electric field and can
be used to transform the mechanical energy of the material‟s
deformation into electrical energy.
Piezoelectric Materials
The piezoelectric effect occurs only in non conductive materials.
Piezoelectric materials can be divided in 2 main groups: crystals and ceramics.
The most well-known piezoelectric material is quartz (SiO2).
Piezoelectric materials strain when an electric field is applied across them.

Also, they produce voltage under strain. The first property makes them suitable
as actuators to control structural response, where as second property makes
them suitable as sensors. Thus, Piezoelectrics have the property to transform
mechanical energy to electrical energy and vice-versa.

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Typically, the electrical dynamics of the piezoelectric are ignored when they
are used as sensors. Piezoelectric materials can be crystals and ceramics and
they are brittle. Piezoelectric sensors are generally made of polymers such as
poly vinylidene fluoride, PVDF. It can be easily formed in to very thin sheets
(films) and adhered to any surface.
More Piezoelectric Materials
Here is a list of other piezoelectric materials:
 Lithium tantalate
 Polyvinylidene fluoride
 Lanthanum gallium silicate
 Potassium sodium tartrate
Piezoelectric constitutive relations
The piezoelectric material is assumed to be linear. The actuation strain is

modelled like thermal strain. Piezoceramics can be assumed as orthotropic
material like composite unidirectional laminate. The constitutive relations are
based on the assumption that the total strain in the actuator is the sum of the
mechanical strain induced by the stress, the thermal strain due to temperature
and the controllable actuation strain due to the electric voltage. The X3 axis is
assigned to the direction of the initial polarization of the piezoceramics, and X1
and X2 axes lie in plane perpendicular to X3 axis.
Coupled electromechanical constitutive relations are:

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Where, lb/in2
σ = stress vector, N/mm2 or lb/in2
є = strain vector
e= vector of piezoelectric coefficients, N/V-mm
d= vector of piezoelectric strain coefficients, mm/V
C= vector of stiffness coefficients, N/mm2
S= vector of compliance coefficients, mm2/N
A= vector of thermo elastic coefficients, N/mm2K
α = vector of thermal coefficients of expansion, l/K
ΔT= temperature change, K
In a plane perpendicular to the piezo-polarization, it has isotropic

properties, i.e., transversely isotropic material in the plane 1-2. For orthotropic
material, there is no temperature shear strain. However, there is a shear strain
induced due to electric field E1 and E2. It is possible to introduce modified
coefficients to combine thermal and induced strain.
DEPOLING AND COERCIVE FIELD
Depoling and coercive field (a measure of a ferromagnetic or ferroelectric

material to withstand an external magnetic or electric field)
During the manufacture of a piezoceramics, a large (greater than

1KV/mm) field is applied across the ceramic to create polarization. This is
called coercive field. During subsequent testing, if a field greater than the
coercive field, Ec, is applied opposite to the polarization direction, the ceramic
will lose its piezoelectric properties- called Depoling. Again, Depoling is
possible. If applied field is aligned with the initial polarization direction, there is
no Depoling. A sufficiently high voltage can cause arching or a brittle fracture.
Depoling is also possible if the temperature exceeds Curie temperature or if a
large stress is applied.
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FIELD-STRAIN RELATION
A linear model fits well only for a small field. For large strain, a nonlinear
variation occurs and a cubic variation fits better.
Fig: Deformation of a cube of PZT subjected to a uniform electric field
During poling the material is subjected to a small electric field, the

dipoles in this process respond collectively to produce a macroscopic expansion
along the poling axis and contraction perpendicular to it.
The geometry and deformation of a simple cube of PZT, which has been
poled in the 3-direction and is subjected to and electric field in this direction, is
shown in above figure. The relationship between applied field strength and
resulting strain is quantified by the piezoelectric moduli dij, where i is the
direction of the electric field and j the direction of the resulting normal strain.
Therefore, for the above example
𝑉
33 = d33 𝑡 ……………(1)
𝑉
11 = d31 𝑡 …………….(2)
Where V is the voltage applied in the 3-direction and t the thickness of

the specimen, as shown in figure.
Once depoled the piezoelectric material loses the property of dimensional

response to an electric field.

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Hysteresis
Many physical systems naturally exhibit hysteresis. A piece of iron that
is brought into a magnetic field retains some magnetization, even after the
external magnetic field is removed. Once magnetized, the iron will stay
magnetized indefinitely. To demagnetize the iron, it would be necessary to
apply a magnetic field in the opposite direction. This effect is exploited
commercially; for example, it provides the element of memory in a hard disk
drive. Hysteresis phenomena occur in magnetic and ferromagnetic materials,
as well as in the elastic, electric, and magnetic behavior of materials, in which
a lag occurs between the application and the removal of a force or field and its
subsequent effect.
Electric hysteresis occurs when applying a varying electric field and

elastic hysteresis occurs in response to a varying force. The term "hysteresis" is
sometimes used in other fields, such as economics or biology; where it
describes a memory, or lagging effect, in which the order of previous events can
influence the order of subsequent events.
If the displacement of a system with hysteresis is plotted on a graph

against the applied force, the resulting curve is in the form of a loop. In
contrast, the curve for a system without hysteresis is a single, not necessarily
straight, line. Although the hysteresis loop depends on the material's physical
properties, there is no complete theoretical description that explains the
phenomenon. The family of hysteresis loops, from the results of different
applied varying voltages or forces, form a closed space in three dimensions,
called the hysteroid.

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CREEP AND STRAIN RATE EFFECTS
Creep only occurs with open loop PZTs. Like hysteresis, creep is related
to the effect of the applied voltage on the remains polarization of the piezo
ceramics. Creep decreases logarithmically with time. If the operating voltage of
a (open loop) Piezo is increased (decreased), the remnant polarization (piezo
gain) continues to increase (decrease), apparently itself in a slow creep (positive
or negative) after the voltage change is complete. The following equation
describes the effect:
L(t)  L(1+  lg (t/0.1)) …(1)
Creep of Piezo motion as a function of time.
Where,
L = displacement 0.1 seconds after the voltage change is complete [m].
 = creep factor which is dependent on the properties of the actuator (on the
order of 0.01 to 0.02).
Creep and the strain rate dependence of d*31 (piezoelectric strain

coefficient) are small but measurable which become more significant for
larger strains and lower frequencies. At low frequencies, the tendency of
piezoceramics to creep under prolonged application of electric fields. For
high frequencies, creep can be ignored. For low frequencies or static
applications creep must be accounted for. The degree of creep is reduced
when piezoceramics are elastically constrained.
piezoelectric strain coefficient VS frequency for piezo ceramics

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STRAIN RATE
Strain rate in piezoelectric materials is defined as the strain per unit time. The
time required to accumulate a given strain is expressed as the elongation per
time.
= /t= (L-Lo)/(Lot)
=change in length/ (original length) (time)
Where, L = final length
Lo =original length
T = time
Example:
Case 1: Loading a material fast (reducing load time) we get a stress versus
strain diagram.
Case 2: Loading the same material slow (increasing load time) and we get
another stress versus strain diagram.
 If the stress strain diagrams are different for case 1 and case 2 then the
material is strain rate sensitive.
 If the stress strain diagrams are the same for case 1 and case 2 then
the material is not strain rate sensitive. At room temperature steel is
regarded as not strain rate sensitive. Viscoelastic materials are strain
rate sensitive.
Strain rate sensitive means a material's stress versus strain

characteristics are dependent on the rate of loading.
INCHWORM LINEAR MOTOR
The inchworm motor is a device that uses piezoelectric actuators to move a

shaft with nanometer precision. In its simplest form, the inchworm motor uses
three piezo-actuators (2 and 3, as in Figure) mounted inside a tube (1) and
electrified in sequence to grip a shaft (4) which is then moved in a linear

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direction. Motion of the shaft is due to the extension of the lateral piezo (2)
pushing on two clutching piezos (3).
Inchworm motor
Operation
The actuation process of the inchworm motor is a six step cyclical process
after the initial relaxation and initialization phase. Initially, all three piezo are
relaxed and unexpended. To initialize the inchworm motor the clutching piezo
closest to the direction of desired motion (which then becomes the forward
clutch piezo) is electrified first then the six step cycle begins as follows (see
Figure 2 ):
Step 1. Extension of the lateral piezo.
Step 2. Extension of the shaft clutch piezo.
Step 3. Relaxation of the forward clutch piezo.
Step 4. Relaxation of the lateral piezo.
Step 5. Extension of the forward clutch piezo.
Step 6. Relaxation of the shaft clutch piezo.

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six steps working of a Inchworm linear motor
Uses of Inchworm motor
The inchworm motor is commonly used in scanning tunnelling

microscopes (STM's). An STM requires nanometer scale control of its scanning
tip near the material it is observing. This control can be accomplished by
connecting the scanning tip to the shaft of the inchworm motor. The inchworm
motor, in turn, allows control in a direction normal to the plane of the observed
material's surface.
The inchworm motor can be used in the patch clamping of cells. This
technique is most often performed with an optical microscope and requires
micro-manipulation of a glass pipette.
SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS:

A BRIEF HISTORY
The discovery of martensite in steels in the 1890s by Adolf Martens was a
major step toward the eventual discovery of shape memory alloys. The
martensitic transformation was perhaps the most widely studied metallurgical
phenomenon during the early 1900s. The martensitic transformation, as

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observed in the Fe-C system, was established as an irreversible process. The
concept of thermo elastic
Martensitic transformation, which explained the reversible transformation of
martensite, was introduced in 1949 by Kurdjumov and Khandros, based on
experimental observations of the thermally reversible martensitic structure in
CuZn and CuAl alloys. By 1953, the occurrence of thermo elastic martensitic
transformation was demonstrated in other alloys such as InTl and CuZn. The
reversible martensitic transformation and the alloys that exhibited them
remained unutilized until 1963. The breakthrough for engineering applications
occurred with the discovery of NiTi by Buehler and co-workers while
investigating materials useful for heat shielding. It was noticed that in addition
to its good mechanical properties, comparable to some common engineering
metals, the material also possessed a shape recovery capability. Following this
observation, the term “NiTiNOL” was coined for this NiTi material in honour of
its discovery at the Naval Ordnance Laboratory (NOL). The term Shape Memory
Effect (SME) was given to the associated shape recovery behavior.
Definition of Shape Memory Alloy:

Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs) refer to a group of materials which have the
ability to return to a predetermined shape when heated. The shape memory
effect is caused by a temperature dependent crystal structure.
SHAPE MEMORY EFFECT

The shape memory effect is caused by a temperature dependent crystal
structure.
• There are two common shape memory effects - One Way and Two Way effects.
• In the case of One Way effect, the material always remembers the shape at
Parent State (Austenite Phase)
• In the case of Two Way effect, the material is trained to remember two
shapes, one at the Parent Austenite phase and the other at the Martensite
Phase.

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Where,
Ms= Martensite Start Temperature As= Austenite Start Temperature
Mf= Martensite Finish Temperature Af=Austenite Finish Temperature
Figure. Schematic representation of shape memory effect.

At point (1) the alloy is in the twinned martensitic phase; when load is applied
(1–2) the crystal configuration changes from twinned to detwinned, and the
deformation remains also when the load is removed (2–3). Increasing the
temperature results in a change into the austenitic phase, with a consequent
recovery of the original shape (3–4), this is maintained also when the alloy cools
down.
In austenite phase, the structure of the material is symmetrical; each “grain” of
material is a cube with right angles (a). When the alloy cools, it forms the
martensite phase and collapses to a structure with different shape (b). If an
external stress is applied, the alloy will yield and deform to an alternate state
(c). Now, if the alloy is heated again above the transformation temperature, the
austenite phase will be formed and the structure of the material returns to the
original “cubic” form (a), generating force/stress. The change in the SMA
crystalline structure is not thermodynamically reversible process due to
internal frictions and creation of structural defects. When heated, SMA follows
the upper curve, As is the temperature, where austenite phase starts to form
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and in Af the material is 100 % austenite. When the alloy cools, it follows the
lower curve: Ms is the temperature, where martensite starts to form and in Mf
the alloy is 100 % martensite.
SHAPE MEMORY EFFECT

1. One-Way Shape-Memory Effect:
The ability of SMA to recover a specific shape upon heating and does not
remember the alternate shape when cooled (below the transformation
temperature) is known as One-way shape memory effect
A shape memory element can be deformed in its martensitic state to almost
any “cold shape.” The basic restriction is that the deformations may not exceed
a certain limit, typically 8%. These apparent plastic deformations can be
recovered completely during heating when the reverse transformation occurs
and results in the original “hot shape.” This strain and shape recovery during
heating is called the one-way shape-memory effect because only the hot shape
is memorized (Fig.).
2. Two-Way Memory Effect (TWME):

The ability of SMA to recover a specific shape upon heating and then return to
an alternate shape when cooled (below the transformation temperature) is
known as two-way shape memory effect.

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The two-way memory effect involves memorization of two shapes. Figure 2

shows that a cold shape is obtained spontaneously during cooling. Different
from the one-way memory effect, no external forces are required to obtain the
“memorized” cold shape. During subsequent heating, the original hot shape is
restored. The maximum strains are in general substantially smaller than those
of the one way memory effect. A strain limit of about 2% has been mentioned,
although higher TWME strains have been found in specific cases. In 1972, Tas
proposed the term “two-way memory effect” (abbreviated to TWME) to refer to
this spontaneous, reversible shape change between a “hot” shape linked to the
parent phase and an acquired “cold” shape linked to the martensitic phase.
This spontaneous shape change was observed only after particular thermo
mechanical procedures.

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The Shape memory effect can be

 Thermal induced SME
The SMA is cooled from high temp Austenite phase to low temp Martensite
phase and it is deformed below Mf followed by heating above As to cause
shape recovery to occur this type of SME is called Thermoelastic SME
 Mechanical induced SME
The martensite phase transformation can also be induced by applying stress

at temperature above Ms. The material so formed is called stress induced
martensite(SIM) Driving forced is mechanical not thermal .It has been
experimentally established above the Ms The stress required to produce SIM
increases with increasing temperature.
PHASE TRANSFORMATION
Fig: Shows the Mechanism of Shape memory effect

 Original parent crystal,
 Self accommodated Martensite,
 (c-d) Deformation in Martensite proceeds by the growth of one variant at
the expense of other (i.e. Twinning or Detwinning)

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 (e) Upon heating to a temperature above Af,
Each variant reverts to the parent phase in the original orientation by reverse
transformation Crystallography, the martensite transformation occurs in two
steps (1) Bain Strain (2) Lattice invariant shear. The crystallography changes
that occur are shown in fig. The austenite structure is illustrated in (a) and
progression to fully martensite structure is illustrated in (b) through (d). It can
be noted that as the martensite interface progress from one atomic layer to
another, each atom is required to move by only a very small amount (less than
1inter atomic distance).The end results of all these small coordinated
movements in new martensite structure, and the movement needed to produce
the new structure called “Bain strain”. The second part of martensite
transformation is the “lattice invariant shear “. In this step, the shape and
volume change resulting from the Bain strain is accommodated to reduce the
strain and make martensite phase stable
The martensite transformation in steel involves both volume change and

shape change, whereas SMA, s undergoes only a Shape change. During
transformation the overall shape of the new phase or the surrounding
austenite must be altered to accommodate new structure. There are two
general mechanisms by which the accommodation takes place (1) Slip and (2)
Twinning. In both the cases each individual cell or parallelogram has the new
martensite structure, but overall shape is that of original austenite. Slip is a
permanent process and is common accommodation mechanisms in many
martensites. Twinning can accommodate shape changes in a recoverable way
but cannot accommodate volume changes. For Shape memory to occur the
shape accommodation should be fully reversible or in other ways Twinning
should be the dominant accommodation process.
TANAKA’S CONSTITUTIVE MODEL

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Consider an SMA wire subjected to an isothermal mechanical loading and

unloading. Assume the wire is in 100% Austenitic state and at a temperature
between Ms and As.
The stress state in a SMA component is function of 3 primary state variables.
They are ξ, the fraction of martensite. „T‟ the temperature at which the
component is operative. „&‟ the strain at which the component is functioning.
Therefore
    ,T ,  
  
   T 
 T 
Integrating w.r.t time from the initial condition  o T o  o
We can write a unified constitutive relation

   o  D[   o ]   [T  To ]  [   o ]
Where D= young‟s modulus, θ = Thermoelastic tensor,  = Transformation
tensor
An isothermal condition implies.
T T o    lin   o (Not fully austenite)
Assume zero initial strain.
 o =0 at t=0  o 0 T  T0   o
Under this condition if we load and unload we are going to be in the linear
region in which   D
 lin  D lin
 lin = The subscript linear represents the limit of linearity for the stress strain
relationship above which the stress strain relation will be non-linear because of

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non-zero martensite.
When    0 (i.e., the applied stress exceed  lin ) the excess stress induced
martensite and the constitutive relation becomes

   o  D[   o ]  [   o ]
With  0   lin  o  lin   0
   lin  D  D lin   Because  lin  D lin

Thus the governing equation for the constitutive modeling of the Shape Memory
effect is when EQN    lin
  D  
TESTING OF SMA WIRES

Stress–Strain Characteristics of SMA
Fig Stress strain curve of SMA
●Austenite
■ Martensite
The initial flat region is termed as “Martensite plateau”. Here the

martensite structure deforms by movement of Twin boundary which are quite
mobile .Hence the yield strength of martensite is extremely low compared to
austenite which deforms by slip. Only certain amount of martensite
deformation can be accommodated by detwinning and once this exceeds the
material again deforms elastically and eventually yield a second time by
irreversible process of dislocation movement (slip).

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The stress strain curve can be divided into three well defined regions in
martensite phase
 The initial low plateau is due to stress induced growth of martensite

variant at the expense of adjacent unfavorably oriented one (This process
is known as detwinning)
 At higher stresses there is second region which is linear but not
necessarily purely elastic The deformation mechanism in the stage is a
mixture of elastic deformation of detwinned martensite together with
formation of new orientation of martensite which intersect with that
which is already present and provide additional recoverable strain
 The third region is where plastic deformation as in case of yielding of all
conventional metal
APPLICATIONS OF SMART MATERIALS

Smart materials find a wide range of applications due to their varied response
to external stimuli. The different areas of application can be in our day to day
life, Aerospace, Civil Engineering applications and mechatronics to name a few.
a) Aircraft and spacecraft: variable area fan nozzle (VAFN), vibration
dampers for launch vehicles and commercial jet engines.
b) Automotive: control low pressure pneumatic bladders in a car seat that
adjust the contour of the lumbar support / bolsters.
c) Robotics: it possible to create very lightweight robots.
d) Civil Structures: application is Intelligent Reinforced Concrete (IRC),
which incorporates SMA wires embedded within the concrete. These
wires can sense cracks and contract to heal macro-sized cracks. Another
application is active tuning of structural natural frequency using SMA
wires to dampen vibrations.
e) Piping: oil line pipes for industrial applications, water pipes and similar
types of piping for consumer/commercial applications.
f) Telecommunication: autofocus (AF) actuator for a smart phone.
g) Medicine: fixation devices for osteotomies in orthopedic surgery,

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in dental braces to exert constant tooth-moving forces on the teeth.
h) Optometry: Eyeglass frames made from titanium-containing SMAs
i) Dentistry: The prevalence of dental braces using SMA technology to
exert constant tooth-moving forces on the teeth.
j) Engines: Experimental solid state heat engines, operating from the
relatively small temperature differences in cold and hot water reservoirs,
have been developed.
k) Crafts: Sold in small round lengths for use in affixment-free bracelets.
a) Characteristics OR properties of SMA

1. SMA is having ability to return to their original or present shape and
size on a simple temperature change.
2. They posses high damping capacity.
They have pseodoelasticity property.
3. They posses high tensile strength.
4. They are resistant to corrosion.
6. They posses re-orientation of temperature phase transformation.
7. They posses high ductility.
8. They posses good thermal stability.
SHAPE ALLOY TYPES
Since the discovery of Ni-Ti, at least fifteen different binary, ternary and
quaternary alloy types have been discovered that exhibit shape changes and
unusual elastic properties consequent to deformation. Some of these alloy
types and variants are shown in table
a) Titanium-palladium-nickel
b) Nickel-titanium-copper
c) Gold-cadmium
d) Iron-zinc-copper-aluminum
e) Titanium-niobium-aluminum
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f) Uranium-niobium
g) Hafnium-titanium-nickel
h) Iron-manganese-silicon
i) Nickel-titanium
j) Nickel-iron-zinc-aluminum
k) Copper-aluminum-iron
l) Titanium-niobium
m) Zirconium-copper-zinc
n) Nickel-zirconium-titanium
Phenomenology of Phase Transformation in Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs):

Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs), have two phases, each with a different
crystal structure and therefore different properties. One is the high
temperature phase called austenite (A) and the other is the low temperature
phase called martensite (M). Austenite (generally cubic) has a different crystal
structure from martensite (tetragonal, orthorhombic or monoclinic). The
transformation from one structure to the other does not occur by diffusion of
atoms, but rather by shear lattice distortion. Such a transformation is known
as martensitic transformation. Each martensitic crystal formed can have a
different orientation direction, called a variant. The assembly of martensitic
variants can exist in two forms: twinned martensite (Mt), which is formed by a
combination of “self-accommodated” martensitic variants, and detwinned or
reoriented martensite in which a specific variant is dominant (Md). The
reversible phase transformation from austenite (parent phase) to martensite
(product phase) and vice versa forms the basis for the unique behaviour of
SMAs.
Upon cooling in the absence of an applied load, the crystal structure

changes from austenite to martensite. The phase transition from austenite to
martensite is termed the forward transformation. The transformation results in
the formation of several martensitic variants, up to 24 for NiTi. The
arrangement of variants occurs such that the average macroscopic shape

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change is negligible, resulting in twinned martensite. When the material is
heated from the martensitic phase, the crystal structure transforms back to
austenite, and this transition is called reverse transformation, during which
there is no associated shape change
Fig: Temperature-induced phase transformation of an SMA without

mechanical loading.
A schematic of the crystal structures of twinned martensite and austenite for
an SMA and the transformation between them is shown in above Fig. There are
four characteristic temperatures associated with the phase transformation.
During the forward transformation, austenite, less than zero loads, begins to
transform to twinned martensite at the martensitic start temperature (Ms) and
completes transformation to martensite at the martensitic finish temperature
(Mf). At this stage, the transformation is complete and the material is fully in
the twinned martensitic phase. Similarly, during heating, the reverse
transformation initiates at the austenitic start temperature (As) and the
transformation is completed at the austenitic finish temperature (Af).
If a mechanical load is applied to the material in the twinned martensitic phase
(at low temperature), it is possible to detwin the martensite by reorienting a
certain number of variants (see Fig. below). The detwinning process results in a
macroscopic shape change, where the deformed configuration is retained when
the load is released.

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Fig: Schematic of the shape memory effect of an SMA showing the

detwinning of the material with an applied stress.
A subsequent heating of the SMA to a temperature above Af will result in a
reverse phase transformation (from detwinned martensite to austenite) and will
lead to complete shape recovery (see Fig. 1.5). Cooling back to a temperature
below Mf (forward transformation) leads to the formation of twinned martensite
again with no associated shape change observed.
The process described above is referred to as the Shape Memory Effect (SME).
The load applied must be sufficiently large to start the detwinning process. The
minimum stress required for detwinning initiation is termed the detwinning
start stress (σs). Sufficiently high load levels will result in complete detwinning
of martensite where the corresponding stress level is called the detwinning
finish stress (σf ).

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MODELLING OF SHAPE MEMORY EFFECT

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MODULE -2:
Electro rheological and Magneto rheological Fluids, Fibre Optics
(Refer Text book: Smart structures, A V Srinivasan) Chapter No.:4, 7
Electro rheological and Magneto rheological Fluids: Mechanisms and

Properties, Characteristics, Fluid composition and behaviour, Discovery and
Early developments, Summary of material properties. Applications of ER and
MR fluids (Clutches, Dampers, others). – 5hrs
Fibre Optics: Introduction, Physical Phenomenon, Characteristics, Fibre optic

strain sensors, Twisted and Braided Fibre Optic sensors, Optical fibres as load
bearing elements, Crack detection applications, Integration of Fibre optic
sensors and shape memory elements. – 5hrs
INTRODUCTION
In this topic we consider fluids whose properties change in response to an

applied electric or magnetic field. These are known as Electrorheological [ER]
and Magnetorheological [MR] fluids, respectively, because the most remarkable
filed-induced change is a tremendous increase in their ability to support shear
stress. Most engineering applications of ER and MR fluids exploit their
controllable yield stress to vary the coupling or load transfer between moving
parts, for example in dampers and clutches.
MAGNETORHEOLOGICAL (MR) FLUID

A Magnetorheological fluid (MR fluid) is a type of smart fluid in a carrier fluid,
usually a type of oil. When subjected to a magnetic field, the fluid greatly
increases its apparent viscosity, to the point of becoming a viscoelastic solid.
Importantly, the yield stress of the fluid when in its active ("on") state can be
controlled very accurately by varying the magnetic field intensity. The upshot of
which is that the fluid's ability to transmit force can be controlled with an
electromagnet, which gives rise to its many possible control-based applications.
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF MR FLUIDS

The magnetic particles, which are typically micrometer or nanometer scale
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spheres or ellipsoids, are suspended within the carrier oil are distributed
randomly and in suspension under normal circumstances, as below.
When a magnetic field is applied, however, the microscopic particles (usually in
the 0.1–10 μm range) align themselves along the lines of magnetic flux, see
below. When the fluid is contained between two poles (typically of separation
0.5–2 mm in the majority of devices), the resulting chains of particles restrict
the movement of the fluid, perpendicular to the direction of flux, effectively
increasing its viscosity. Importantly, mechanical properties of the fluid in its
“on” state are anisotropic. Thus in designing a Magnetorheological (or MR)
device, it is crucial to ensure that the lines of flux are perpendicular to the
direction of the motion to be restricted.
MECHANISMS AND PROPERTIES
The ER and MR effects are the result of the formation of structures within a
fluid in response to an electric or magnetic field. These structures, actually
aggregations of solid particles, dominate the flow of the fluid, and can prevent
flow entirely at lower stresses. In this section, we discuss these microscopic
phenomena and present basic models of the corresponding macroscale fluid
mechanics.
FLUID COMPOSITION AND BEHAVIOUR
Both ER and MR fluids are suspensions of particles in inert carrier liquids. The
particles, typically of the order of 1 to 10 µm in size, are added to fluids, such
as mineral oils or silicone oils, in weight fractions as large as 50%, with
fractions of around 30wt% being common. Most ER and MR fluids also contain
small amounts of additives that affect the polarization of the particles or
stabilize the structure of the suspension against settling, but for many
engineering purposes these may be neglected in modeling the fluids‟
mechanical response.

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In the absence of an external electric or magnetic field, and ER or MR fluid may
be characterized as Newtonian, i.e. as resisting shear strain γ with the shear
stress τ proportional to the product of the strain rate γ| and viscosity η :
τ = η γ| ------------------------ (Eqn. 1)
This response is represented by the line passing through the origin in Fig as
shown below, which shows shear stress as a function of strain rate.
This is widely acknowledged as an approximation – most ER and MR fluids are

non-Newtonian even when no field is applied because of their heavy loading of
solid particles and, to some extent, because of the additives they contain.
However in most applications the filed - induced component of the shear stress
is much larger than the η γ| term and equation 2.1 is an adequate model of
the rate-dependent part of the total shear stress.
The effect of an electric field E on an ER fluid, of a magnetic field H on an MR

fluid, is to cause the particles to form chains, or fibrils, in the direction of the
field. This process of fibration occurs in a few milliseconds after application of
the field .When there is no motion of the fluid or of the walls of its container,
the fibrils are static structures and span the gap between the walls if the
particle fraction is large enough.(This is one reason fluids with low particle
fractions exhibit weak ER and MR effects).In an MR fluid, the formation of
particle chains occurs when the magnetically polarizable particles move into
alignment with the applied filed and are then drawn together like magnets
whose opposite poles attract the adjacent particles in the chain. The formation
of fibrils in an ER fluid in response to an external electric field happens in a

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similar way, but the chemistry underlying the electrical polarization of the
particles has been the subject of much research attention.
It now appears that ER fluids are divisible into two classes depending on the
mechanism by which particle polarization and interaction occurs. One type of
ER fluid requires the presence of some amount of water in order to manifest an
Electrorheological response; other, anhydrous ER fluids contain no water, and
particle chain formation is thought to occur in them by a different mechanism
(Weiss, Carlson, and Coulter).For our purposes, it is unimportant to
distinguish which electrical polarization mechanism is at work in a given ER
fluid, but we note in passing that this contributes to the sensitivity of ER fluids
to water contamination
MR fluids differ from conventional “magnetic fluids”, which contain particles

of much smaller size, typically of the order of 10nm.The effect of Brownian
motion is greater at this scale, and prevents the particles from forming fibrils in
the presence of a magnetic field. The magnetic fluid instead experiences a body
force proportional to the magnetic field gradient, and may flow in response to
this force. This behavior is exploited, for example, in sealing applications;
however, here we are concerned only with the MR and ER effects exhibited by
fluids containing larger particles.
The ER and MR shear stress increases with increasing field strength, and is
typically proportional to the field strength raised to the power between 1 and
2.The upper limit on the induced shear stress occurs when an MR fluid
reaches magnetic saturation or when an ER fluid breaks down electrically,
typically at field strengths of around 250 A/mm or 4kV/mm, respectively.
Discovery and Early developments,

Currently, there is no universally accepted theory for the causes of the MR
effect. However, it is generally agreed that the change in properties is due to
the realignment of particles in the fluid to form fibrils, or long strands of
suspended particles, that resist shear (Fig. 1). It is believed that the observed
alignment of particles is related to the displacements and torque produced in

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the medium by the field and the translational motion and relocation of particles
to positions that have local minimum potential energy. This results in an
increase in viscosity and an increase in the shear strength of the material. A
Bingham plastic model is often considered sufficient to model MR devices:
τtotal = τy (H) + ηp ẙ , (1)

Where τ total is the total shear stress of the material, τ y is the yield stress as a
function of the magnetic field, H is the magnetic field strength, ηp is the plastic
viscosity or post yield viscosity, and ˙ γ is the shear strain rate in the fluid.
Apparent viscosity ηa is defined as the total shear stress divided by the shear
rate:
ηa = τtotal / ẙ,
Figure 1. Suspended magnetisable particles align in a magnetic field. The MR

fluid will then resist a certain amount of shear before the chains begin to
break. This yield point increases as magnetic field strength increases until the
magnetic saturation point is reached. These results in the solid feel of MR
materials.
THE BINGHAM PLASTIC AND RELATED MODELS
One might expect that the formation of fibrils with in an ER or MR fluid

would increase the fluid viscosity, but infect the slope of the shear stress
versus shear strain rate curve and thus the viscosity, changes little if at all.
The effect of fibrils is instead to produce a shear stress that is largely
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and denoted τy. Adding this term to the Newtonian model results in the
Bingham plastic model which has the stress-strain rate relation
τ= τy (F) + η γ| ------------------------ (Eqn.2)
Where in a given application F is the strength of the applied electric or

magnetic field (i.e. E or H).The response predicted by this model is plotted in
fig.2 which depicts the strong dependence of the yield stress on the field
strength.
Fig: Shear stress versus shear strain rate.
This model, or the extensions of it that predict similar overall response, is by

far the most popular for use in the design of devices that depend on the post
yield shear resistance of an ER or an MR fluid.
In practice, the dynamic viscosity (the lope of τ vs. γ| curve) is determined by a

linear regression fit of a line to experimental data, and the intersection of this
line with the shear stress axis is taken as the value of the yield tress τy.
Although this is a good approximation at higher strain rates and is entirely
adequate for most dynamic response calculations, the data measures at small
train rates can depart from this idealization. Initiating motion or flow requires
overcoming a static yield stress τy.s which is often larger than the dynamic
yield stress τy.d, but the measured stress quickly falls into its dynamic value
as shown by the dashed path in the fig 3 below. Once τ has reached its
dynamic value, it tends to flow the fitted st.line towards τy and γ| decreases.

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More detailed models than the Bingham plastic of equation 2 can of course be
devised and fitted to experimental data. It may be necessary, for instance, to
capture the dynamics associated with the momentum of the fluid, or to
represent the finite compliance of the container. An example of this extension
of the Bingham model in the case of an MR fluid damper is presented below.
PRE-YIELD RESPONSE
According to the Bingham Plastic model, stress less than the yield stress τy
produces no flow of the ER or MR fluid; but in reality the fluid naturally
responds to stress in this range, and for many purposes it may be regarded as
viscoelastic solid. The figure4 below shows typical stress-strain characteristics
for an ER or MR fluid loaded upto and beyond yield. Note that yield occurs at
approximately the same strain γy regardless of field strength, while τy increases
with F as discussed above. For clarity we have shown the yield strain as
corresponding to the peak stress on each curve, but in practice the correct
definition of yield for these materials is not so clear.
The shear stiffness of viscoelastic solids, including unyielded ER and MR fluids,

is often represented by the complex shear modulus G*---------
G* = G' + jG''
The real part G' is called the storage modulus and measures the materials
ability to elastically store strain energy, while the imaginary part G'' is termed
the loss modulus and is associated with the dissipation of energy during
deformation.

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The Loss factor is then defined as the ratio of the loss modulus to the storage
modulus i.e.
Loss Factor = G''/G'
The loss factor can be determined by measuring the phase difference between a
strain wave input to a material and the resulting stress wave. A predominantly
Elastic material will exhibit a small phase difference and a very small Loss
factor, typically less than 0.1
In a viscous material the phase difference will approach 90o and the
corresponding Loss Factor will be quite large.
POST-YIELD FLOW AND DEVICE GEOMETRY
In many devices where ER or MR fluids are employed, at any time a small

portion of the fluid is subjected to the applied electric or magnetic field, while
the remainder is free to flow as a conventional, low-viscosity fluid. Ordinarily
the field is created across a small gap whose surfaces serve as both
electrodes(in case of an ER fluid) or pole pieces (in case of an MR fluid)and as
the walls of a channel confining the fluid. For purposes of analysis, these walls
are often modeled as parallel, flat plates; this is the only configuration we shall
consider in detail here. The resulting equations are frequently applied to
annular or other non-flat geometries with acceptable results, but more realistic
models are available, e.g., for cylindrical dampers.
Restricting consideration to a gap formed by two parallel flat plates, we

must still take account of how shear is created in the fluid. The two

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possibilities are illustrated in the figure below(Fig 5), where it is shown that
shear may be produced in the fluid either by forcing it through the gap under
pressure(fixed-plate configuration) or by moving one plate with respect to the
other (sliding-plate configuration).In either case, and for either type of fluid ,the
gap is small in the direction of the field ,often well under 1mm,and of the order
of millimetres in length in the direction of flow or motion. This close spacing of
the plates is required in order to produce a field strong enough to activate the
fluid ;the ER and MR effects, that is, the formation of fibrils in the direction of
the applied field, will occur over a great distance within the fluid if an adequate
field can be generated.
MATERIAL BEHAVIOR/PROPERTIES
To understand and predict the behavior of the MR fluid it is necessary to model
the fluid mathematically, a task slightly complicated by the varying material
properties (such as yield stress).

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As mentioned above, smart fluids are such that they have a low viscosity in the
absence of an applied magnetic field, but become quasi-solid with the
application of such a field. In the case of MR fluids (and ER), the fluid actually
assumes properties comparable to a solid when in the activated ("on") state, up
until a point of yield (the shear stress above which shearing occurs). This yield
stress (commonly referred to as apparent yield stress) is dependent on the
magnetic field applied to the fluid, but will reach a maximum point after which
increases in magnetic flux density have no further effect, as the fluid is then
magnetically saturated.
SHEAR STRENGTH
Low shear strength has been the primary reason for limited range of
applications. In the absence of external pressure the maximum shear strength
is about 100 KPa. If the fluid is compressed in the magnetic field direction and
the compressive stress is 2 MPa, the shear strength is raised to 1100 KPa. If
the standard magnetic particles are replaced with elongated magnetic particles,
the shear strength is also improved.
PARTICLE SEDIMENTATION
Ferro-particles settle out of the suspension over time due to the inherent
density difference between the particles and their carrier fluid. The rate and
degree to which this occurs is one of the primary attributes considered in
industry when implementing or designing an MR device. Surfactants are
typically used to offset this effect, but at a cost of the fluid's magnetic
saturation, and thus the maximum yield stress

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MR FLUID SURFACTANTS
MR fluids often contain surfactants including, but not limited to
a) Oleic acid
b) Tetra methyl ammonium hydroxide
c) Citric acid
d) Soy lecithin
These surfactants serve to decrease the rate of ferroparticles settling, of which
a high rate is an unfavourable characteristic of MR fluids. The ideal MR fluid
would never settle, but developing this ideal fluid is as highly improbable as
developing a perpetual motion machine according to our current
understanding of the laws of physics. Surfactant-aided prolonged settling is
typically achieved in one of two ways: by addition of surfactants, and by
addition of spherical ferromagnetic nanoparticles. Addition of the nanoparticles
results in the larger particles staying suspended longer since to the non-
settling nanoparticles interfere with the settling of the larger micrometre-scale
particles due to Brownian motion. Addition of a surfactant allows micelles to
form around the ferroparticles. A surfactant has a polar head and non-polar
tail (or vice versa), one of which adsorbs to a nanoparticles, while the non-polar
tail (or polar head) sticks out into the carrier medium, forming an inverse or
regular micelle, respectively, around the particle. This increases the effective
particle diameter. Steric repulsion then prevents heavy agglomeration of the
particles in their settled state, which makes fluid remixing (particle
redispersion) occur far faster and with less effort. For example,
Magnetorheological dampers will remix within one cycle with a surfactant
additive, but are nearly impossible to remix without them.
While surfactants are useful in prolonging the settling rate in MR fluids, they
also prove detrimental to the fluid's magnetic properties (specifically, the
magnetic saturation), which is commonly a parameter which users wish to
maximize in order to increase the maximum apparent yield stress. Whether the
anti-settling additive is nanospheres based or surfactant-based, their addition
decreases the packing density of the ferroparticles while in its activated state,

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thus decreasing the fluids on-state/activated viscosity, resulting in a "softer"
activated fluid with a lower maximum apparent yield stress. While the on-state
viscosity (the "hardness" of the activated fluid) is also a primary concern for
many MR fluid applications, it is a primary fluid property for the majority of
their commercial and industrial applications and therefore a compromise must
be met when considering on-state viscosity, maximum apparent yields stress,
and settling rate of an MR fluid.
MODES OF OPERATION AND APPLICATION

An MR fluid is used in one of three main modes of operation, these being flow
mode, shear mode and squeeze-flow mode. These modes involve, respectively,
fluid flowing as a result of pressure gradient between two stationary plates;
fluid between two plates moving relative to one another; and fluid between two
plates moving in the direction perpendicular to their planes. In all cases the
magnetic field is perpendicular to the planes of the plates, so as to restrict fluid
in the direction parallel to the plates.
Flow mode
Shear Mode
Squeeze-Flow Mode

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The applications of these various models are numerous. Flow mode can be
used in dampers and shock absorbers, by using the movement to be controlled
to force the fluid through channels, across
Which a magnetic field is applied. Shear mode is particularly useful in clutches
and brakes in places where rotational motion must be controlled. Squeeze-flow
mode, on the other hand, is most suitable for applications controlling small,
millimetre-order movements but involving large forces. This particular flow
mode has seen the least investigation so far. Overall, between these three
modes of operation, MR fluids can be applied successfully to a wide range of
applications. However, some limitations exist which are necessary to mention
here.
LIMITATIONS
Although smart fluids are rightly seen as having many potential applications,
they are limited in commercial feasibility for the following reasons:
a) High density, due to presence of iron, makes them heavy. However,
operating volumes are small, so while this is a problem, it is not
insurmountable.
b) High-quality fluids are expensive.
c) Fluids are subject to thickening after prolonged use and need replacing.
d) Settling of Ferro-particles can be a problem for some applications.
Commercial applications do exist, as mentioned, but will continue to be few
until these problems (particularly cost) are overcome.
APPLICATION OF MR AND ER FLUIDS

Because the state of MR materials can be controlled by the strength of an
applied magnetic field, it is useful in applications where variable performance
is desired. Microprocessors, sensor technologies and increasing electronic
content and processing speeds have created real-time control possibilities of
smart systems used MR devices. Beginning of the commercialization of MR
technology was year 1995 and use of rotary brakes in aerobic exercise

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equipment. From this moment application of Magnetorheological material
technology in real-world systems has grown steadily. During the past few years
a number of commercially available products (or near commercialization) have
been developed, e.g.
a) Linear MR dampers for real-time active vibration control systems in heavy
duty trucks.
b) Linear and rotary brakes for low-cost, accurate, positional and velocity
control of pneumatic actuator systems.
c) Rotary brakes to provide tactile force-feedback in steer-by wire systems.
d) Linear dampers for real-time gait control in advanced prosthetic devices.
e) Adjustable real-time controlled shock absorbers for automobiles.
f) MR sponge dampers for washing machines.
g) Magnetorheological fluid polishing tools.
h) Very large MR fluid dampers for seismic damage mitigation in civil
engineering structures.
i) Large MR fluid dampers to control wind-induced vibrations in cable-stayed
bridges.
OR
IN CLUTCH
MR clutch similar to MR brake operates in a direct-shear mode and transfers
torque between input and output shaft. There are two main types
constructions of MR clutch: cylindrical and frontal. In the cylindrical model MR
fluid works between two cylindrical surfaces and in frontal MR fluid fills gap
between two discs. During work magnetic field produced by coils increases
viscosity of fluid and causes transfer of torque form input to output shaft.
Useful torque is available after 2-3 milliseconds from stimulation.
IN DAMPERS
Magnetorheological dampers of various applications have been and continue to
be developed. These dampers are mainly used in heavy industry with
applications such as heavy motor damping, operator seat/cab damping in
construction vehicles, and more. As of 2006, materials scientists and
mechanical engineers are collaborating to develop standalone seismic dampers

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which, when positioned anywhere within a building, will operate within the
building's resonance frequency, absorbing detrimental shock waves and
oscillations within the structure, giving these dampers the ability to make any
building earthquake-proof, or at least earthquake-resistant.
There are several ways of using smart materials in an active system that can
sense and respond to ground vibrations. Perhaps unsurprisingly, vibration-
damping systems for buildings have been explored most extensively in Japan.
This has a vibration-reduction system that also reduces wind induced sway,
which can be pronounced in Osaka from time to time. Without a system of that
sort, the occupants of the building might find themselves experiencing feelings
of sea-sickness during high winds. The building uses a vibration control
system called DUOX, which is able to quickly damp out oscillations several
centimetres in amplitude at the top floor.
Vibration-control systems show that for this kind of sophisticated and adaptive
control of a structure, we need more than just a „smart‟ response to a
stimulus. In general, we need some kind of feedback so that the response can
be continuously adjusted to the stimulus. And often the sensing of the
stimulus and the production of the response might be carried out by separate
entities – perhaps by two different smart materials. For example, to control
vibrations we need a system that senses movement, coupled to a system that
adjusts its mechanical properties to counteract that movement.
MR dampers are semi-active devices that contain Magnetorheological fluids.
After application of a magnetic field the fluid changes from liquid to semi-solid
state in few milliseconds, so the result is an infinitely variable, controllable
damper capable of large damping forces. MR dampers offer an attractive
solution to energy absorption in mechanical systems and structures and can
be considered as “fail-safe” device.
IN BRAKE
The MR brake operates in a direct-shear mode, shearing the MR fluid filling the
gap between the two surfaces (housing and rotor) moving with respect to one
another. Rotor is fixed to the shaft, which is placed in bearings and can rotate

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in relation to housing. Resistance torque in the MR brake depends on viscosity
of the MR fluid that can be changed by magnetic field.
MR brake allows for continuous control of torque. When there is no magnetic
field the torque is caused by viscosity of carrier liquid, bearings and seals. MR
brake is especially well suited for a variety of applications including pneumatic
actuator control, precision tension control and Haptic force feedback in
applications such as steer-by-wire.
AUTOMOTIVE AND AEROSPACE

If the shock absorbers of a vehicle's suspension are filled with MR fluid instead
of plain oil, and the whole device surrounded with an electromagnet, the
viscosity of the fluid (and hence the amount of damping provided by the shock
absorber) can be varied depending on driver preference or the weight being
carried by the vehicle - or it may be dynamically varied in order to provide
stability control. This is in effect a Magnetorheological damper. The MagneRide
magnetic ride control (a kind of active suspension) is one such system which
permits the damping factor to be adjusted once every millisecond in response
to conditions. GM is the origin company of this technology as applied to
automobiles. Many other companies have paid for the use of it in their own
vehicles. As of 2007, BMW manufactures cars using their own proprietary
version of this device, while Audi and Ferrari offer the MagneRide on various
models. All Corvettes made since 2005 have also employed a dynamic MR
suspension system.
General Motors and other automotive companies are seeking to develop a MR
fluid based clutch system for push-button four wheel drive systems. This
clutch system would use electromagnets to solidify the fluid which would lock
the driveshaft into the drive train.
Magnetorheological dampers for use in military and commercial helicopter

cockpit seats, as safety devices in the event of a crash, are under development.
This decreases the shock delivered to each passenger's spinal column thereby
decreasing the rate of permanent injury during a crash.

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Porsche has introduced Magnetorheological engine mounts in the 2010
Porsche GT3 and GT2. At high engine revolutions, the Magnetorheological
engine mounts get stiffer to provide a more precise gearbox shifter feel by
reducing the relative motion between the power train and chassis/body.
HUMAN PROSTHESIS
Magnetorheological dampers are utilized in semi-active human prosthetic legs.
Much like those used in military and commercial helicopters, a damper in the
prosthetic leg decreases the shock delivered to the patients‟ leg when jumping,
for example. This results in an increased mobility and agility for the patient.
MILITARY AND DEFENSE

The U.S. Army Research Office is currently funding research into using MR
fluid to enhance body armour. In 2003, researchers stated they were five to ten
years away from making the fluid bullet resistant. In addition, Humvees,
certain helicopters, and various other all-terrain vehicles employ dynamic MR
shock absorbers and/or dampers.
OPTICS
Magnetorheological Finishing, a Magnetorheological fluid-based optical
polishing method, has proven to be highly precise. It was used in the
construction of the Hubble Space Telescope's corrective lens.
MECHANISM FOR NOISE REDUCTION

For example, in a car or an aircraft. The “smart structure” that does this task
might involve a smart material that senses changes in air pressure, due to
sound waves, and converts that stimulus to an electrical signal that can be
used to drive a loudspeaker to broadcast “antinoise” sound waves that cancel
out the noise. Both parts of the system can use piezoelectric materials, which
are smart materials that interconvert mechanical and electrical energy.
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF MR FLUID TECHNOLOGY

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The MR fluid is a smart fluid whose properties can be controlled in the
presence of magnetic field. In the absence of magnetic field, the rheological
properties of the MR fluid are similar to that of base fluid except that it is
slightly thicker due to the presence of metal particles.
Figure1 Principle of MRF Technology

In the absence of magnetic field, these metal particles align themselves along
the direction of flow (figure 2(a)) however when a magnetic field is applied each
metal particles becomes a dipole aligning itself along the direction of magnetic
field (Figure 2(a) and (b)). Thus a chain like structure is formed along the line of
magnetic flux which offers mechanical resistance to the flow resulting in an
increase in the viscosity of fluid .This mechanical resistance created due to the
chain column imparts yield strength to the fluid, making it stiff like a semi-
solid. This stiffness and hence the yield strength depends on the strength of
the magnetic field and also the quality and quantity of metal particles. The MR
effect is reversible. When the magnetic field is removed the fluid returns to its
original condition. The MR fluids with their controllable properties are found to
be useful in the implementation of smart fluid concept. Where the fluid motion
is controlled by varying its viscosity with the help of magnetization .The
suppleness of MR fluid technology, the controllability and the quick response of
the rheological properties makes it a smart fluid with application areas where
fluid motion is controlled by varying the viscosity.

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Figure 2: Working of MRF Technology
DESIGN OF MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

Fundamental Equations
Circuit laws similar to those of electric circuits apply in magnetic circuits as
well.
That is, a magnetic circuit can be replaced by an equivalent electric circuit for
Ohm‟s Law to be applied. If the magneto motive force of a magnet is F and the
total magnetic flux is Φt, and assuming the magnetic resistance (reluctance) of
the circuit is R, then the following equation is valid.
Assuming the vacant length of the circuit as ℓg and the vacant cross-sectional
area as ag, the magnetic resistance is then given by the following equation.
μ is the magnetic permeability of the magnetic path and is equivalent to the

magnetic permeability
μ0 of a vacuum in the case of air. (μ0=4πX10-7 [H/m])

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Although the current in an electric circuit rarely leaks outside the circuit, as
the deference in the magnetic permeability between the conductor yoke and
insulated area in a magnetic circuit is not very large, leakage of the magnetic
flux also becomes large in reality. The amount of the magnetic flux leakage is
expressed by the leakage factor σ, which is the ratio of the total magnetic flux
Φt generated in the magnetic circuit to the effective magnetic flux Φg of the
vacant space.
In addition, the loss in the magnetic flux due to the joints in the magnetic
circuit must also be taken into consideration. This is represented by the
reluctance factor f. Since the leakage factor σ is equivalent to the increase in
the vacant space area, and the reluctance factor f refers to the correction
coefficient of the vacant space length, the corrected magnetic resistance
becomes as follows.
The inverse of this magnetic resistance is known as permeance (P) and

generally, this permeance is used in the calculations. Substituting this in
Equation (1), P then becomes as follows.
If you assume the cross-sectional area of the magnet as am, the length as ℓm,
the demagnetized field in the magnet as Hd, the magnetic flux density as Bd,
and the magnetic flux density in the magnet to be uniform, then F and Φt are
expressed as follows.

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Based on Equation (6), the permeance coefficient is determined by the following
equation.
Substituting Equation (5) into this equation, the permeance coefficient becomes
as follows.
Therefore, the external permeance as seen from the magnet can also be said to
be the permeance coefficient of the magnet when converted to a per unit
volume figure. The above equation shall serve as the basic equation for
determining the permeance. Although the reluctance factor f is approximately
1.1 ‒ 1.3 and no big error will result if a normal value of 1.2 is assumed, the
leakage factor σ has to be determined based on calculation since it will
fluctuate to a certain extent. Based on Equation (3), the leakage factor σ is
determined as follows.
Since Ft/Fg is equivalent to the reluctance factor here, σ then becomes
Since Pt is the sum of the vacant space permeance and the leakage permeance,
it therefore becomes
Although Pg can be computed easily as Pg=μag/ℓg, as the leakage permeance is

quite complex, the respective terms are generally simplified and computed as

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shown in Figure 8. The respective permeance is determined in this manner to
compute σ.
Vibration Dampers
 Damping – is the ability of a vibrating system or structure to dissipate energy.
Mostly – mechanical energy is converted to heat energy
 When the dissipation is by internal friction or hysteresis characteristics due to

its molecular structure – material damping
 When it is generated by the friction, snapping, rubbing, slapping or impacting

at the joints and interfaces of structural assemblies, - it is structural damping
 Damping reduces dynamic load
CONVENTIONAL DAMPER
In conventional dampers, fluid flows from the inner cylinder to outer

cylinder through the foot valves. In outer cylinder there is air and fluid. As
piston moves down, the fluid level in outer cylinder increases and free air
behaves as a compressed medium and produces damping effect .When the
piston expands, direction of flow gets reverse.
MRF DAMPER

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MR dampers are slightly different from the conventional dampers .They

don‟t have valves in the piston as piston of conventional dampers.MR damper
shown in the figure is used in the suspension of highway vehicles. In this type
of damper there is an annular orifice passage, through which MR fluid can be
transmitted from one chamber to another. In non magnetized condition, fluid
can move through the orifice but when suspension is required, the coil is
energized and current starts to flow through the coils, and develops a magnetic
field. Due to the effect of this magnetic field, fluid in the orifice behaves like a
semi solid and offers resistance to the fluid flow. Thus the fluid in the chamber
starts to behave like a shock absorbing medium. These types of dampers are
used for seat vibration control in vehicles. This technology is quicker, effective
and requires less maintenance.
These MRF applications bring additional functionality at the same time
as keeping the simplicity. Other possible MRF applications using this mode are
dampers for knee prosthesis, vibration dampers, seismic dampers for civil
industry, active engine mounts and prop shaft mounts.
Using this simple mechanical principle the damping arrangement
becomes controllable and the vibration transmission and excitation frequency
for a suspended seat can be adjusted accordingly. Proper choice of MRF
parameters extended to seat suspension could eliminate any resonance
problems and allow the system to be isolated from high frequency problems.

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ER CLUTCH
WORKING: These materials in the fluid responds to applied magnetic

fields and is thus referred to as magneto rheological materials. Such materials
can be utilized in devices or can be incorporated in traditional composites to
form advanced intelligent composite structures, whose continuum magneto-
rheological response can be actively controlled in real time. Applications that
can be benefit from materials whose rheology can be continuously, rapidly and
reversibly varied are numerous.
The most common MR materials are of liquid state. The controllable
rheological response of such fluids results from the polarization induced in the
suspended particles by application of an external magnetic field. The
interaction between the resulting induced dipoles causes the particles to form
columnar structures, parallel to the applied field.
These chains like structure restrict the flow of the fluid, thereby
increasing the viscous characteristics of the suspension. The mechanical
energy needed to yield these chains like structures increase as the applied
magnetic field increase resulting in a field dependent yield stress. In the
absence of an applied field, the controllable fluids exhibit Newtonian like
behaviour. MR fluid is filled in the casing and the fluid is there between the
disc and the aligned electro magnets.
The electro magnets are arranged so that the field of the magnet is
directly focussed towards the fluid area. The electro magnet in the assembly is
worked by using a 12 volt battery.
MR fluid is composed of particles suspended in a carrier fluid such as oil.
When a magnetic field is applied the magnetic particles will align and form

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chains and solid like structures within the fluid. During engaged phase MR
fluid is excited by passing current through the electromagnetic from a battery.
Magnetic field will be generated in the region of MR fluid. This causes
suspended magnetically polarisable particles in MR fluid to become magnetic
dipoles and attract each other and align according to the magnetic field. This
results in an immediate stiffening of the MR material and helps in transferring
torque.
OPTICS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC INTRODUCTION:

Everywhere on this planet hair-thin optical fibers carry vast quantities of
information from place to place. There are many desirable properties of optical
fibers for carrying this information. They have enormous information-carrying
capacity, are low cost, and have protection from the many disturbances that
can afflict electrical wires and wireless communication links. The superiority of
optical fibers for carrying information from place to place is leading to their
rapidly replacing older technologies. Optical fibers have played a key role in
making possible the extraordinary growth in world-wide communications that
has occurred in the last 25 years, and are vital in enabling the proliferating use
of the Internet.
Of key importance in the course of these developments in information

technology has been a few basic, but vitally significant, events. Principal among
these are the invention and development of the laser, the growing appreciation
that this might make optical communications practically useful, the production
of very pure glass, which was sufficiently transparent that long distance
transmission of light through glass fibers became practical, and the digital
revolution. We will examine the role that each of these has played in creating
the "Information Age."
All early light wave communication systems had two major problems

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1. The transmission path needed an unobstructed line of sight between
transmitters and receivers. This is because light cannot go around corners
by itself.
2. The transmission path was affected by weather conditions.
These problems were overcome by developing waveguides. The early
designs were expensive and could not compete with electrons travelling
through copper wire
OPTICAL FIBER SENSOR

A sensor that measures a physical quantity based on its modulation on the
intensity, spectrum, phase, or polarization of light travelling through an optical
fiber. An optical sensor is a device that converts light rays into electronic
signals. Similar to a photo resistor, it measures the physical quantity of light
and translates it into a form read by the instrument. Optical sensors have a
variety of uses. They can be found in everything from computers to motion
detectors.
For example, when the door to a completely darkened area such as the
inside of a copy machine is opened, light impacts the sensor, causing an
increase in electrical productivity. This will trigger an electric response and
stop the machine for safety.
Fiber optic sensors are also resistant to electromagnetic interference, and

do not conduct electricity so they can be used in places where there is high
voltage electricity or flammable material such as jet fuel. Fiber optic sensors
can be designed to withstand high temperatures as well.
Fiber optic sensors can also be configured to measure the internal chemical
states in structures, such as the penetration of corrosion-causing de-icing salts
in bridge decks.

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CLASSIFICATION OF OPTICAL FIBER SENSOR
TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBER SENSOR

Distinction is often made in the case of fiber sensors as to whether measurand
act externally or internally to the fiber.
A. Intrinsic
In an intrinsic sensor, the fiber itself is the sensing element (the fiber is
directly affected by the measurand). Where the sensors are embedded in or are
part of the fiber and for this type there is often some modification to the fiber
itself. The sensors are termed internal or intrinsic sensors.
Optical fibers can be used as sensors to measure strain,
temperature, pressure and other quantities by modifying a fiber so that the
quantity to be measured modulates the wavelength or transit time of light in
the fiber. Sensors that vary the intensity of light are the simplest, since only a
simple source and detector are required. A particularly useful feature of
intrinsic fiber optic sensors is that they can, if required, provide distributed
sensing over very large distances.

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Special fibers like long-period fiber grating (LPG) optical fibers can be used for
direction recognition. Photonics Research Group of Aston University in UK has
some publications on vectorially bend sensor applications.
Optical fibers are used as hydrophones for seismic and sonar applications.
A fiber optic microphone and fiber-optic based headphone are useful in areas
with strong electrical or magnetic fields, such as communication amongst the
team of people working on a patient inside a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
machine during MRI-guided surgery.

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Properties of intensity based sensors
• Versatile
• Simple design and easy signal interpretation
• Usually suffer from intensity fluctuations and low sensitivity
B. Extrinsic
Where the transducers are external to the fiber and the fiber merely
registers and transmits the sensed quantity, the sensors are termed extrinsic
sensors.
In an extrinsic sensor, the fiber simply transports light to or from the sensing
element. In this, the fiber carries the light from the source and to the detector,
but the modulation occurs outside the fiber transducer acts as fiber.
Extrinsic fiber optic sensors use an optical fiber cable, normally
a multimode one, to transmit modulated light from either a non-fiber optical
sensor, or an electronic sensor connected to an optical transmitter.
A major benefit of extrinsic sensors is their ability to reach places which are
otherwise inaccessible. An example is the measurement of temperature
inside aircraft jet engines by using a fiber to transmit radiation into a
radiation pyrometer located outside the engine. Extrinsic sensors can also be
used in the same way to measure the internal temperature of electrical
transformers, where the extreme electromagnetic fields present make other
measurement techniques impossible.
Extrinsic fiber optic sensors provide excellent protection of measurement
signals against noise corruption. Extrinsic sensors are used to measure
vibration, rotation, displacement, velocity, acceleration, torque, and
temperature.

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COMPARISON OF EXTRINSIC & INTRINSIC SENSOR

A. Extrinsic B. Intrinsic
• Applications- temperature, pressure, • Applications-rotation, acceleration,
liquid level and flow. strain, acoustic pressure and
• Less sensitive vibration.
• Easily multiplexed • More sensitive
• Ingress/ egress connection problems • Tougher to multiplex
• Easier to use • Reduces connection problems
• Less expensive • More elaborate signal demodulation

• More expensive

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THE PHYSICAL PHENOMENA
Total Internal Reflection
The basic principle governing the operation of fiber optics in applications is
total internal reflection, which can occur when light waves travelling in one
medium encounter another medium. An example is light travelling in air
encountering a surface of water. Because the refractive indices for water and
air are different, the light waves behave differently at the interface.
Fig. Total internal reflection
Consider medium 1 with a refractive index n1 . Light waves entering medium 1
encounter another medium of refractive index n 2  n1 , as shown in Fig. Note how
a ray of light with an incidence angle  1 experiences refraction with an angle of
refraction  2 . As the angle  1 continues to increase, the angle  2 also increases

   c where  c is defined as critical angle of incidence.
until  2  90 for 1
For 1   c the ray of light is reflected back entirely into medium 1, which
represents the condition for total internal reflection with no loss in

transmission. The ray numbered 5 in the figure shows this condition and
behaves as if it has struck a perfectly reflecting surface. Such rays obey the law
of reflection so that the angles on incidence and reflection are equal. They also
obey the law of refraction or Snell‟s law, which states that a ray undergoes
refraction when it propagates from one medium to another such that the ratio
of the sine of the incident angle and the sine of the refracted angle is equal to
sin 1
the ratio of the reciprocal of refractive indices of the media, that is, sin  2  n2 n1 .
Thus, the critical incidence angle  c may be calculated from n1 sin  c  n2 and,
therefore, sin c  n2 n1 for n2  n1 ,which suggests that total internal reflection can

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occur only when light waves traveling in a medium with a certain index attempt
to move into another medium with a lower refractive index.
As stated earlier, total internal reflection occurs when 1   c . Clearly, rays of
light propagating from a dense medium through successive layers of less dense
media will continue to bend and experience total internal reflection. The
principle of total internal reflection can be used to “pipe” light from one location
to another. In a glass rod or fiber, light entering the glass medium at one
location is trapped as it were, as shown in Fig. and with successive reflections
continues to travel through the fiber entirely confined.
Fig. Light rays “trapped” inside a fiber
This physical phenomenon serves as the foundation for wide variety of

engineering uses of fiber optics. An optical fiber can be viewed as l light guide
obeying Snell‟s law. The fiber has a core through which light waves can
propagate by total internal reflection from a cladding of lower refractive index.
FIBER CHARACTERISTICS
Optical fibers are usually made of Glass SiO2 (Sapphire, Fluoride Glasses
and Neodymium doped Silica are utilized for specialized applications.), a high-
index material, mixed with various Dopants to control the refractive index. The
core is surrounded by cladding material, which is also glass of slightly lower
refractive index. The difference can be as small as 0.001 or 0.002. Fibers in
which refractive index is uniform across the core thickness, as shown in Fig,
are known as step- index fibers. In step-index fibers, rays travelling close to the
longitudinal axis of fibers traverse a shorter distance than those at an angle to
the axis. Consequently, the travel times for these rays are different, leading to

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light dispersion. However, if the core is made of glass with refractive indices
varying smoothly across the core diameter as shown in Fig. then the travel
distances can be controlled in such a way that the light dispersion is
minimized.
Although the discussion above introduces the concepts of light transmission
through optical fibers, it is somewhat incomplete because it does not include
oscillations along the other principal directions. In fact, propagation of light
along the optic fibers can be looked upon as electromagnetic waves with a wide
variety of modes. Thus it should be noted that even with an optimum grading
of refractive index through the thickness, fibers that are truly multimode
exhibit inevitable dispersion.
However, with drastic reduction in core thickness, one can reduce the
number of modes that can be physically supported by the fiber. For example, a
core with a 10µm diameter is only about four wavelengths across and therefore
cannot allow any more than a single mode, thus avoiding the dispersion
problem.
Fig. Index profiles for step-index and graded-index fibers.
The Cores of Optical fibers are made of extremely low-impurity silica and the
cladding is typically fluorine-doped glass 125µm in diameter. In view of the
lower specific gravity of silica compared to that of copper(2.2 vs.8.9), the

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diameter of an optical fiber can be less than tenth of diameter of a
corresponding copper wire to convey the same information. The consequent
weight reduction, for example, in a large aircraft communication system can be
a saving of 1000lb (see Lacy, 1992). In addition, fiber optics possesses an
enormous capacity to carry information because of a vast bandwidth, which is
an incredible 50THz
Typical single mode fibers have core diameter of about 5µm, which compares
favourably with 1 to 3µm diameter for structural fibers. However, multimode
fibers are much large in size and may be 100µm to 200µm in diameter.
Ultimate tensile strengths of the order for 106 psi have been measured for short
test sections of freshly drawn glass fibers. A slight degradation may occur in
the manufacturing process leading to a compromised value of about of 800000
psi. With a Young‟s modulus of 10X106 psi, which is close to that of aluminum,
and the ability to survive strains of the order 8%, the applicability of optical
fibers for strain-sensing becomes evident. With appropriate adhesives, fiber-
optic strain sensors can have long life-much longer than that of conventional
strain gages.
With proper selection of adhesives and coatings, optical fibers are reported
to have sustained one million cycles in a simulated graphite-reinforced
helicopter tail subjected to delamination tests. Polyamides that have a high
temperature/high modulus characteristic have been found to be ideal in
providing a thin, hard coating and the increase in fiber diameter because of the
coating can be mere 10µm .Polyamides also known to mechanical degradation
(Dunphy, Meltz and Morey, 1995).

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BASIC FIBER OPTIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Figure. Basic fiber optic communication system
Fiber optics is a medium for carrying information from one point to another in
the form of light. Unlike the copper form of transmission, fiber optics is not
electrical in nature. A basic fiber optic system consists of a transmitting device
that converts an electrical signal into a light signal, an optical fiber cable that
carries the light, and a receiver that accepts the light signal and converts it
back into an electrical signal. The complexity of a fiber optic system can range
from very simple (i.e., local area network) to extremely sophisticated and
expensive (i.e., long distance telephone or cable television trunking). For
example, the system shown in Figure 8-1 could be built very inexpensively
using a visible LED, plastic fiber, a silicon photo detector, and some simple
electronic circuitry. The overall cost could be less than $20. On the other hand,
a typical system used for long-distance, high-bandwidth telecommunication
that employs wavelength-division multiplexing, erbium-doped fiber amplifiers,
external modulation using DFB lasers with temperature compensation, fiber
Bragg gratings, and high-speed infrared photo detectors could cost tens or even
hundreds of thousands of dollars. The basic question is “how much
information is to be sent and how far does it have to go?” With this in mind we
will examine the various components that make up a fiber optic
communication system and the considerations that must be taken into account
in the design of such systems.

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ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBER SENSORS
a) All-passive dielectric characteristic: elimination of conductive paths in high-

voltage environments, it tells about Inability to conduct electric current.
b) Freedom from electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency
interference (RFI)
c) Inherent safety and suitability for extreme vibration and explosive
environments
d) Tolerant of high temperatures (>1450 C) and corrosive environments,
Greater Sensitivity
e) Light weight, and compact size
f) Multifunctional
g) Multiplexing capabilities
h) Resistant to harsh environment (Environmental Ruggedness)
i) Wide Dynamic Range
j) Remote sensing capability
k) Multifunctional sensing capabilities such as rotation, acceleration, electric
and magnetic field measurement, temperature, pressure, acoustics,
vibration, linear and angular position, strain, humidity, viscosity, chemical
measurements
l) Large Bandwidth
MAJOR DISADVANTAGES
Following are the disadvantages of using optical fiber sensors:
a) Detection systems may be complex and expensive
b) High cost
c) Unfamiliarity to the end user
d) Requirement for precise installation procedures
e) Development of usable measuring systems is complex

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APPLICATIONS OF FIBER OPTICS SENSORS
Fiber optic sensors are used in several areas. Specifically:
a) Mechanical Measurement such as rotation, acceleration, electric and
magnetic field measurement, temperature, pressure, acoustics, vibration,
linear and angular position, strain, humidity, viscosity, chemical
measurements
b) Electrical & Magnetic Measurements
c) Chemical & Biological Sensing
d) Monitoring the physical health of structures in real time.
e) Buildings and Bridges: Concrete monitoring during setting, crack (length,
propagation speed) monitoring, spatial displacement measurement, neutral
axis evolution, long-term deformation (creep and shrinkage) monitoring,
concrete-steel interaction and post-seismic damage evaluation.
f) Tunnels: Multipoint optical extensometers, convergence monitoring,
concrete / prefabricated vaults evaluation, and joints monitoring damage
detection.
g) Dams: Foundation monitoring, joint expansion monitoring, spatial
displacement measurement, leakage monitoring, and distributed
temperature monitoring.
h) Heritage structures: Displacement monitoring, crack opening analysis,
post-seismic damage evaluation, restoration monitoring, and old-new
interaction.
i) Detection of Leakage
FIBER-OPTIC STRAIN SENSORS
STRAIN MEASUREMENT
The basic design philosophy of engineering structures has changed

drastically from a conservative “safe life” approach to a more scientific “damage
tolerant” approach “safe life” was set on the basis of fatigue test data, the
extent of whose scatter determined setting the safe limit below the lowest

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values. With this approach, components that may have many additional years
of useful service had to be retired. Advances in the science and technology of
fracture mechanics provided a more rational basis to view structural failure on
the basis of size propagation characteristics of cracks. Thus, it was argued that
the mere presence of cracks in a structure could not be the basis to declare
that the product has outlived its usefulness; rather, cracks lengths and
propagation characteristics must determine component life. The success of the
latter approach is dependent on the accuracy with which structural
components with defects are modeled and tested in order to generate a basis in
regard to critical crack lengths. It therefore follows that the ability to monitor
cracks and their dynamics will be mandatory to ensure safe operation of
structural systems. Embedded fiber optic sensors are invaluable in such
monitoring and diagnostic tasks.
In a broad classification, sensors are described either as extrinsic or intrinsic.

In extrinsic fiber sensors the parameter under study (strain, temperature,
pressure, vibration, chemical concentration or other phenomena) at some
location along the fiber and exits the sensor either by re-entering the input
fiber or by entering another fiber to reach a detection device. In intrinsic
sensors, on the hand, changes in one or more optical parameters (intensity,
phase, polarization, wavelength, frequency, timing, or modal content) are
observed as light, propagating through the fiber, experiences change due to the
influence of the measurand.
Only the basic principles that govern the unique ideas implicit in the
arrangements of several sensors are described below. Of these, the most
promising are perhaps the Bragg grating and the white light interferometer
(Huston, 1999). Additional details on these and other sensing mechanisms are
available in the list references included here.
EXTRINSIC FABRY-PEROT SENSORS
The basic principle that governs the operation of Fabry perot sensors can
be understood with reference to Fig. The instrument is constructed by

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providing an air gap (typically 4mm in length and measured to an accuracy of
 5 m ) between a single mode fiber and reflection from a multiple mode fiber.
The sensor is attached to a structural component through adhesives that

faithfully transmit any deformation to the sensor leading to a change in the
length of the gap. This, in turn, causes a phase change between the light of the
reference signal (reflected at the glass-air interface at the left end of the gap in
the figure) and the light from the sensing signal (reflected at the glass-air
interface at the right end of the gap) because of interference between the two
reflections. This phase change is a measure of motion at the gap location and
serves as the basis for an accurate measurement of strain.
Fabry-Perot sensor
OTHER FIBER-OPTIC MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
BRAGG GRATING SENSOR
The Bragg Grating fibre optic sensor is a relatively new type of fibre optic
sensor. It is generally classed as an interferometer.

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In this technique a stable Bragg grating is permanently impressed (photo
etched) into the core of a germanosilicate fibre by exposure to a two-beam
ultraviolet interference pattern. The region of periodic variation in the index of
refraction of the fibre core then acts as a very narrowband reflection filter.
The reflection signal is therefore a narrow spine with a centre wavelength that
is linearly dependent on the back reflected Bragg wavelength and the mean
index of refraction of the core. Figure illustrates the working principles of a
fibre optic Bragg grating. Consequently, any external parameters which act to
alter the grating characteristics results in a shift in the reflected Bragg
wavelength and constitutes the mode of measurement.
A strain resolution of 0.1μe and temperature resolution of 0.1oc is readily

achievable. The Bragg sensor has temperature compensation is possible by
overlaying two gratings. All other interferometers have a sinusoidal response
characteristic, requiring recalibration on initialization (i.e. following power
interruption).
The Bragg sensor, on the other hand, is initially calibrated (determined from
grating characteristics) and any deviations from the Bragg wavelength are
proportionately related to an exact parameter (i.e. Strain). Bragg fibre optic
sensors could be particularly useful when the Bragg gratings are arranged
along the fibre length such that the gratings are written into the core of the
optical fibre at various Bragg wavelengths. Each of the reflected wavelength
signals from the corresponding gratings could be monitored by the use of a
coupler, detector and tunable optical filter, thus achieving single-fibre
multiplexing of the sensors.
WHITE LIGHT INTERFEROMETRY
In this technique, a strained (active) fiber and an unstrained (reference)

fiber are spliced together and broadband (white) light is sent into both. The
light reflected from the ends of the fibers will interfere in a manner that

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depends on their relative lengths, and so varies as the active fiber is strained.
The change in the interference pattern measured as an indicator of strain.
These fibers have proven to be stable over time under static loads. They are
used in civil and geotechnical engineering applications that require strain
measurements with long-term stability (Huston, 1999).
CRACK DETECTION
When a fiber-optic strain sensor experiences strain along with the

structure to which it is attached, neither maintain nor damage in the way of
normal operation. On the other hand, an optical fiber may be used to detect
localized damage to its supporting structure. One possible configuration is
where a crack in a structural member to a crack in the embedded fiber at the
same location. The development of cracks can be detected by monitoring the
intensity of light transmitted through the embedded fiber. Light will be lost
from a crack in the fiber, and this loss will increase as the crack opens. This
reduction in transmitted light will reveal the presence of a crack, but not its
location within the structure.
Both the existence and the location of a crack can be determined by utilizing a
more sophisticated interrogation method. In optical time domain reflectometry
(OTDR), a very brief pulse of light is sent into the embedded fiber, where it
propagates normally until it reaches the crack. Part of the incident pulse is
reflected pulse is reflected from the crack and travels back toward the input
end of the fiber. When such a reflected pulse is detected, a crack is known to
exist. Furthermore, because the speed of light in the fiber is known, the time
between the generation of the input pulse and the arrival of the reflection can
be used to compute the location of the crack.
INTEGRATION OF FIBER-OPTIC SENSORS AND SHAPE MEMORY

ELEMENTS
The sensitivity of optical fibers to sense strains in a structure and the

ability of shape memory alloy wires to actuate offer an unusual opportunity to

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combine the two in structural applications. A grid pattern of optical fibers can
be visualized from which not only the strain level but also the location of
undesirable strain may be established. With this information, actuation of the
structure can be initiated by energizing the corresponding shape memory alloy
wires grid resulting in a smart structure.
An embedded optical fiber will be damaged along with the surrounding

material.
Aircraft wings, bridge decks, and buildings are some of the examples in which
a judicious combination of these two technologies may contribute to a greater
level of structural integrity than otherwise possible. Although this approach is
conceptually attractive, the technology needs to be developed through research
efforts. The issues pertain to the use of both fibers (shape memory, optical) in
addition to structural fibers in a composite structure. Structural weight and
stress concentration are to be balanced against cost questions. Feasibility
studies are underway, and if successful, the impact on the design of smart
structures is evident. An extremely revolutionary development may include the
potential use of optical fibers as sensors and load-bearing elements. Clearly, a
success in such an attempt will have enormous implications on the design and
development of structures in the future.
MACH ZEHNDER INTERFEROMETER
The development of fiber optic sensors based on white light

interferometery has been attractive in recent years. The use of such techniques
for distributed strain or temperature sensing in advanced composite or other
structural materials.

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Due to its protection to Electromagnetic Interference (EMI), especially in
noisy environments, fiber optic strain sensors have been attractive in the past
few years. Common electrical strain gauges have a low electrical output level
and desensitizing these gauges to EMI is a difficult task.
Mach–Zehnder interferometer is a device used to determine the

relative phase shift variations between two collimated beams derived by
splitting light from a single source. The interferometer has been used, among
other things, to measure phase shifts between the two beams caused by a
sample or a change in length of one of the paths. In strain sensor
configuration, the applied strain causes the variation of light intensity in two
ways.
First, the strained fiber of the main branch of a Mach-Zehnder

interferometer exhibits length variation, so the superposed light intensity at the
output of the Mach-Zehnder interferometer is proportional to the strain. This
variation of intensity due to the phase shift results from the elongation of the
fiber. Second, the length variation in fiber reduces the distance between the
head of the fiber and the fixed mirror which in turn leads to intensity variation
of the light. We also consider the changes of the refraction index due to the
strain caused by length variation.
Principle of Fiber Optic
A Mach-Zehnder interferometer is formed from two couplers connected

by two arms of unequal optical lengths. The light is split in two arms of the
input coupler of the interferometer and they are later recombined at the output
coupler.
In this sensor structure, the length difference of the two arms is due to
the applied strain on the main arm. The unequal length of the arms causes the
phase difference between the split beam which is a function of wavelength and
arm length difference.

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To improve the resolution we have to increase the sensitivity of the

intensity to the applied strain. Therefore, we use a Mach-Zehnder
interferometer followed by a displacement sensing system. In difference to the
ordinary displacement sensors, in our proposed system, the reflecting mirror is
fixed so that we can measure the displacement of the head of fiber as
illustrated in the zoomed part of Figure. It is clear that the gathered beam
intensity is a function of the fiber elongation.
The reflected beam passes through the MachZehnder and has been
affected again by the strain. The Mach-Zehnder affects the reflected light
similar to the earlier light by changing the phase of the light field. In addition,
the applied strain alters the refractive index of the optical fiber which leads to a
change in the optical path.
So the improvement of the precision is due to the four strain effects:
a) The input light is affected by the elongation of the main arm of the Mach-
Zehnder
b) The elongation of the fiber modifies the intensity of the reflected beam
c) Mach-Zehnder does have an effect on the reflected light as well as on the
input light
d) The optical path varies because of the changes in refractive index

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MODULE-3
Vibration Absorbers, Biomimetics
Vibration Absorbers: Introduction, Parallel Damped Vibration Absorber,

Analysis, Gyroscopic Vibration absorbers, analysis & experimental setup and
observations, Active Vibration absorbers.
Control of Structures: Introduction, Structures as control plants, modeling

structures for control, Control strategies and Limitations.
Biomimetics: Characteristics of Natural structures. Fiber reinforced: organic

matrix natural composites, Natural creamers, Mollusks. Biomimetics sensing,
Challenges and opportunities.
INTRODUCTION
It is possible to forget that in the majority of cases vibration is only
considered when there is a problem. It is therefore of great practical importance
to be able to reduce vibration amplitudes. We will now consider vibration
absorbers. These go under various names, undamped vibration absorbers are
also called detuners. Damped vibration absorbers are sometimes just called
vibration absorbers.
Vibration absorbers are devices attached to flexible structures in order to

minimize the vibration amplitudes at a specified set of points. Design of
vibration absorbers has a long history. First vibration absorber proposed by
Frahm in 1909 [Den Hartog, 1956] consists of a second mass-spring device
attached to the main device, also modeled as a mass-spring system, which
prevents it from vibrating at the frequency of the sinusoidal forcing acting on
the main device. If the absorber is tuned so that its natural frequency coincides
with the frequency of the external forcing, the steady state vibration amplitude
of the main device becomes zero. From a control perspective, the absorber acts
like a controller that has an internal model of the disturbance, which therefore
cancels the effect of the disturbance.

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When there is a sinusoidal excitation with a fixed frequency then in theory it
possible to stop vibration. Since the top mass is not moving there can be no
resultant force on it. The lower spring and mass are vibrating so that the
exciting force is balanced by the force applied by the lower spring. As the lower
spring/mass system is vibrating freely without any force applied to it and the
mass to which is attached is at rest, then the lower spring/mass system is
vibrating at its undamped natural frequency.
We shall first consider the undamped vibration absorber.
VIBRATION ABSORBERS: UNDAMPED
The steady state solution when a sinusoidal force is the excitation is given by,
However when the lower spring/mass is undamped we have c2=0 and the
equation becomes,
It is clear that
Thus the detuned frequency is the undamped natural frequency of the lower
spring/mass system.

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VIBRATION ABSORBERS: DAMPED
An undamped vibration absorber (detuner) is effective at or very close to a
single frequency. In practice the excitation frequency may not be constant and
therefore a detuner is not the appropriate way to improve the response.
A damped vibration absorber is effective over a greater frequency range.

Consider the response of a single degree-of-freedom system and how it is
modified by both undamped and damped absorbers.
The undamped absorber stops the vibration at one frequency, the detuned
frequency. However, there are two resonances nearly as large as the original
resonance. When an optimized damped absorber is added the two resonance
peaks are greatly reduced (a factor of 10) but there is no detuned frequency
with a zero response.
PARALLEL DAMPED VIBRATION ABSORBER

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The analysis of the parallel absorber shows that it is possible to obtain an
undamped ant resonance in a dynamic absorber system, which exhibits a well-
damped resonance. Although the bandwidth of frequencies between the damped
peaks is not significantly increased, the amplitudes of the mass are considerably
smaller within the operation range of the absorber. The damped absorber mass and
the main mass attain null simultaneously so that the vibratory force is transmitted
entirely to the undamped absorber.
A comparison of the results with those of the conventional absorber indicates that the
parallel damped dynamic vibration absorber has definite advantages over the
conventional damped vibration absorber.
ANALYSIS
The analysis that follows consists mainly of
 The derivation of the governing equation of motion and

 Derivation of the condition for the amplitude the main mass to be independent
of the damping ratio.
The latter condition provides the frequencies at which the amplitude of the main mass
are independent of the damping ratio C/Cc. in addition for the particular case of
practical interest so called favourable tuning has been determined. Favourable tuning
refers to the frequency at which the absolute value of the amplitude is independent of
damping. Under this favorable tuning the mass ration required to provide the greatest
spread between the frequencies is determines also the equations that provide the
optimum ratio of damping has been derived and represents a condition at which the
slope of the response curve is zero.

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GYROSCOPIC VIBRATION ABSORBERS

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ANALYSIS

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EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND OBSERVATIONS

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ACTIVE VIBRATION ABSORBERS
We conclude this chapter with a brief discussion of the active vibration absorber, also
known as a proof-mass actuator and by various related names. The physical
arrangement of these devices components is very similar to that of the passive
absorber, with the addition of a controllable force element in parallel with the absorber
spring and dashpot, as shown in the fig. The existence of this force between the
primary structure and the absorber mass alters the dynamics of the combined system
(e.g. its natural frequencies and the magnitude of the response of the main mass to a
harmonic disturbing force).
In many applications of the active control force fa is derived by feeding back a

combination of the relative displacement and velocity between the primary and
secondary masses. This results in a system that is mathematically equivalent to a
passive absorber in which the spring and dashpot are adjustable, allowing the
absorber to be tuned during operation. Although such a system may perform better in
the harmonic steady state than a conventional, passive device, with the introduction of
active passive structures are generally immune.

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In addition, the generation of the force fa for example by a hydraulic actuator,
consumes power and the associated hardware increases the complexity of what is
basically a simple device, these drawbacks must be weighed against the benefits that
may follow from flexibility in specifying fa in a given application.
CONTROL OF STRUCTURES
INTRODUCTION
In categorizing smart structures as open-loop or closed-loop, we have implied that
some are capable of responding actively to change in their state or environment, for
example by altering their effective mechanical properties .much of this book is devoted
to analyzing means for sensing or inducing mechanical phenomena ,such as force or
displacement ,often through the use of electrical signals .in this chapter we shall
consider the device or subsystems that generate the signals to which the actuators
respond and the effects they produce in some common configuration.
In closed-loop structure, sensor outputs are processed by the controller to generate
actuator commands. Open-loop structures may employ neither sensors nor actuators;
on the other hand, nothing prevents the use of actuators without feedback. Such an
open-loop smart structure still needs a controller to generate the signals applied to its
actuators. Thus, a closed-loop smart structure requires a controller, while an open-
loop smart structure may not incorporate one. We will be concerned here primarily
with feedback systems, that is, closed-loop structures.
It will come as no surprise that the introduction of feedback can radically alter the
dynamics of a structural system, affecting its natural frequencies and modes, its
transient response, and even its stability. Fortunately, in studying smart structures
we can take advantage of the literature in the field of structural control, which has
manufactured greatly over the last two decades.
Much of this work has deal with conventional structures modified by the addition of
discrete sensors or actuators, as opposed to the more fully integrated systems implied
by the term smart structure, but it has gone far toward connecting the sometimes
disparate fields of structural dynamics and control theory.

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MODELING STRUCTURES FOR CONTROL
In discussing control theory in the abstract, it is common to assume the

availability of a model of the plant to be controlled, typically in the form of differential
equation are system of differential equations i.e. an input-output relation or state-
space model. For many purposes, the number of inputs and outputs are the number
of states can be regarded as a parameter that is defined on a case- by- case basis, and
theoretical developments can proceed under the assumption that this number is
“small” in the sense that the sheer size of the matrices to be manipulated will present
no numerical difficulties.
For Ex. this approach may work well for mechanical systems with a few degrees of
freedom, even bearing in the mind that each degree of freedom gives rise to two states
of variables one displacement and one velocity.
However, it is common to perform static and dynamic analyses on structures with

many degrees of freedom. When a structural dynamic model results from the finite
element dicretization of a large or complex structure, it may have tens or thousands of
degree of freedom. Although numerical methods to complete the natural frequencies
and natural modes of such a system are available, the computational tools of modern
control cannot all be expected to be so robust. This is due to good numerical
properties of most structures‟ coefficient of matrices as well as to the types of
problems historically of the greatest interest to the controls and structures
communities.
A consequence of this disparity is that the straight forward reduction of even a

moderate structural model to state-variable form can produce a state-space model of
ungainly dimensions. This has motivated interest in reducing the size of structural
models while retaining acceptable accuracy, and in exploiting the structure of the
equations governing mechanical systems.

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The idea behind model reduction or reduced order modeling is to identify those
degrees of freedom or state variables least relevant to the goals of analysis and
systematically eliminate the corresponding equations from the model. This may mean
isolating those degrees of freedom that contribute least to the forced response or those
states that have little effect on the controlled law. In some cases it is possible to
determine by inspection which equation may best be dispensed with, for example,
those corresponding to in-plane motion when out-of-plane bending is the deformation
mode of interest. More generally, though, a mathematical criterion must be devised to
weigh the relative importance of the degrees of freedom or system states. Once it is
determined which equations are to be eliminated, the remaining equations are
modified to include an estimate of the effect of those that are removed.
CONTROL STRATEGIES AND LIMITATIONS
Assuming a model of reasonable size (dimension) and acceptable accuracy is

available to represent a structure; we can turn to the calculation of a control law. In
the simplest cases, it may be possible to proceed directly by using the tools. More
often, though, it will be expedient to consider the physics of the problem
simultaneously with the mathematics. For example, negative feedback of position or
rate is in many ways similar to adding stiffness or damping to a mechanical system.
Part of stiffness or damping in an active vibration absorber may be achieved through
feedback gains.
However, if the sensed motion of one mass is used in computing the control force
to be applied to another mass to which the first is not directly (mechanically)
connected the coupling in the closed-loop system will be qualitatively different from
that in the passive, open-loop structure.
This is not necessarily undesirable, but it serves to illustrate that the dynamics of
the active system can quickly become much more complex than those of the structure
alone. This complexity extends to such fundamental matters as stability; further, it
can introduce a very large number of parameters with less obvious physical meanings
than “stiffness” and “damping”, for example, if every mass in a MDOF system is
subject to control forces depending on the motion of every other mass. When a
structure consists of lumped masses and springs, it is possible at least in principle to
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structures then range from the strictly local, where the signal driving each actuator is
derived from the output of only the corresponding sensor, to the configuration in
which each actuator signal is computed using information from every sensor. The
latter introduces new coupling into the equations of motion, and may affect the
symmetry of the coefficient matrices as well. These effects have been investigated
extensively, and some (very stringent) conditions under which they are minimized are
known.
Many of the same phenomena are observed when spatially discrete sensors and
actuators are used to control a continuous structure. In addition, it is more likely that
the sensors and actuators will be at different locations on the structure (although the
configuration in which they are collocated is an important special case ad permits
some simplifications). Because the plant has infinitely many degrees of freedom and
thus infinitely many states, the effects of unmodeled dynamics must be addressed, for
example, by ensuring that all significantly contributing modes are included in any
finite-dimensional model.
It is also often necessary to represent the control forces (actuators outputs) in the
modal or state coordinates, and then to construct physical control forces or actuator
commands from the result of modal or state-space control law computations.
ACTIVE STRUCTURES IN PRACTICE
In this section, we shall consider some examples of smart structures that illustrate
the potential of integrating sensing, actuation and control into a structural system.
Note that even in such proof-of-concept work a multidisciplinary approach is generally
necessary, and how the initial problem statement has ramifications throughout the
design, analysis, and operation of even a simple smart structure. Additional
representative applications may be found in the references given at the end of this
chapter, and in Chopra (1996). The reader interested in aerospace technology is
encouraged to refer to Wie (1988) and Frank et al. (1994), who present broad,
accessible treatments of the development of active smart structure for space flight.

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BIOMIMETICS
Characteristics of Natural structures. Fiber reinforced: organic matrix natural

composites, Natural creamers, Mollusks. Biomimetics sensing, Challenges and
opportunities.

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MODULE -4
MEMS, PIEZOELECTRIC SENSING AND ACTUATION
MEMS: History of MEMS, Intrinsic Characteristics, And Devices: Sensors and
Actuators. Micro fabrication: Photolithography, Thermal oxidation, thin film
deposition, etching types, Doping, Dicing, Bonding. Microelectronics fabrication
process flow, Silicon based Process selection and design.
Piezoelectric Sensing and Actuation: Introduction, Cantilever Piezoelectric
actuator model, Properties of Piezoelectric materials, Applications. Magnetic
Actuation: Concepts and Principles, Magnetization and Nomenclatures,
Fabrication and case studies, Comparison of major sensing and actuation
methods.
Micro-electromechanical Systems (MEMS)

What is MEMS?
A micro-electromechanical system (MEMS) is a process technology used to
create tiny integrated devices or systems that combine mechanical and
electrical components. They are fabricated using integrated circuit (IC) batch
processing techniques and can range in size from a few micrometers to
millimeters. These devices (or systems) have the ability to sense, control and
actuate on the micro scale, and generate effects on the macro scale.
HISTORY OF MEMS
MEMS (micro-electro-mechanical systems) are tiny electo mechanical devices
made by some of the same methods as integrated circuits. The results are some
of the smallest machines ever made, capable of being built on a silicon wafer
alongside the circuits that control them. Most MEMS devices are still
experimental, but they are already being used in cars to deploy airbags and
actuate antilock brakes, in integrated optical switches to handle Internet
traffic, and in many other areas.
MEMS were first proposed in the 1960s, but not commercialized until the
1980s. Engineers and scientists wanted to use integrated circuit fabrication
techniques to make tiny mechanical systems, which could, if necessary, be

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connected to electronic circuits on the same chip. One of the first commercial
applications of MEMS was the tiny nozzle assembly used in the cartridges of
inkjet printers. Each of the nozzles in an inkjet printers print head consists of a
hollow chamber. Inside, ink flows in, is heated with tiny electric heating
elements, and is then expelled through a port. The chamber and all its features
are created using the same photolithography techniques as an integrated
circuit.
In 1982, automotive airbag systems (which had been proposed in the 1950s)
were introduced using MEMS sensors to detect a crash. The Analog Devices
Corporation elaborated this idea, producing an “accelerometer” for airbag
systems in 1991, where the mechanical and electronic portions were integrated
on the same chip. The accelerometer chip detects the sudden increase or
decrease in speed that occurs during a crash. The same company later
introduced a gyroscope-on-a-chip, capable of working with an automobile‟s
global positioning system to create more accurate maps and directions for
drivers.
INTRINSIC CHARACTERISTICS
There is no doubt that MEMS will continue to find major new applications in
the future. The reason for technology development and commercialization may
vary by case. Nevertheless, there are three generic and distinct merits for
MEMS devices and micro fabrication technologies: Miniaturization,
Microelectronics Integration and Parallel fabrication with high precision. MEMS
products will compete in the market place on the grounds of functional
richness, small sizes, unique performance characteristics (e.g., fast speed),
and/or low cost.
a. Miniaturization
The length scale of typical MEMS devices generally ranges from 1 mm to 1 cm.
Small dimensions give rise to many operational advantages, such as soft
springs, high resonance frequency, greater sensitivity, and low thermal mass.

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Small size allows MEMS devices to be less intrusive in biomedical applications
(e.g., neuron probes).
However, all things do not work better when miniaturized. Some physical
phenomena do not scale favorably when the dimensions are reduced, while
certain physical phenomena that work poorly at the macro scale suddenly
becomes very practical and attractive at the micro scale.
Being small also means that MEMS devices can be integrated
nonintrusive in crucial systems, such as portable electronics, medical
instruments, and implants (e.g., capsule endoscopes). From a practical point of
view, smaller device footprint leads to more devices per wafer and greater
economy of scale. Hence the cost of MEMS devices generally scales favorably
with miniaturization.
b. Microelectronics Integration
Circuits are used to process sensor signals, provide power and control, improve
the signal qualities, or interface with control/computer electronics. MEMS
products today are increasingly being embedded with computing, networking,
and decision-making capabilities. By integrating micromechanical devices with
electronic circuitry and offering the combined system as a product, significant
advantages can be produced in a competitive market place.
The ability to seamlessly integrate mechanical sensors and actuators with
electronics processors and controllers at the single wafer level is one of the
most unique characteristics of MEMS. This process paradigm is referred to as
monolithic integration fabrication of various components on a single
substrate in an unbroken, wafer-level process flow.
c. Parallel Fabrication with Precision
MEMS technology can realize two or three-dimensional features with small
dimensions and precision that cannot be reproducibly, efficiently, or profitably
made with traditional machining tools. Combined with photolithography,
MEMS technology can be used to realize unique three-dimensional features
such as inverted pyramid cavities, high aspect ratio trenches, through-wafer
holes, cantilevers, and membranes. To make these features using traditional
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MEMS and Microelectronics are also different from traditional machining, in
that multiple copies of identical dies are made on a same wafer. This practice
can contribute to lowering the cost of individual units. Modern lithography
systems and techniques provide not only finely defined features, but also
uniformity across wafers and batches.
DEVICES: SENSORS AND ACTUATORS.
a. TRANSDUCERS
MEMS technology enables revolutionary sensors and actuators. In general
terms, sensors are devices that detect and monitor physical or chemical
phenomenon, whereas actuators are ones that produce mechanical motion,
force, or torque. Sensing can be broadly defined as energy transduction
processes that result in perception, whereas actuation is energy transduction
processes that produce actions.
Sensors and actuators are collectively referred to as transducers, which serve

the function of transforming signals or power from one energy domain to
another. There are six major energy domains of interests: (1) electrical domain

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(denoted E); (2) mechanical domain (Mec); (3) chemical domain (C); (4) radiative
domain (R); (5) magnetic domain (Mag); and (6) thermal domain (T). These
energy domains and commonly encountered parameters within them are
summarized in Figure The total energy within a system can coexist in several
domains and can shift among various domains under right circumstances.
b. SENSORS
Sensors fall into two categories, physical sensors and chemical/biological
sensors. Physical sensors are used to measure physical variables such as force,
acceleration, pressure, temperature, flow rate, acoustic vibration, and magnetic
field strength. Chemical sensors are used to detect chemical and biological
variables including concentrations of chemicals, pH, binding strength of
biological molecules, protein–protein interactions, and so forth.
The most important sensor characteristics of concern are summarized in the

following:
i. Sensitivity. The sensitivity is defined as the ratio between the magnitude of
output signal and that of the input stimulus. Note that the sensitivity values
may be a function of the input amplitude and frequency, temperature,
biasing level, and other variables. When electronics signal amplification is
used, it is meaningful to distinguish values of sensitivity before and after
amplification.
ii. Linearity. If the output signal changes proportionally with respect to the
input signal, the response is said to be linear. Linear response of a sensor
alleviates the complexity of signal processing.
iii. Accuracy. The ability of a sensor to provide results close to the true value.
iv. Precision. The ability of a sensor to give the same reading when repeatedly
measuring the same quantity under the same conditions. Repeatability is the
precision of a device over a short term, whereas reproducibility is the
precision of a device over a long term.

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v. Responsively, or resolution. It is also known as the detection limit or
minimal detectable signal (MDS). This term signifies the smallest signal a
sensor can detect with confidence. It is generally limited by noise associated
with the transduction elements and circuits.
vi. Noise. Noise can be applied to anything that obscures a desired signal. Noise
can itself be another signal (“interference”); most often, however, we use the
term to describe “random” noise of a physical (often thermal) origin. While
interference noise can be corrected or eliminated, such as by careful
electrical shielding, random noises are ubiquitous and have much more
fundamental origins. Noise can also arrive from the circuits.
vii. Dynamic range. The dynamic range is the ratio between the highest and the
lowest detectable signal levels. In many applications, a wide dynamic range
is desired.
viii. Bandwidth. The bandwidth characterizes sensor ability to measure fast-
changing signals. Sensors behave differently to constant or time-varying
signals. Oftentimes, sensors may cease to respond to signals of extremely
high frequencies. The effective frequency range is called the bandwidth.
ix. Drift. Drift may occur because electrical and mechanical properties of
materials vary over time. Sensors with large drift cannot be used
successfully to detect slow changing signals, such as monitoring stress
building up in a civil structure over time.
x. Sensor reliability. Sensor performance may change over time and when
placed under harsh conditions. Reliability and trustworthiness of sensors in
a wide temperature range (5°C to 105°C) is demanded of such sensors. Many
industries have established guidelines and standards involving sensor use.
xi. Crosstalk or interference. A sensor intended for measuring one variable
may be sensitive to another physical variable as well. An acceleration sensor
with sensitivity in one particular axis may respond to acceleration in other
orthogonal axes. Sensor cross talks should be minimized in practical
applications.
xii. Development costs and time. It is always desirable that the sensor
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important for commercial sensors that are built with custom specifications.
The reduction of cost and development time, to the level currently enjoyed by
the application specific integrated circuit (ASIC) industry, would be very
appealing.
c. ACTUATORS
Actuators generally transform energy in non-mechanical energy domains into
the mechanical domain. For a particular actuation task, there could be several
energy transduction mechanisms. For example, one can generate a mechanical
movement by using electrostatic forces, magnetic forces, piezoelectricity, or
thermal expansion.
The following are general criteria when considering actuators designs and
selections:
i.Torque and force output capacity. The actuator must provide sufficient
force or torque for the task at hand. For example, micro optical mirrors are
used to deflect photons. In some cases, micro actuators are used for
interacting with a fluid (air or water) to actively control the fluid. Such
actuators must provide greater force and power to pro-duce appreciable
effects.
ii.Range of motion. The amount of translation or angular movement that the
actuator can produce under reasonable conditions and power consumption
is an important concern.
iii.Dynamic response speed and bandwidth. The actuator must be able to
produce sufficiently fast response. From the point of view of actuator control,
the intrinsic resonant frequency of an actuator device should be greater than
the maximum oscillation frequency.
iv.Ease of fabrication and availability of materials. To reduce the potential
costs of MEMS actuators, there are two important strategies. One is to
reduce the costs of materials and processing time. Another is to increase the
process yield for a given process in order to produce more functional units in
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v.Power consumption and energy efficiency. Many micro actuators are
envisioned for use in small and mobile systems platforms. The total available
power for such systems is generally limited. In this and many other MEMS
applications, low-power actuators are preferred to increase the duration of
operation.
vi.Linearity of displacement as a function of driving bias. If the
displacement varies with input power or voltage in a linear fashion, the
control strategy would be simplified.
vii.Cross-sensitivity and environmental stability. The actuator must be
stable over the long term, against temperature variation, humidity
absorption, and mechanical creep. Long-term stability of such actuators is
extremely important for ensuring commercial competitiveness and success.
viii.Footprint. The footprint of an actuator is the total chip area it occupies. In
cases of dense actuator arrays, the footprint of each actuator becomes a
primary point of consideration.
OR
a) TRANSDUCER
A transducer is a device that transforms one form of signal or energy into
another form. The term transducer can therefore be used to include both
sensors and actuators and is the most generic and widely used term in MEMS.
b) SENSOR
A sensor is a device that measures information from a surrounding
environment and provides an electrical output signal in response to the
parameter it measured. Over the years, this information (or phenomenon) has
been categorized in terms of the type of energy domains but MEMS devices
generally overlap several domains or do not even belong in any one category.
These energy domains include:

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Mechanical Force, Pressure, Velocity, Acceleration, Position
Thermal Temperature, Entropy, Heat, Heat Flow
Chemical Concentration, Composition, Reaction Rate
Radiant Electromagnetic Wave Intensity, Phase, Wavelength,
Polarization Reflectance, Refractive Index, Transmittance
Magnetic Field Intensity, Flux Density, Magnetic Moment, Permeability
Electrical Voltage, Current, Charge, Resistance, Capacitance, Polarization
c) ACTUATOR
An actuator is a device that converts an electrical signal into an action. It can
create a force to manipulate itself, other mechanical devices, or the
surrounding environment to perform some useful function.
MICRO FABRICATION:
Conventional macroscale manufacturing techniques e.g. injection moulding,
turning, drilling etc, are good for producing three dimensional (3D) shapes and
objects, but can be limited in terms of low complexity for small size
applications. MEMS fabrication, by comparison, uses high volume IC style
batch processing that involves the addition or subtraction of two dimensional
layers on a substrate (usually silicon) based on photolithography and chemical
etching. As a result, the 3D aspect of MEMS devices is due to patterning and
interaction of the 2D layers. Additional layers can be added using a variety of
thin-film and bonding techniques as well as by etching through sacrificial
„spacer layers‟.
a. Photolithography
A most common lithography process involves depositing photo-sensitive
chemicals on a silicon wafer, exposing it with light through a mask, and
removing (develop) photo resist material that has been modified by light. The
starting point of a lithography process is to coat a wafer with photo resist
through spin coating. A wafer is held on a rotating stage. Photoresist is applied
to the center of the wafer at rest position. The wafer is then spun at high speed,
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causing the photo resist to move towards the edge of the wafer under
centrifugal forces. After the wafer spinning is stopped, a uniform thin layer of
photo resist is coated on the front surface of a wafer. Process variables include
the wafer spinning speed, the viscosity of the resist, and the types of resists
(e.g., target wavelength, sensitivity). Typical thickness of photo resist is
generally 1–10 mm.
Figure: Process steps of photo resist spin coating. Figure: Process flow for
patterning photo resist with a photo mask.
A lithography patterning procedure involves multiple steps.

Step a: A wafer is first covered with a uniform thin layer of resist
Step b: A mask, consisting of a transparent substrate (e.g., glass or quartz)
with opaque features, is brought close to the resist-coated wafer.
Step c: High energy, collimated light rays strikes the mask-wafer assembly.
Resist regions that are not covered by opaque features are exposed, changing
the chemical composition of the resist. For positive resist, the exposure by light
causes the resist to be more soluble in a wet chemical developer.
Step d: This allows the opaque features on the mask to be faithfully
transferred to the wafer.
A pattern in photo resist can be further transferred to an underlying layer,
using the photo resist as a mask layer. The process is shown in Figure.
It starts with a wafer with a thin film coating (step a).
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The wafer is covered with a spin-coated layer of photo resist (step b)
The wafer is then immersed in a chemical solution that preferably etch the thin
film but not the photo resist (step c).
(Alternatively, the thin film may be etched with dry etch methods.) With proper
timing control, the thin film covered by the photo resist would stay intact;
whereas the thin film in areas not covered by the photo resist would be
removed (step d).
The photo resist is then preferentially removed, leaving the thin film behind as
patterned (step e).
b. Thin Film Deposition

Functional materials, conductors and insulators can be incorporated on a
wafer through additive deposition process. One such deposition process is
direct transfer of the material from a source to the wafer surface in an atom-
by-atom, layer-by-layer fashion. Examples include metal evaporation and metal
sputtering. The process is generally conducted in a low-pressure environment
so that atoms may travel from the source to the wafer surface without
interruptions caused by air molecules. One such system, an evaporator, is
diagrammed in Figure.
Figure: Patterning a thin film using the photo resist as a mask.

Figure: A process of evaporating a thin film.

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A wafer and a metal source are both placed inside a vacuum jar. The metal can
be transferred either by heating it (evaporation) or by bombarding it with high-
energy ions (sputtering). The achieved thickness is proportional to the power
and time. In practice, the routine thickness of metal thin films ranges from 1
nm to 2 mm.
A second method for placing thin film materials on a wafer surface is chemical
vapor deposition. Two or more active species arrive at the vicinity of the wafer
surface (step a). They react under favorable conditions (with energy provided by
heating or plasma). The reaction of these species produces a solid phase, which
is absorbed onto the nearby wafer surface (step b). The byproducts of the
reaction (if any) may be removed by the surrounding media. Continuous
reaction causes a layer of material to be built on the wafer surface (step c).
Typically the average thickness of thin film deposited by CVD, evaporation or
sputtering is below 1 mm. To deposit films of greater thickness is typically too
time consuming or impractical.
Fig: A schematic diagram of the metal evaporation equipment.

Fig: A process of chemical reactive deposition (e.g., chemical vapor deposition).
c. Thermal Oxidation of Silicon

Silicon dioxide is an important insulating layer for microelectronics and MEMS.
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reacting silicon wafers with oxygen atoms at high temperatures (e.g., 900°C
and above).
Figure: A schematic diagram of the oxidation equipment and process.

Figure: Process of thermal oxidation explained at the atomic level.
(a) Oxygen atoms arrive at the surface of bare silicon.

(b) Reaction between oxygen and silicon turns part of the surface into silicon
dioxide.
(c) Gradually, a continuous layer of silicon dioxide is formed, separating the
oxygen atmosphere with the silicon substrate.
(d) Newly arrived oxygen species must diffuse across the oxide layer in order to
react with silicon atoms on the other side of the oxide.
The reaction rate is limited by the diffusion process.
Wafers are often placed inside a heated quartz tube. On the surface of the
wafer, a layer of oxide is formed and separates the interior silicon from the
oxygen atoms. The atoms on the outside must diffuse through the oxide layer
and react with the fresh silicon on the inner interfaces of silicon and oxide. One
can imagine that, as the thickness of oxide grows, the rate of oxidation growth
decreases. The deposition rate and the ultimate thickness are dependent on the

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temperature. For most applications, the thermal oxide thickness is below 1.5
mm.
d. ETCHING TYPES
Bulk micromachining involves the removal of part of the bulk substrate. It is a

subtractive process that uses wet anisotropic etching or a dry etching method
such as reactive ion etching (RIE), to create large pits, grooves and channels.
Materials typically used for wet etching include silicon and quartz, while dry
etching is typically used with silicon, metals, plastics and ceramics.
Wet Etching
Wet etching describes the removal of material through the immersion of a
material (typically a silicon wafer) in a liquid bath of a chemical etchant. These
etchants can be isotropic or anisotropic.
Isotropic etchants etch the material at the same rate in all directions, and
consequently remove material under the etch masks at the same rate as they
etch through the material; this is known as undercutting. The most common
form of isotropic silicon etch is HNA, which comprises a mixture of hydrofluoric
acid (HF), nitric acid (HNO3) and acetic acid (CH3 COOH). Isotropic etchants are
limited by the geometry of the structure to be etched. Etch rates can slow down
and in some cases (for example, in deep and narrow channels) they can stop
due to diffusion limiting factors. However, this effect can be minimized by
agitation of the etchant, resulting in structures with near perfect and rounded
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Figure. Isotropic etching with (a) and without (b) agitation, and anisotropic wet
etching of and silicon (c and d respectively).
Anisotropic etchants etch faster in a preferred direction. Potassium hydroxide
(KOH) is the most common anisotropic etchant as it is relatively safe to use.
Structures formed in the substrate are dependent on the crystal orientation of
the substrate or wafer. Most such anisotropic etchants progress rapidly in the
crystal direction perpendicular to the plane and less rapidly in the direction
perpendicular to the plane. The direction perpendicular to the plane etches
very slowly if at all. Figures c and d shows examples of anisotropic etching in
and silicon. Silicon wafers, originally cut from a large ingot of silicon grown
from single seed silicon, are cut according to the crystallographic plane. They
can be supplied in terms of the orientation of the surface plane. Dopant levels
within the substrate can affect the etch rate by KOH, and if levels are high
enough, can effectively stop it. Boron is one such Dopant and is implanted into
the silicon by a diffusion process. This can be used to selectively etch regions
in the silicon leaving doped areas unaffected.
Dry Etching
Dry etching relies on vapour phase or plasma-based methods of etching using
suitably reactive gases or vapors usually at high temperatures. The most
common form for MEMS is reactive ion etching (RIE) which utilizes additional
energy in the form of radio frequency (RF) power to drive the chemical reaction.
Energetic ions are accelerated towards the material to be etched within a
plasma phase supplying the additional energy needed for the reaction; as a
result the etching can occur at much lower temperatures (typically 150º-250ºC,
sometimes room temperature) than those usually needed (above 1000ºC). RIE
is not limited by the crystal planes in the silicon, and as a result, deep trenches
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Deep Reactive Ion Etching (DRIE) is a much higher-aspect-ratio etching

method that involves an alternating process of high-density plasma etching (as
in RIE) and protective polymer deposition to achieve greater aspect ratios.
Figure. Deep Reactive Ion Etching (DRIE)

Etch rates depend on time, concentration, temperature and material to be
etched. To date there are no universally accepted master equations to predict
etched performance and behavior.
e. Doping
Figure: Two step diffusion doping.

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Doping is the process of planting Dopant atoms into the host semiconductor
lattice in order to change the electrical characteristics of the host material. The
initial source dopants can be placed on the surface of the wafer or precisely
injected into the silicon lattice using the ion implantation method. The Dopant
atoms can further diffuse from high-concentration to low-concentration regions
under thermal activation.
A schematic diagram of a representative process used for doping selective
regions of silicon with Dopant atoms is shown in Figure. The desired shape of
the resistor is shown in the top-most figure. The resistor feature should be
moderately doped. The two ends of the resistor should have higher doping
concentration in order to form ohmic contacts with metal leads.
A mask shield is first deposited in step a and patterned to form windows. The
wafer is ex-posed to a source of Dopant, which cannot penetrate the mask
shield layer but can enter the sill-icon via the open windows. The arms of the
resistor are then patterned (in step b) for performing a lower dose doping.
Finally, metal leads are deposited and patterned to connect with the resistor
(step c).
Dopant atoms perform random walk (Brownian motion) in a semiconductor
lattice under elevated wafer temperature. Though the movement of individual
Dopant atoms is random, the overall population of Dopant atoms moves from
high-concentration regions to low-concentration ones. This process is called
thermal diffusion.
It is important to notice that
(1) existing doping procedure can only be performed on top surfaces of wafers
(2) high temperature encountered by a wafer during a process, even in steps
after the doping process, can cause Dopant redistribution and changes of
electrical characteristics.
f. Wafer Dicing

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A wafer consists of multiple dies; each must be broken into separate pieces
before being pack-aged individually. The traditional process for separating dies
is through a dicing process. A high-speed rotating dicing saw blade is used to
cut trenches in silicon wafer. The cutting process, being mechanical in natures,
produces particles. Water is sprayed onto the wafer to lubricate and remove
heat. The thinned trenches allow silicon to be broken off easily without
fracturing. Obviously, this step, with the particles, vibration, and water, can
damage almost all freestanding MEMS mechanical components.
Figure: A dicing saw blade cutting trenches in silicon wafer to facilitate

die separation.
Laser ablation has also been used to dice wafers in lieu of dicing saw. Since
2006, new laser stealth dicing (SD) technologies were developed, using laser
permeable to the silicon wafer to create internal modified lines invisible on the
surface. This technology would benefit MEMS device package immensely.
g. Wafer Bonding
Wafer-to-wafer bonding is a versatile technique that allows wafers with
disparate materials, surface profiles, and functional characteristics to be joined
to form unique structures. Wafer bonding involves bringing two wafers close
with proper spatial alignment to form permanent bonding under proper
physical and chemical conditions. Wafer bonding can be per-formed using a
variety of materials and temperature conditions. Wafer bonding can be aided

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through interfacial layers of thin films deposited on the wafer surfaces.

Bonding allows flexibility in processing.
Bonding processes can be categorized according to the temperature of
operation: room temperature bonding, low-temperature bonding (<100°C) and
high-temperature bonding (>100°C). Wafer bonding can be direct, i.e., without
involving any intermediate adhesive layer, or indirect, where an adhesion layer
is used. Bonding can be initiated by mechanical contact force, molecular
attractive force, or electrostatic force.
Wafers can be chemically or mechanically modified after bonding. For example,
they can be thinned to a desired thickness by mechanical polishing or chemical
etching. Wafer to wafer transfer has been demonstrated to achieve surface
planarization and to produce devices such as mirrors and membranes, even
ones with large sizes. Most bonding operations are conducted at the wafer
scale. However, bonding can be performed at die level or device level.
THE MICROELECTRONICS FABRICATION PROCESS FLOW
Figure: Fabrication process for an integrated circuit.

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A basic understanding of the fabrication technology for integrated circuit,

which precedes that of MEMS in history, is necessary to understanding the
micromachining process. A fabrication process for integrated circuits generally
involves many steps of material deposition, material removal, and patterning,
as illustrated in the following example.
A brief description of each step is presented below:
Step 1.0. The figure depicts the cross section of a starting bare silicon wafer.
The wafer thickness is not drawn to scale. Material process steps occurring on
the backside of a wafer are not drawn in future steps for the sake of simplicity.
Step 2.0. A layer of oxide is deposited. The oxide is patterned using the
following subsequent steps (2.1 through 2.3). This oxide layer is here only to
serve a transitional purpose. (This point will become obvious later.)
2.1. A photosensitive resist layer is deposited on top of the oxide by spin
coating.
2.2. The photosensitive resist is lithographically exposed and developed.
2.3. The photo resist is used as a mask for etching the oxide.
Step 3.0. The photo resist is removed using organic solvents. The patterned
oxide is used as a mask against impurity doping performed in step 3.1 through
3.3.
3.1. A layer of material containing Dopant impurities is deposited.
3.2. The wafer is thermally treated, causing the Dopant to diffuse into
silicon in areas not covered by the oxide.
3.3. The Dopant-source layer deposited in step 3.1 is removed.
Step 4.0. The oxide is removed. Note that many steps and layers of materials
are involved to transform a bare wafer (step 1.0) to a wafer with Dopant in
selective places (step 4.0).
Additional processes (steps 4.1 through 4.4) are then performed to produce
another layer of patterned oxide.
4.1. Another layer of silicon oxide is grown.

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4.2. A photosensitive resist is deposited.

4.3. The resist is lithographically patterned.
4.4. Using the resist as a mask, the oxide is etched.
Step 5.0. The resist deposited in step 4.2 is removed. From Step 4.0 to 5.0, the
major difference is oxide cover in undoped regions. An oxide layer is then
deposited and patterned (5.1. through 5.4).
5.1. A very thin oxide is grown. This so-called gate oxide layer must have
very high quality and are free of contaminants and defects.
5.2. A resist layer is again deposited.
5.3. The resist is lithographically patterned.
5.4. The resist serves as a mask for selectively etching the gate oxide.
Step 6.0. The resist deposited in step 5.2 is removed. The active regions not
covered by oxide will provide electrical contact to metal. A gate electrode, made
of polycrystalline silicon, is then deposited and patterned in steps 6.1 through
6.4.
6.1. A layer of polycrystalline (doped) silicon is deposited.
6.2. A layer of photosensitive resist is deposited.
6.3. The resist is patterned lithographically.
6.4. The resist serves as a mask for etching the underlying
polycrystalline silicon selectively.
Step 7.0. The resist is removed by using organic solvents. The difference
between steps 6.0 to 7.0 is the addition of polycrystalline silicon. Each
transistor must be connected with each other and to the outside through low-
resistivity metal wires. The metal wires are made in steps 7.1 through 7.3.
7.1. A layer of metal is deposited.
7.2. And 7.3. The metal is coated with resist and lithographically
patterned.
7.4. The resist serves as a mask for etching the metal.
Step 8.0. The resist is removed, realizing a complete field effectors transistor.

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The process used in the industry follows the basic flow diagramed in Figure but
involves more detailed steps for quality assurance, functional enhancement,
and for increasing the yield and repeatability. Many more steps may incur after
step 8.0 as well.
A complete process run from the start to the finish may take 3 months, and
20–40 mask plates.
SILICON BASED PROCESS SELECTION AND DESIGN
SILICON BASED PROCESS SELECTION

MEMS devices were first developed on silicon wafers because of the easy
availability of mature processing technologies that had been developed within
the microelectronics industry, and the availability of expertise in process
management and quality control.
Silicon actually comes in three general forms: single crystal silicon,
polycrystalline silicon, and amorphous silicon. In single crystal silicon (SCS)
material, the crystal lattice is regularly organized throughout the entire bulk.
Single crystal silicon is often encountered in three cases:
(1) Single crystal silicon wafer grown from a high-temperature
melt/recrystalization process
(2) Epitaxial grown silicon thin films;
(3) Single crystal silicon obtained from recrystalizing polycrystalline or
amorphous silicon by global or local heat treatment.
Figure: Crystal structure of single crystal silicon and polycrystalline silicon.

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A polycrystalline silicon material (so called polysilicon, polySi, or poly) is made

of multiple crystalline domains. Within each individual domain, the crystal
lattice is regularly aligned. However, crystal orientations are different in
neighboring domains. Domain walls, also referred to as grain boundaries, play
important roles in determining electrical conductivity, mechanical stiffness,
and chemical etching characteristics. The polysilicon material can be grown by
low pressure chemical vapor deposition (LPCVD), or by recrystalizing
amorphous silicon through global or local heat treatment.
Amorphous silicon, on the other hand, exhibits no crystalline regularity.
Amorphous silicon films can be deposited by chemical vapor deposition
methods (CVD), at a lower temperature than that required to deposit
polysilicon. Due to low temperature, atoms do not have enough vibration
energy to align themselves after they are incorporated into the solid.
Amorphous silicon can be grown using the LPCVD method. (In a typical,
horizontal, low-pressure reactor, the transition temperature above which
polycrystalline structure forms during deposition is 580°C.) Amorphous silicon
can be formed by plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) method
as well.
The two most fundamental classes of fabrication technologies are bulk
micromachining and surface micromachining. Bulk micromachining processes
involve selectively removing the bulk (silicon substrate) material in order to
form certain three-dimensional features or mechanical elements, such as
beams and membranes. Bulk micromachining may be combined with wafer
bonding to create even more complex three-dimensional structures.
SILICON BASED PROCESS DESIGN
We use the example of a micro machined pressure sensor to illustrate a

representative MEMS process. The process involves two wafers a bottom wafer

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is etched to form a cavity whereas a top wafer is used to make the membrane.
A description for each step in the diagram follows.
Figure: Process for a micro machined pressure sensor.

Step a. The wafer is cleaned thoroughly to remove any large particles, dirt
particles, and invisible organic residues. A combined mechanical wash
and oxidizing acid bath may be used, followed by a rinse by ultrapure
water.
Step b. The cleaned wafer is placed inside a high-temperature furnace filled
with running oxygen gas or water vapor. Oxygen atoms present in the
air or dissociated from the water molecule will react with silicon to form
a protective silicon dioxide thin film.
Step c. The wafer is removed from the furnace and cooled to room
temperature. It will be very clean. A layer of thin film photoresist is
deposited on the front surface of the wafer. The photo resist is typically
spin coated. Alternatively, photo resist thin film can be deposited by
vapor coating, mist coating, or electroplating.
Step d. The photo resist is exposed through a mask with a high-energy
radiation (such as ultraviolet ray, electron beam, or X-ray).
The entire wafer is then placed inside a developing solution that removes
loosely bound photosensitive polymer. The soft bake process in step c
ensures that the photo resist will not be indiscriminately stripped by the
developer.

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Step e. The photo resists needs to be baked again, this time at a higher
temperature and often for a longer duration than the soft bake. This
second baking step, called “hard bake”, removes remaining solvents and
makes photo resist that remains on the wafer stick to the wafer even
stronger.
The photo resist mask is here used to selectively mask the underlying layer, the
silicon oxide, against a hydrofluoric acid etchant bath.
Step f. The photo resist is removed using an organic solvent etchant such as
acetone. The hard-baked photo resist is chemically resistant to the HF
etchant but not to acetone. The organic solvent does not etch the oxide
and the silicon.
Step g. The silicon wafer is immersed in a wet silicon etchant, which does not
attack the silicon oxide. Only the silicon in the open oxide window is
etched, resulting in a cavity with sidewalls defined by crystallographic
planes. The cavity may reach the other side of the wafer if the open
window is large enough for the given wafer thickness.
Step h. The wafer at the end of stage (g) is tilted to provide a clear view of the
through-wafer cavity.
Step i. A wafers are processed be very clean, because tiny particles adhering to
the bonding surfaces of either wafer will prevent good bond strength
from being reached.
Step j. The bonded top wafer is thinned by using mechanical polishing or
chemical etching. The remaining thickness of the top wafer determines
the thickness of the membrane. Thin membranes are desired to have
high sensitivity.
Step k. Strain sensors are then made on the prepared membrane. A thin film
layer (e.g., oxide) is deposited and patterned. It serves as a barrier layer
to ion implantation. Areas on the silicon wafer hit directly by energetic
Dopant ions will become doped and form a piezoresistors, which

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changes its resistance upon applied stress due to membrane bending

under pressure difference.
Figure: Pressure sensor fabrication process.

The second class of micro fabrication process for MEMS is surface
micromachining. Free-standing mechanical elements can be created by
removing an underlying place-holding thin film layer, instead of the substrate
underneath. This spacer layer, called the sacrificial layer, constitutes the
primary characteristic of a surface micromachining process. The general
concept of this process was first envisioned by physicist Richard Feynman.
Figure illustrates a typical surface micromachining process involving one
structural and one sacrificial layer. A sacrificial layer is first deposited and
patterned. This is followed by the deposition of a structural layer on top of the
sacrificial layer material. Following the fabrication of layered structures, the
sacrificial material is selectively removed to free the structure layer on top. For
example, cantilevers residing on the surface of a substrate can be made using
oxide as a sacrificial layer and polycrystalline thin film as a structural layer. In
fact, surface micromachining is so named because micro mechanical devices
reside within a thin boundary on the front surface of the wafer.

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Figure: Sacrificial surface micromachining.

These two classes of processes bulk and surface micromachining are not used
to the exclusion of one another, nor are they the only types of processes
available for MEMS. Increasingly, bulk and surface micromachining processes
are combined to create more complex structures with desired functionalities
that cannot be realized using bulk or surface micromachining alone. Further,
these two major classes of processes can also be combined with other classes
of processes such as wafer bonding, laser machining, micro molding, and three
dimensional assemblies, to incorporate a variety of bulk and thin film
materials.
PIEZOELECTRICITY
INTRODUCTION:
The phenomenon of piezoelectricity was discovered in the late nineteenth
century. It was observed that certain materials generate an electric charge (or
voltage) when it is under a mechanical stress. This is known as the direct
effect of piezoelectricity. Alternately, the same material would be able to
produce a mechanical deformation (or force) when an electric field is applied to
it. This is called the inverse effect of piezoelectricity.

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Many important properties of piezoelectric materials stem from its crystalline

structures. Piezoelectric crystals can be considered as a mass of minute
crystallites (domains). The macroscopic behavior of the crystal differs from that
of individual crystallites, due to orientation of such crystallites. The direction of
polarization between neighboring crystal domains can differ by 90 or 180.
The properties of piezoelectric elements are time dependent. The stability as a
function of time is of particular interest. Material characteristics may be
degraded through aging effects due to the intrinsic process of spontaneous
energy reduction. The speed of aging can be con-trolled through the addition of
composite elements or through accelerated aging.
CANTILEVER PIEZOELECTRIC ACTUATOR MODEL

Piezoelectric actuators are often used in conjunction with cantilevers or
membranes for sensing and actuation purposes. General models for such
piezoelectric actuators are rather complex. Accurate analysis often involves
finite element modeling. For limited cases, such as cantilever actuator with two
layers, analytical models have been successfully developed.
The deflection of a two-layer piezoelectric structure can be described by
compact formula. Consider a cantilever with two layers, one elastic and one
piezoelectric, joined along one side. These two layers share the same length. A
compact model for calculating the curvature of bending has been made under
the following assumptions:
 The induced stress and strain are along axis-1, or the longitudinal axis of
the cantilever;
 Cross sections of the beam originally plane and perpendicular to the beam
axis remain plane and perpendicular to the resulting curved axis;
 The beam maintains a constant curvature throughout the beam;
 Shear effects are negligible;
 Beam curvature due to intrinsic stress may be ignored;

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 The beam thickness is much less than the piezoelectric-induced curvature;

 Second order effects such as the influence of d33 and electrostriction are
ignored;
 Poisson‟s ratio is isotropic for all films.
Figure: Bending of a piezoelectric bimorph.

The beam bends into an arc when the piezoelectric layer is subjected to a
longitudinal strain, slong. The radius of curvature can be found by
Where, Ap and Ae are the cross-sectional areas of the piezoelectric and the
elastic layer, Ep and Ee are the Young‟s modulus of the piezoelectric and the
elastic layer, and tp and te are the thickness of the piezoelectric and the elastic
layer.
Once the radius of curvature is known, the vertical displacement at any
location (x) of the cantilever can be estimated.
The amount of force achievable at the free end of a piezoelectric bimorph

actuator equals to the force required to restore the tip of the actuator to its
initial unreformed state. Since the displacement is linearly related to force
according to

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Piezoelectric sensors and actuators with more than two layers are commonly
encountered.
Several general techniques can be found in, both under simple or arbitrary
loading.
PROPERTIES OF PIEZOELECTRIC MATERIALS
Since semiconductor materials are often used in making circuits and MEMS, it
is of interest to discuss piezoelectricity of important semiconductor materials.
a. Quartz
The most familiar use of quartz crystal, a natural piezoelectric material, is
resonator in watches. In a quartz-crystal oscillator, a small plate of quartz is
provided with metal electrodes on its faces. Quartz-crystal oscillators are able
to produce output frequencies from about 10 kilohertz to more than 200
megahertz and, in carefully controlled environments, can have a precision of
one part in 100 billion, though one part in 10 million is more common.
b. PZT
The lead zirconate titanate (PZT) system is widely used in polycrystalline
(ceramic) form with very high piezoelectric coupling. One of the most widely
used methods to prepare thin film PZT material for MEMS is sol-gel deposition.
Using this method, relatively large thickness can be reached easily using single
or multiple layer deposition.
Using a processing technique called screen printing, even thicker PZT films can
be reached in a single pass with the highest piezoelectric coupling coefficient
being 50 pC/N, significantly lower than what is achievable in bulk PZT. The
screen printing ink consists of sub-micron PZT powders obtained commercially,
and lithium carbonate and bismuth oxide as bonding agent. After screen
printing, the deposited materials are dried and then fired at high temperature
for densification. The sol-gel deposition process is constantly being advanced.
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c. PVDF
The polyvinylidenfluoride (PVDF) is a synthetic fluoropolymer with monomer
chains of (CH2-CF2-)n. It exhibits piezoelectric, pyroelectric, and ferroelectric
properties, excellent stability to chemicals, mechanical flexibility, and
biocompatibility. The piezoelectric effect of PVDF has been investigated and
modeled.
Thin-stretched PVDF films are flexible and easy to handle as ultrasonic
transducers. The material is carbon based, usually deposited as a spin cast
film from a dilute solution in which PVDF powder has been dissolved. As for
most piezoelectric materials, process steps after deposition greatly affect the
behavior of the film. For example, heating and stretching can increase or
decrease the piezoelectric effect. PVDF and most other piezoelectric films
require a polarizing after deposition.
d. ZnO
ZnO material can be grown using a number of methods, including rf or dc
sputtering, ion plating, and chemical vapor deposition. In the MEMS field, ZnO
is most commonly deposited by magnetron sputtering on various materials,
with the Z axis close to the normal of a substrate.
A popular electrode material on top of the ZnO thin film is aluminum, which
can be etched using a solution of KOH, K3Fe(CN)6, and water (1 g:10 g:100 ml).
ZnO itself can be etched using wet etchants such as CH3COOH:H3PO4: water (1
ml: 1 ml: 80 ml) at fast rate. Techniques have been developed to avoid excessive
undercutting and produce fine features.
APPLICATIONS
Piezoelectric materials can be used in many micro sensors and actuators. We
will focus on the discussion of four types of sensors: inertia sensors, pressure
sensors, tactile sensors, and flow sensors. Meanwhile, two examples of

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piezoelectric actuators will be reviewed. The case studies collectively will reveal
design, materials, and fabrication issues specifically related to piezoelectric
MEMS devices.
a. Inertia Sensors
Commercial MEMS accelerometers are primarily based on electrostatic or
Piezoresistive sensing. Piezoelectric sensors require more complex materials
and fabrication processes. Nonetheless, piezoelectric acceleration sensors have
been made in the past. Integrating piezoelectric material in MEMS is not
straightforward. First, controlling the microstructure of piezoelectric thin films
requires careful calibration and, often, dedicated equipment. Secondly, many
piezoelectric thin films are not chemically inert. Care must be exercised to
prevent damages to piezoelectric thin films during processing.
b. Acoustic Sensors
There is growing interest in using micromachining technology to create
microphones. MEMS based microphones offer good dimensional control,
miniaturization, and direct integration with on chip electronics, arrayed format,
and potentially low cost due to batch processing. Piezoelectric microphones
using diaphragms made of silicon nitride, silicon, and even organic thin film
has been made
c. Tactile Sensors
The thrust of the tactile sensor research is to quantitatively measure contact
forces (or pres-sure), mimicking human-like spatial resolution and sensitivity,
large bandwidth, and wide dynamic range.
d. Flow Sensors
Flow sensors can be built using piezoelectric principles in similar fashion as
Piezoresistive flow sensors, although the material deposition and optimization
will require more efforts in general. For example, floating-element shear-stress
sensors have been made using piezoelectric bi-morph sensors.

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e. Surface Elastic Waves

Piezoelectric materials, under proper electrical bias, can launch elastic waves
in bulk or thin films. Two most commonly encountered elastic waves are the
surface acoustic wave (SAW) and flexural plate wave (or Lamb wave). The SAW
occurs on samples of appreciable depth, whereas Lamb waves occur in thin
plates of materials.
MAGNETIC ACTUATION ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES

Magnetization and Nomenclatures
A magnetic field may cause internal magnetic polarization of a piece of
magnetic material within the field. This phenomenon is called magnetization.
A piece of magnetic material is made of magnetic domains. Each magnetic
domain is said to consist a magnetic dipole. The strength of internal
magnetization of the bulk magnetic material depends on the extent of ordering
of these domains. These domains contribute to a net internal magnetic field
within the magnetic material itself, if they are somewhat aligned.
Magnetic field intensity (Symbol H) represents the driving magnetic influence
external to a magnetic material. Its convenient SI unit is A/m. The
conventional unit in CGS unit system is oersted (1 A/m = 4p>103Oe).
Another term, called magnetic field density (Symbol B), represents the
induced total magnetic field inside a piece of magnetic material. The total
magnetic field accounts for the influence of the induction field and the internal
magnetization. The term B is often referred to as magnetic induction or
magnetic flux density as well. The magnitude of B can be expressed in units
within the SI unit system: Tesla, or Wb/m2, or within the CGS unit system:
Gauss (1T = 104 Gauss). The convenient SI unit for Weber is V·s. The
convenient SI unit for Weber is V·s. The convenient SI unit for Tesla is
therefore V·s/m2.
The magnetic field densities of commonly encountered magnetic objects are:

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• Common refrigerator magnet: 100–1000 Gauss;

• Rare earth magnet used in Magnetic Resonance Imaging: 1–2 T;
• Magnetic storage media: 10 mt, or 100 Gauss;
• Earth magnetic field (near equator):1 Gauss.
The relationship between B and H can be described using the following
equation:
Relative permeability of the magnetic material, and M the internal

magnetization. The magnetic susceptibility, x, is defined as mr-1. A magnetic
material with a weak and positive x is called paramagnetic; one with a weak
and negative x is diamagnetic. For paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials,
the relative permeability is very close to 1.
For ferromagnetic materials (e.g., iron, nickel, cobalt, and some rare earths),
the values for relative permeability are very large. A ferromagnetic material is
so named because iron is the most common example of this group.
Ferromagnetic materials are often used in MEMS actuation applications. The
linear relationship between B and H is only valid within a certain range of H.
The full magnetization curve for a ferromagnetic material is illustrated in
Figure. There are a number of important features to note:
- After the external induction field reaches a certain level, the magnetization
will reach a saturation point, called saturation magnetization. The saturation
represents a situation when all available domains within a piece of magnetic
material have been aligned to one another.
- A ferromagnetic material will lose a portion of its magnetization upon the
removal of the external magnetic field. The fraction of the saturation
magnetization which is retained after H is removed is called the remnance of
the material. The coercively is a measure of the reverse field needed to drive the
magnetization to zero after having reached saturation at least once. The area

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enclosed by the hysteresis curve indicates the amount of magnetic energy

stored in a magnetic material.
Their differences are easily explained using the B-H hysteresis curves. The
curve to the left in Figure shows the hysteresis curve of a hard magnetic
material, such as a permanent magnet.
Figure: Magnetization hysteresis curve

Permanent magnetic materials not only exhibit large remnant field. They also
require larger reverse field and energy input in order to switch or destroy the
built-in magnetic field. The curve to the right shows the hysteresis curve of a
soft magnetic material. The core of a transformer, for example, is desired to be
made of a soft magnet. The small stored energy allows high efficiency, low
power consumption, and rapid transition.
Figure: Representative hysteresis curves for hard and soft magnets

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FABRICATION OF MICRO MAGNETIC COMPONENTS

Magnetic actuators involve unique materials and unique structures (e.g.,
solenoids). The material preparation and fabrication techniques for
representative components of a micro magnetic system are discussed in the
following.
a. Deposition of Magnetic Materials
Although it is possible to attach small pieces of magnetic materials to micro
mechanical structures for realizing sensors and actuators, this process is
generally very inefficient. Monolithic integration of magnetic materials is more
accurate and widely practiced.
Figure: A process for electroplating of magnetic materials.
The most common technique for depositing ferromagnetic materials for micro
devices applications is electroplating. A chemical solution consisting of
constituent ions of the desired magnetic material is used as a wafer bath. The
work piece for metal deposition (wafer) is biased negatively with respect to a
counter electrode, which is placed in the bath during the electroplating session.

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In many cases, the wafer is not conductive on its own. Under these
circumstances, the surface of a wafer is first coated with a thin film metal layer
for providing negative electric biasing. This thin film layer is called the seed
layer. Common seed layer materials are copper, aluminum, or gold. Thin metal
layers of Cr or Ti are often used to enhance adhesion between the seed layer
metal and the substrate.
A typical electroplating process flow using a seed-layer is shown in Figure. A
substrate covered with a metal seed layer is prepared. In order to produce
patterned ferromagnetic thin film, a mold electroplating method is often used
(Figure. a). The mold, made of a thin film insulating layer (e.g., patterned
photoresist), is deposited and patterned (Figure b). The wafer is immersed in an
electroplating solution (Figure c). Electroplated metal grows in the open
windows, where the seed layer is exposed to the electroplating bath (Figure e).
The electro-plating mold is then selectively removed. The electroplating process
may result in thickness smaller than the height of mold (Figure d), or greater
(Figure e), depending on the duration of the plating step. When the thickness of
electroplated metal reaches beyond the height of the mold, it tends to grow
laterally.
Figure: Mushroom shaped electroplated metal, revealed after the

electroplating mold is removed.
The constitutions of electroplating bath and pertinent processing parameters

for two representative materials including NiFe and CoNiMnP are summarized
in Table.

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Besides electroplating, other fabrication processes for realizing thick magnetic

materials are also available. One such process relies on commercial polyimide
mixed with ferrite magnetic powers at different concentration levels. The
magnetic polymer composite, consisting of particles of magnetic materials
suspended in nonmagnetic media, offers the ability to incorporate magnetic
materials of arbitrary characteristics available at the bulk scale to
micromachining applications. Patterned polymer magnetic film can be
produced using either screen printing technique or, if the polymer matrix is
photo definable, spin coating followed by photolithography.
Design and Fabrication of Magnetic Coil

On chip integrated solenoids are of great interest. They can be used for
electromagnetic source, coil actuator, as well as inductors, telemetry coils, and
transformers for integrated circuits. Solenoids by conventional machining
involve wounding conducting wires around a ferromagnetic core (Figure). In
micro fabricated devices, however, this practice is prohibitively difficult due to
the small scales and lack of automated tools. Instead, the most prevalent and

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manufacturable form of electromagnet is a single layer, planar coil with air core
(Figure a). Such a coil is not capable of generating strong magnetic flux density
because of the lack of a magnetic core and the lateral spreading of wires away
from the center of the coil.
More efficient electromagnet coils have been built with integrated core and
wrap-around coils. Such coils can be classified into two categories according to
the orientation of the magnetic core those with the magnetic flux normal to the
substrate plane or those with the flux lying parallel to the substrate plane.
Figure: Magnetic field line distribution of a solenoid magnet.
Figure: A planar magnetic inductor

A number of techniques for realizing micro solenoids with integrated
ferromagnetic core are shown in Figure.
The simple scheme of electroplating a high-permeability magnetic material
with a planar coil improves upon the performance of a single layer magnetic
coil (Figure b). However, the improvement is not significant as the issue of

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strong dispersion of magnetic field persists. To contain and even concentrate

the magnetic field lines, innovative structures and fabrication processes are
involved. For example, through-wafer magnetic cores can be built by taking
advantage of the sloped surfaces created using anisotropic etching (Figure c).
The equivalent of horse-shoe magnet can be made by processing magnetic core
materials on both sides of a wafer. The magnetic flux density can be increased
by reducing the cross-sectional area of the core (Figure d).
Figure: Process flow for multiple layer planar coils.
All solenoids in Figure involve single-layered conducting wires. Coils with

multiple turns can be made by stacking (Figure). The process involves
depositing a metal coil layer, covering it with a dielectric material, planarizing
the dielectric material, and repeating the cycle. In theory, this process can be
repeated for an infinite number of times. In reality, there is practical limit to
how many layers can be stacked due to finite process time and potential
degradation of registration quality and surface roughness as the number of
layers increases.

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Three-dimensional coils have been fabricated on various substrate surfaces,

including nonplanar surfaces, using techniques ranging from micro contact
printing on a cylinder, three-dimensional assembly, laser direct lithography,
fluid self-assembly, and even conductive loops formed by bonding wires.
Magnetic coils with in-plane magnetization can be built as well. The process
flow for a typical multiturn coil is shown in Figure. The basic process consists
of three major steps: deposit and pattern a bottom conductive layer (Figure a),
electroplate the magnetic core as well as vertical conductive posts (Figure b and
c), and deposit and pattern a top conductive layer (Figure d).
Figure: Fabrication of three dimensional micro coils
CASE STUDIES OF MEMS MAGNETIC ACTUATORS

Micro magnetic actuators can be categorized according to the types of magnetic
sources and of the microstructures involved. The source of the magnetic field
can be a permanent magnet, an integrated electromagnetic coil (with or without
the core), or an external solenoid. Multiple types of sources may be used in a
hybrid manner. Force-generating microstructure, located on a chip, can be of

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one of the following kinds: permanent magnet (hard ferromagnets), soft

ferromagnets, or integrated electromagnetic coil (with or without a core).
Case 1: Magnetic Motor
Figure: A variable-reluctance magnetic micro motor.
The first example is a planar variable-reluctance magnetic micro motor with

fully integrated stator and coils in Figure. The stators are made of integrated
electromagnets, whereas the rotor is made of a soft magnetic material. The
motor has two sets of salient poles, one set in the stator (which usually has
excitation coils wrapped around the magnetic poles) and another set on the
rotor.
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When a phase coil is excited, the rotor poles located closest to the excited
stator poles are attracted to the stator pole (Figure a, b). Due to the rotation of
the rotor, the said rotor poles will align with the stator poles. The excited phase
coil is turned off, and the next phase is excited for continuous motion. In this
design, the wound poles of all phases are arranged in pairs of opposite polarity
to achieve adjacent pole paths of short lengths. The stator coils arranged in one
or more sets and phases are excited in sequence to produce continuous rotor
rotation.
A toroidal-meander type integrated inductive component is used in the motor
for flux generation. Multilevel magnetic cores are “wrapped” around planar
meander conductors (Figure c). This configuration can be thought of as the
result of interchanging the roles of the conductor wire and magnetic core in a
conventional inductor (Figure d).
Figure: Fabrication process of toroidal-meander type magnetic coil.

Step a. The fabrication process begins with an oxidized silicon wafer.
Step b. A 200-mm-thick titanium thin film is deposited as the
electroplating seed layer.
Step c. Polyimide was spin coated on the wafer to build electroplating
molds for the bottom layer of the magnetic core.

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Step d. This polyimide is coated with an aluminum metal thin film and
again with a photoresist layer, which is photo lithographically patterned.
Step e. Electroplating of Nickel-iron Perm alloy is grown to fill the openings
in the polyimide
Step f. Another layer of polyimide is spin coated to insulate the bottom
magnetic core.
Step g. A 7-mm-thick metal film (either aluminum or copper) was
deposited and patterned on top of the polyimide insulator
Step h. More polyimide is spin coated on the patterned metal to
planarizing the wafer and insulate the meander conductor
Step i. The polyimide is patterned using the same procedure as was done
previously
Step j. holes are opened all the way to the bottom magnetic core, and an
electroplating process is conducted to pro-duce the top magnetic core
Case 2: Magnetic Beam Actuation

One of the most unique performance characteristics of magnetic actuation
over electrostatic, thermal, and piezoelectric actuators is the ability to
generate torque and achieve large angular displacement.
Figure: Flap magnetic actuator

One actuator has been developed for dynamic aerodynamic control. The
actuator consists of a rigid flap supported on one side by two fixed-free
cantilevers. Each flap is made of polycrystalline silicon (as the support

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structure) and electroplated ferromagnetic materials. The cross-sectional side

view is shown in Figure a. When an external magnetic field is present, an
internal magnetization is developed in the ferromagnetic piece. The situation
is similar to the one experienced by piece #4, case c of Figure. Experimental
characterization of a single flap has been conducted to show that up to 65
angular displacements can be achieved.
The magnitude of the internal magnetization equals the saturation
magnetization, being approximately 1.5 T for the prepared material. The
direction of the internal magnetization vector lies within the plane of the flap
according to shape anisotropy (Figure b).
In a no uniform magnetic field, a torque and a force are developed on the
micro flap. (The force element is ignored in analysis.) The magnetic torque and
the angular displacement.
The process is carried out on a silicon wafer because of the high temperature
associated with the structural layer (LPCVD polycrystalline silicon) and
sacrificial layer (LPCVD oxide).
Figure: Fabrication process.

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Step a. LPCVD oxide is deposited and patterned, followed by deposition

and patterning of polycrystalline silicon.
Step b. A metal seed layer is deposited, followed by spin coating and
patterning of photoresist as the electroplating mold.
Step c. Electroplating occurs in regions not covered by the photoresist, to
a height decided by the thickness of the spin-coated photoresist.
Step d. The photoresist is removed.
Step e. Subsequently, the sacrificial layer (oxide) is removed in HF acid
bath.
Case 3: Plate Torsion with Lorentz Force Actuation

A moving-coil electromagnetic optical scanning mirror capable of one-axis
rotation is discussed in Figure. A mirror plate is supported by torsional hinge
structures consisting of multilayered polyimide films with aluminum lead
wires in between. The mirror consists of a planar micro plate, with a smooth
side for optical reflection and the opposite side hosting a planar coil. Two
permanent magnets are placed on the side of the mirror, such that the
magnetic field lines are parallel to the plane of the mirror and orthogonal to
the torsional hinges. When current passes through the coil, Lorentz forces will
develop and cause rotational torque on the mirror. The direction of the torque
depends on the direction of the current input.
Figure: Diagram of a micro mirror.

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Case 4: Multi axis Plate Torsion Using On-Chip Inductor

Another micro mirror capable of rotation along two axes is discussed. A mirror
is suspended in a rotational gimbal that provides rotation degrees-of-freedom
in two axes, Figure a. Four planar electroplated electromagnetic coils are
located at the backside of the mirror, one occupying each quadrant. Current
passing through each coil will generate a magnetic dipole. A strong permanent
magnet based on rare-earth materials is located underneath the mirror plate.
Based on the polarity of the dipole with the external field, an attractive or
repulsive force will be acted on each coil under the interaction of induced
magnetic dipole and the permanent magnet.
Figure: Optical micro mirror capable of two-axis rotation.

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A rotational torque can be generated if two neighboring coils (joined by at least

one side) are biased in the same direction. There are four distinct possibilities
for generating torques (Figure b-e). The selective activation of these coils will
induce coupled angular displacement along two axes, in a highly selective
manner. The motions are controlled electrically under a strong biasing
electromagnetic field provided by a stationary permanent. The permanent
magnet eliminates any power consumption for biasing, and can operate over
relatively large distance and large displacement angles. The large magnetic field
H compensates for the fact that the electromagnetic field created by each
planar coil is relatively weak.
Case 5: Bidirectional Magnetic Beam Actuator
Figure: A bi-directional magnetic actuator.

A bidirectional cantilever-type magnetic actuator is discussed in Figure. At the
tip of a silicon cantilever beam, permanent magnet arrays are electroplated so
as to achieve a vertical magnetic actuator by taking advantage of the vertical
magnetic anisotropy of the magnetic arrays. The adoption of array shapes in
design of permanent magnets (multiple vertical posts as opposed to a large
sheet) allows suppression of the residual stress between the electroplated
CoNiMnP films and the establishment of preferred internal magnetization,
normal to the plane of the cantilever. A commercial inductor is used as the
electromagnet to drive the bidirectional actuator. The magnetic force acting on
the cantilever is

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Where V is the volume of the magnetic piece, Ms the magnetization of the

magnet. To generate large force, it is advantageous to use spatially disperse
magnetic field to increase the gradient.
Case 6: Hybrid Magnetic Actuator with Position Holding

Magnetic actuation with hybrid magnetic source has been used to achieve a
latchable, bistable electrical switch. MEMS technology has been used to realize
switches and relays. A variety of techniques have been investigated.
The structure and principle of a bistable magnetic switch is illustrated in
Figure. A cantilever is elevated above the substrate surface by a torsion
support. The cantilever consists of soft ferromagnetic material (Perm alloy in
this case) on top and a layer of high conductivity metal (gold) on the bottom
(for electrical contact purposes). The biasing magnetic field is contributed by
two sources a planar coil (on-chip) and a permanent magnet (off-chip). A
planar coil is embedded beneath the cantilever. A permanent magnet located
on the backside of the silicon provides a constant background magnetic field
H0 .
Figure: A bistable magnetic switch.

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The length of the cantilever is much greater than its width and thickness.
When it is magnetized inside an external magnetic field, the internal
magnetization (labeled M) is always in the longitudinal direction due to shape
anisotropy. The interaction between the internal magnetization (M) and the
external magnetic field creates a torque. However, the internal magnetization
has two stable directions, due to the initial alignment between the cantilever
and the external magnetic field. Depending on the direction of M, the torque
can be either clockwise or counterclockwise. Both angular positions,
corresponding to OFF and ON states, are stable.
The unique design of this switch is the fact that the bi-directional
magnetization can be momentarily reversed by using a second magnetic field.
This allows the torque and the position of the switch to be switched by
supplying a small current. Towards this end, a planar coil situated between
the cantilever and the external magnet is used to generate a magnetic field to
compensate the field created by the external magnet. The permanent magnet
holds the cantilever in that position under the next switching event is applied.
COMPARISON OF MAJOR SENSING AND ACTUATION METHODS

Relative advantages and disadvantages of electrostatic sensing, thermal
sensing, Piezoresistive sensing and piezoelectric sensing are summarized in
Table. Often, the choice of a sensing principle is not just based on sensitivity.
Table: Comparison of various sensing methods.

Advantages Disadvantages
Electrostatic  Simplicity of  Large footprint of device
sensing materials; necessary to provide sufficient
 Low voltage, low capacitance;
current operation;  Sensitive to particles and
 Low noise; humidity
 Rapid response.
Thermal sensing Simplicity of materials; Relatively large power
consumptions;

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Elimination of
moving Generally slower response than
parts. electrostatic sensing.
Piezoresistive High sensitivity Requires doping of silicon to
sensing achievable; achieve high- performance
piezoresistors;
Simplicity of materials Only allow doping front-facing
(metal strain gauge). surfaces;
Sensitive to environmental
temperature changes.
Piezoelectric Self-generating no power Complex material growth and
sensing necessary. process flow;
Relative poor DC response due
to electric leakage across the
material;
Piezoelectric material cannot
sustain high-temperature
operations.
Table: Comparison of various actuation methods.

Advantages Disadvantages
Electrostatic Simplicity of materials; Trade-off between magnitude of
actuation force and displacement;
Susceptible to pull-in
Fast actuation response. limitation.
Thermal actuation Capable of achieving Relatively large power
large displacement consumption;
(angular or linear);
Moderately fast actuation Sensitivity to environmental
response. temperature changes.
Piezoelectric Fast response possible; Requires complex material
actuation preparation;
Capable of achieving Degraded performance at low
moderately large frequencies.
displacement.
Magnetic actuation Capable of generating Moderately complex processes;
large angular
displacement;
The possibility of using Difficulty to form on-chip,
very strong magnetic as high-efficiency solenoids.
bias.

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MODULE-5
POLYMER MEMS & MICRO FLUIDICS, CASE STUDIES
Polymer MEMS& Micro fluidics: Introduction, Polymers in MEMS (Polyimide,
SU-8, LCP, PDMS, PMMA, Parylene, Others) Applications (Acceleration,
Pressure, Flow, Tactile sensors).Motivation for micro fluidics, Biological
Concepts, Design and Fabrication of Selective components, Channels and
Valves.
Case Studies: MEMS Magnetic actuators, BP sensors, Microphone,
Acceleration sensors, Gyro, MEMS Product development: Performance,
Accuracy, Repeatability, Reliability, Managing cost, Market uncertainties,
Investment and competition.
POLYMER MEMS
INTRODUCTION
Polymers are large, usually chainlike molecules that are built from small
molecules. Long chain polymers are composed of structural entities called mer
units, which are successively repeated along the chain. A bulk polymer is made
of many polymer chains. The physical characteristics of a polymer material
depend not only on its molecular weight and make up of polymer chains, but
also on the ways the chains are arranged.
Polymers can be classified into three major classes: fibers, plastics, and
elastomers (rubbers). Major discerning characteristics of these three groups are
summarized in Table. The largest number of different polymeric materials
comes under the plastics classification. Polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl
chloride (PVC), polystyrene, fluorocarbons, epoxies, phenolics, and polyesters
are all classified as plastics. Many plastic materials are manufactured by
different vendors and carry different trade (common) names. For example,
acrylics (Polymethyl methacrylate, PMMA) are known as Acrylite, Diakon,
Lucite, and Plexiglas in trade. Vendors may incorporate additive substances

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into polymers to adjust their physical, chemical, electrical, and thermal

characteristics and to change their appearances.
According to their origins, polymers can be categorized into two groups:
naturally occurring polymers and synthetic polymers. Naturally occurring
polymers those derived from plants and animals, include wood, rubber, cotton,
wool, leather, and silk. Synthetic polymers are derived from petroleum
products.
Polymers can be classified by its response to temperature. Thermal plastic

polymers (thermalplasts) can be remelted and reshaped repeatedly whereas
thermal setting polymers (thermalsets) take on a permanent shape after being
melt-processed once.
The melting of a polymer crystal corresponds to the transformation of a solid
material, from an ordered structure of aligned molecular chains, to a viscous
liquid in which the structure is highly random.
The mechanical properties of polymers differ from those of metals and
semiconductors in several major aspects. An excellent review of mechanical
properties of polymers:
 Polymer materials cover a wide range of Young‟s modulus.
 The modulus of elasticity may be as low as several MPa for highly elastic
polymeric materials, but may run as high as 4 GPa for some of the very
stiff polymers.

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 Maximum tensile strengths for polymers are on the order of 100 MPa,
much lower than that of metal and semiconductor materials.
 Many polymers exhibit viscoelastic behaviour.
- The mechanical properties are influenced by temperature, molecular weight,
additives (many proprietary), degree of crystallinity, and heat treatment history.
Mechanical properties of certain polymers can change dramatically over narrow
temperature range.
- Many organic polymers are dielectric insulators. However, certain polymers
exhibit interesting conducting behaviours. In recent years, conducting polymer
materials are being actively pursued for making transistors, organic thin film
displays, and memory. Such conductive polymers include polypyrrole,
polyaniline, and polyphenylene sulphide, to name a few.
- Polymers can be processed using a large number of techniques, including
injection molding, extrusion, thermoforming, blow molding, machining, casting,
compression molding, rotational molding, powder metallurgy, sintering,
dispersion coating, fluidized-bed coating, electrostatic coating, calendaring, hot
forming, cold forming, vacuum forming, and vapour deposition. Many
techniques can be combined with Micro fabrication.
-
POLYMERS IN MEMS
Micromachining technology for MEMS was derived from integrated circuit
fabrication. Naturally, silicon has been the predominant material choice. In
recent years, polymers have emerged as an important new class of materials for
use in MEMS applications. There are a number of unique merits associated
with polymer materials.
 The cost of the material is much lower than that of single-crystal silicon.
 Many polymer materials allow unique low-cost, batch-style fabrication
and packaging techniques such as thermal micromolding, thermal embossing
and injection molding. Instead of processing on one wafer at a time, polymer

SMART MATERIALS
substrates can potentially be processed in a high-throughput, roll-to-roll

fashion.
 Certain polymers offer unique electrical, physical and chemical
properties that are not available in silicon and silicon-derived materials.
Examples of such properties include mechanical shock tolerance,
biocompatibility, and biodegradability.
There are barriers for using polymers in MEMS. The viscoelastic behaviour of
polymers is undesirable in certain applications. Many polymer materials have
lower glass-transition and melting temperatures. The low thermal stability
limits fabrication methods and application potentials.
The list below includes polymers that have been used successfully and widely
for MEMS applications. Some items in the list represent a family of polymers
while others represent a specific product:
a) Polyimide
b) SU-8
c) Liquid crystal polymer
d) Poly dimethyl Siloxane
e) Polymethyl methacrylate (also known as acrylics. Plexiglas, or PMMA)
f) Parylene (poly paraxylylene)
g) Poly tetra fluoro ethylene (Teflon) and Cytop.

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Polyimide
Polyimides represent a family of polymers that exhibit outstanding mechanical,
chemical, and thermal properties as a result of their cyclic chain-bonding
structure. Bulk processed polyimide parts are used widely, from cars (struts
and chassis in some cars) to microwave cookware. It is widely used in
microelectronics industry as an insulating material as well. Polyamides are
formed from the dehydrocyclization of polyamic precursors into cyclic polymers
by incorporating aromatic groups R and R¿. These aromatic groups are chosen
to affect the properties of the final polyimide. For example, by chemically
altering the polyamic acid precursor to include R–groups sensitive to UV,

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photo-patternable precursors can be made to crosslink where exposed to UV

light.
Cured polyimide films exhibit intrinsic stress on the order of 4*106 Pa to 4*107
Pa, as measured using suspended micro fabricated polyimide strings. Further,
mechanical and electrical properties of polyimide may exhibit direction-
dependent behaviour. Many properties such as index of refraction, dielectric
constant, Young‟s modulus, thermal expansion coefficient, and thermal
conductivity vary with processing conditions.
Polyimide is commercially available as cured sheets, semi-cured sheets, or
viscosity solutions for spin-coating. The structure of a typical commercial
polyimide HN-type Kapton. In MEMS, polyimide is used as insulating films,
substrates, mechanical elements (membranes and cantilevers), flexible joints
and links, adhesive films, sensors, scanning probes, and stress-relief layers.
Polyimide materials offer many favourable characteristics in these roles,
including
a. Chemical stability;
b. Thermal stability up to around 400 c;
c. Superior dielectric properties;
d. Mechanical robustness and durability; and
e. Low cost of materials and processing equipment.
Polyimide can be used as structural elements for sensors and actuators.
Unfortunately, polyimide is neither conductive nor strain sensitive. Functional
materials such as conductors or strain gauges need to be integrated externally.
Thin film metal strain gauges have been integrated with polyimide, exhibiting
an effective gauge factor on the order of 2 to 6. An alternative is to modify the
polyimide material for sensing purposes.

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SU-8
The SU-8 is a negative tone, near UV photo-resist first invented by IBM in the
late 1980s, with the main purpose of allowing high aspect ratio features to be
made in thick photosensitive polymers. The photoresist consists of EPON®
Resin SU-8 (from Shell Chemical) as a main component. The EPON resin is
dissolved in an organic solvent (GBL, gamma-butyrolacton), with the quantity
of solvent determining the viscosity and the range of achievable thickness.
Processed layers as thick as 100 mm can be achieved, offering tremendous new
capabilities for masking, molding, and building high aspect ratio structures at
low cost. The cost of SU-8 lithography is considerably lower than that of other
techniques for realizing high aspect ratio microstructures, notably LIGA
process and the deep reactive ion etching. SU-8 has been integrated in a
number of micro devices, including micro fluid devices, SPM probes, and micro
needles. It can also serve as a thick sacrificial layer for surface
micromachining.
Figure: Polyimide chemistry.

a) Generic polyamic acid precursor, with thermally stable R and R‟ groups
chosen for specific final proper ties in the
b) Resultant general polyimide structure after imidization (dehydrocyclization)
reaction.
Liquid Crystal Polymer (LCP)

The liquid crystal polymer is a thermoplastic with unique structural and
physical properties. This characteristic differentiate LCP from most
thermoplastic polymers (e.g., Kapton), whose molecule chains are randomly
oriented in the solid state.

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Owning to its unique structure, LCP offers a combination of Electrical,

Thermal, Mechanical and Chemical properties unmatched by other engineering
polymers. One of the earliest LCP films used in MEMS is a Vectra A-950
aromatic liquid crystal polymer. The reported melting temperature of Vectra A-
950 is 280 C. The specific gravity ranges from 1.37 to 1.42 kg/m3, and the
molecular weight is greater than 20,000 g/mol. Extensive tests showed that
LCP was not attacked or dissolved by at least the following chemicals common
in Micro fabrication:
a. Organic solvents including acetone and alcohol,
b. Metal etchants for Al, Au and Cr,
c. Oxide etchants (49% Hf and buffered Hf), and
d. Developers for common photoresist and su-8 resist.
Characteristics of Liquid Crystal Polymer (LCP)
 LCP is virtually unaffected by most acids, bases and solvents for a
consider-ably long time and over a broad temperature range.
 LCP films have excellent stability.
 It has very low moisture absorption („0.02%) and low moisture
permeability,
 The LCP film also shows excellent chemical resistance.
 Compared with Kapton, LCP has a lower cost (50%–80% lower than that
of Kapton) and is melt processable at lower temperatures.
 For LCP film with uniaxial molecule orientation, its mechanical
properties are anisotropic and dependent on the polymer orientation.
 The thickness of LCP film could vary from several microns to several
millimetres.
PDMS
Elastomers are materials that can sustain large degree of deformation and
recover their shape after a deforming force. Poly (dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS),

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an elastomer material belonging to the room temperature vulcanized (RTV)

silicone elastomer family, offers many advantages for general MEMS
applications.
 Optically Transparent
 Electrically Insulating
 Mechanically Elastic
 Gas Permeable
 Biocompatible
The biological and medical compatibility of the material is reviewed in. PDMS is
widely used in micro fluidics. The primary processing method is molding,
which is straightforward and allows fast, low cost prototyping.
A number of unique process characteristics of PDMS are worth noting:
 The volume of PDMS shrinks during the curing step. Compensation of
dimensions at the design level should be incorporated to yield desired
dimensions.
 Due to volume shrinking and flexibility, deposited metal thin films on cured
PDMS tends to develop cracks, affecting the electrical conductivity.
 The surface chemical properties (such as adhesion energy) can be varied by
altering the mixing ratio and through surface chemical or electrical
treatment.
PDMS is commercially supplied as a viscous liquid it can be cast or spin coated
on substrates. Unfortunately, the PDMS material is not photo definable. It
therefore cannot be simply spin coated and patterned like photosensitive
resists. Though UV curable PDMS is being developed, the technology is not yet
mature. It is possible to use plasma etching to pattern PDMS thin films.
However, the etch rate is rather slow. The measured etch rate is approximately
7nm/min at 800 W power and 100 V bias. Etching of PDMS with O2 plasma
leaves the surface and line edges rough.

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PMMA
PMMA is supplied in many different forms, including bulk, sheets, and
solutions for spin-coating. PMMA bulk, most commonly known by its trade
name acrylics, has been used in making micro fluidic devices. The photo
definable PMMA thin film is a widely used e-beam and X-ray lithography resist.
Spin coated PMMA has been used as a sacrificial layer as well. Deep reactive
ion etching processes for PMMA thin films has been demonstrated.
PARYLENE
Parylene is a thermalsets polymer. It is the only plastic material that is
deposited using chemical vapour deposition (CVD) process. The deposition
process is conducted under room temperature. A Parylene deposition system
consists of a source chamber connected to a vacuum deposition chamber. A
dimer (dipara-xylene) is heated inside the source chamber to approximately
150C. It sublimates into a gaseous monomer, which then enters the vacuum
chamber and coats on objects within. Three parylene dimer variations are
available from commercial vendors, including Parylene C (widely used),
Parylene N (for better dielectric strength and penetration), and Parylene D (for
extended temperature performance). The Parylene film offers very useful
properties for MEMS applications, including
 Very Low Intrinsic Stress,
 Room Temperature Deposition,
 Conformal Coating,
 Chemical Inertness,
 Etch Selectivity.
Parylene coating is deal for electrical isolation, chemical isolation, preservation,
and sealing. Parylene has been used for microfluidics channels, valves, retina
prosthesis, sensors (acceleration sensors, pressure sensors, microphones, and

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shear stress sensors). The thickness of Parylene coating is generally controlled

by the amount of dimer loaded. Thickness monitors and end-of-point detectors
for in-situ Parylene thickness monitoring have been developed, for example
based on thermal transfer principles.
FLUOROCARBON
Fluoropolymers such as Teflon and Cytop provide excellent chemical inertness,
thermal stability, and nonflammability due to the strong C-F bond. They can be
used as a surface coating, insulation, antireflection coating, or as adhesion
agent. Cytop is a trademarked material (by Asashi Glass Company of Japan). It
exhibits many good properties as Teflon but offers high optical transparency
and good solubility in specific fluorinated solvents. Fluoropolymers films can be
spin coated or deposited by PECVD method. In MEMS, Teflon and Cytop films
have been used for electrical insulation, adhesive bonding, and friction
reduction.
OTHER POLYMERS
In addition to the seven polymers mentioned above, a number of emerging
polymer materials are pursued for use as functional structural layers, unique
sacrificial layers, adhesive layers, chemical sensors, and mechanical actuators.
These include biodegradable polymers, wax (paraffin), and polycarbonate.
These three classes of polymers are briefly reviewed below.
Biodegradable polymer materials have been developed and investigated for
implantable medical applications, drug delivery vehicles, and tissue
engineering matrixes. Biodegradable polymers such as polycaprolactone,
polyglycolide, polylactide, and poly lactide-co-glycolide have been demonstrated
in MEMS use. Biodegradable polymers are thermoplasts. Microstructures have
been formed by micro molding, for applications such as microfluid channels,
reservoirs, and needles.

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Paraffin provides many interesting properties not found in other materials. For
example, Paraffin has low melting temperature (40 - 70) and high volumetric
expansion (14–16%). The melt temperature of Paraffin can be controlled by
mixing several types of Paraffin‟s with different melting temperatures together.
It can be selectively etched by certain organic solvents (such as acetone) very
quickly at room temperature, and offers good chemical stability against many
strong acid solutions such as HF.
The use of Paraffin can lead to many interesting transduction mechanisms and
Micro fabrication techniques. At large scale, Paraffin has been used as linear
actuators for dexterous endoscope. At small scales, paraffin-based actuators
have been used for microfluid valuing and pumping by encapsulating Paraffin
patches inside a volume with integrated heaters. Wax can be used as a mold
for fabricating complex micro structures.
Paraffin can be deposited using thermal evaporation, and patterned using
plasma generated with an oxygen and Freon 14 gas mixture. Since the melting
temperature is low (75 C for Logitech 0CON-195 or n-Hexatriacotane), all steps
following Paraffin deposition must use low temperature processes or engage
active substrate cooling.
Polycarbonate is a tough, dimensionally stable, transparent thermoplastic that
can be used in many applications that demand good performance
characteristics over a wide range of temperatures. Commercial polycarbonates
are supplied in three grades: machine grade, window grade, and glass-
reinforced grade. Un-notched polycarbonate has very high-impact strength,
excellent dielectric strength, and electrical resistivity. Polycarbonate can be
processed with injection molding, extrusion, vacuum forming, and blow
molding. Polycarbonate parts can be bonded easily and welded. In MEMS,
polycarbonate has been used for Micro fabrication of micro channels using
either sacrificial etching or molding. Polycarbonate sheets with ion track etched

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holes have found use for filters with unique ionic filtering capabilities due to
the nanometre-sized diameters and uniformity of these holes.
Despite the progress in recent years, a large number of polymer materials that
are widely used at the macroscale are not yet exploited for MEMS applications.
Many polymer materials can potentially find applications in MEMS in the
future. These candidates include conductive polymers, electro active polymers
such as polypyrrole, photopatternable gelatin, polyurethanes, shrinkable
polystyrene film, shape memory polymers, and piezoelectric polymers such as
Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF).
Further, there are seemingly endless ways to modify polymer materials. For
example, it has been discovered that the functional, electrical and mechanical
properties of many polymers can be altered by additives such as nanoparticles,
carbon nanotubes, and nanowires.
REPRESENTATIVE APPLICATIONS
Many unique materials properties and fabrication techniques of polymer
materials can best be understood by examining applications that involve them.
We shall review four types of sensor devices, made using thin film polymers or
polymer bulk substrates.
Acceleration Sensors
Acceleration sensors can be made entirely or partially out of polymer materials
using a variety of transduction principles. These generally involve depositing
functional thin films on polymer substrates or microstructures.
Pressure Sensors
The surface micromachining process and the use of metal as strain gauges
completely eliminate the need to use thin film silicon or substrates, thus
reducing the cost of development and the cost of final devices.
Flow Sensors

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Most existing micro machined sensors have been developed using single crystal
silicon substrates. An important reason for making sensors out of silicon lies in
the fact those piezoresistive elements can be realized in silicon by selective
doping. However, silicon devices are relatively expensive and brittle when
compared to polymer and metal-based devices. A silicon beam may fracture
easily in the presence of shock or contact. Flow sensors with polymer elements
are re-ported.
Tactile Sensors
Among the various types of sensors discussed in this book pressure,
acceleration, flow, and tactile sensors the tactile sensors has the most stringent
requirement of sensor robustness. They must be able to withstand direct
contact and over loading. It is advantageous to incorporate polymers in tactile
sensors in increase the level of robustness.
MICRO FLUIDICS APPLICATIONS

PREVIEW
Microfluidics represents a new and interdisciplinary research area. This
chapter serves as an introduction of this exciting research area to interested
readers. Because materials for microfluidics channels, reactors, sensors, and
actuators must be compatible with biochemical fluids and particles, this
subject area challenges MEMS developers to incorporate new materials and
develop practical, effective, and low cost solutions to sensing and actuation.
MOTIVATION FOR MICROFLUIDICS

Sophisticated chemical and biological analytical procedures, for applications
such as medical diagnosis and environmental monitoring, have traditionally
been conducted in dedicated laboratories by highly trained personnel. These
protocols are performed on bench tops and in test tubes and beakers. This
bench-top norm has limited accessibility, long turn-around time, complex
logistics (e.g., sample transportation and storage), and high costs.
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A microfluidics system for chemical and biological diagnosis is known as a

“laboratory-on-a-chip” or a “micro total analysis system” (mTAS). The naming
of the field reveals its inspiration and motivation. The last three letters of the
word “microfluidics” “ics” are identical to the last three letters of the world
“microelectronics”.
Much like microelectronics circuits revolutionized the signal processing and
communication, fluid reactions carried on in integrated, miniaturized
microfluid channels and reactors promise major changes in practices of
medical diagnosis and intervention, drug discovery, environmental monitoring,
cell culture and manipulation of bio particles, gas handling and analysis (e.g.,
component separation or heat transfer), heat exchange, chemical reactors (for
power and force production) , and bioterrorism defence.
Some major benefits of using microfluid platforms to replace bench-top
chemistry are:
a. A microfluidics system reduces dead volumes associated with a chemical
assay system with large-scale chambers and connectors.
b. A microfluidics system reduces the amount of chemical assays and solutions
required and thus can potentially reduce cost by saving the amount of
expensive chemicals and biological samples used for a given analysis.
c. A microelectronics-style bulk fabrication will reduce the cost of sophisticated
systems. Lithography and parallel fabrication reduces the difficulty of
building sophisticated fluid piping and reaction networks.
d. Microfluidics can achieve high level of multiplicity and parallel operations to
increase the efficiency of chemical and biological discovery.
e. Micro scale fluid elements also find broader use beyond biological and
chemical analysis. Many applications are being sought in areas such as
optical communication, tactile display (e.g., refreshable Braille display), IC
chip cooling, and fluid logics. Microfluid has also been used for performing
novel Micro fabrication and nanofabrication.

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ESSENTIAL BIOLOGY CONCEPTS

Microfluidics systems are used to handle and interact with biological and
chemical particles and substances, including cells and polymers (e.g., DNA and
proteins). In this section, a concise overview of major characteristics of
essential biological and chemistry elements that pertain to the design,
fabrication and functions of microfluidics systems are presented.
A MEMS developer should be at least conversant about key terminologies and
concepts of biology and chemistry. A few of these are reviewed below. Interested
readers should refer to textbooks in the area of biology and chemistry for more
details.
Cells are basic functional units of life. The function of a cell is determined by
the genetic sequence it carries. A basic human cell stores genetic codes,
reproduces such codes upon cell division, and manufactures protein molecules
based on such codes. Cells can develop a rich variety of functional
differentiation based on the genetic codes. Cells communicate with their
outside environment through a highly sophisticated, compliant cell wall. The
cell wall is made of a lipid bilayer lined with ion channels, tiny channels that
allow ions (such as potassium and sodium) to pass selectively, in two ways.
Bacteria and viruses are special forms of cells. Bacteria, for example, do not
contain cell nucleus. A virus, on the other hand, does not have the ability to
divide and reproduce. It may only do so after infecting a host cell and taking
over the reproduction mechanism.
DNA Life is only possible because each cell, upon division, transmit to the next
generation the vital information about how it works. The substance that carries
the information is a polymer called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), a large
molecule with a molecular weight as high as several billion. The monomers that
comprise the nucleic acids, called nucleotides, are composed of three distinct
parts a five-carbon sugar, a nitrogen-containing organic base, and a
phosphoric acid molecule (H3PO4). Four nitrogen-containing bases are found

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cytosine (C), thymine (T), adenine (A), and guanine (G). The cell of humans
carries a total of 3 billion base pairs of nucleotide molecules. Segments of the
DNA chain, called genes, regulate the production of proteins based on the
specific sequence of nucleotide arrangement of the gene. The code transmits
the intended primary structure of the protein to the construction “machine” of
the cell.
Protein If DNA is the basic code of life, protein is the agent that carries out the
intent of the code. Protein is a natural polymer. It makes up about 15% of our
bodies and has molecular weighs that range from approximately 6000 to over
1,000,000 grams per mole. A protein molecule is made of a chain of a-amino
acids. 20 basic types of amino acids are found in life. The order of amino acids
in the protein is called the primary structure, conveniently indicated by using
three letter codes for the amino acids.
Lock-and-Key Biological Binding Chemistry and biology is filled with
examples of lock-and-key protocols highly selective, self-regulated assembly of
two or more entities with recognition deriving from chemical bond forces
and/or folded shapes of proteins. Many biological binding events are very
specific and strong, allowing chemical recognition and mechanical construction
of molecular conjugates. There are no engineering equivalent of such selective
and automated selection processes given its tailor-ability, accuracy of
selectivity, and prevalent use. Some of the most commonly exploited biological
binding protocols include:
- Binding between antibody and antigens
- Binding between biotin and streptavidin molecules
- DNA complementary binding
Molecular and Cellular Tags Certain cells, chemical and biological molecules,
and ions, when present in a fluid environment, are too small and scattered to
be detected easily. To report the location, species, binding characteristics, and
the environment conditions (pH, temperature) of a biological cell or molecule,

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special tags (or beacons) are frequently used. Tags are designed to bind
specifically to cells or molecules of interest, and allow visualization,
identification, selection, and capturing of such cells or molecules. Tags vary in
size and operational principles. Frequently used tags include fluorescent
particles and molecules, and surface-functionalized beads and particles made
of magnetic, metallic, or dielectric materials.
DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF SELECTIVE COMPONENTS

A microfluid chip is made of many categories of components. We discuss two
most important ones in this section, namely channels and valves. Other
component categories include heaters, mixers, fluid reactors, and reservoirs.
The design and fabrication methods for these elements must be compatible
with those of channels and valves.
1. Channels
Microfluid channels are the most important components in a microfluid
system, despite its relatively simple form and function compared with others
(such as pumps, valves). The selection of the channel material is the starting
point for any development efforts of microfluidics systems. There are several
important aspects that must be taken into consideration when selecting
channel materials and subsequent fabrication methods. These include:
a. Hydrophobicity of the channel wall. Liquid moves freely in channels with
hydrophilic walls by capillary action, simplifying sample loading and
priming.
b. Biocompatibility and chemical compatibility. Ideally, the channel wall should
not react with the fluid, particles or gases within.
c. Permeability of channel material to air and liquid. High permeability will
cause excessive loss of fluid or, in the case multiple channels are placed
close to each other, cross-contamination.

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FIGURE: Representative fabrication processes of channels on silicon

substrates.
d. Retention of chemicals on walls. Walls that retain chemicals may cause

cross-contamination during repeated use.
e. Optical transparency. Optically transparent walls facilitate observation and
quantitative assay analysis.
f. Temperature of the processing. Low temperature processing is always
desirable. High-temperature processes would narrow the choice of structural
and surface coating materials.

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g. Functional complexity and development cost. The materials for channels

should be amendable to integration of active components such as pumps
and valves.
The barrier to prototyping and manufacturing should be low.
The materials often order the fabrication method and performance
specifications. Material selection plays an important role of determining the
channel geometries achievable. Materials and technologies for other
components, such as pumps and valves, must be compatible with the channel
wall material and fabrication process.
Research work in microfluidics started in two distinct research communities:
the MEMS community and the analytical chemistry community. These two
communities used different sets of materials.
In the early days of microfluid systems development and applications, the
channels were often made of inorganic materials commonly found in MEMS
studies, such as silicon, silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, polycrystalline silicon,
or metal. The fabrication processes include bulk etching (wet or dry etching),
sacrificial etching, wafer-to-wafer bonding, or any combination of these steps. A
few representative fabrication methods are illustrated Figure for making
channels of various cross-sectional shapes.
In the analytical chemistry community, researchers developed channel
fabrication processes based on familiar materials (glass) and simply fabrication
(wafer bonding). There are many problems associated with silicon-based
microfluid devices despite its ability to generate sophisticated channel cross
sections. Silicon, for example, is not an optically transparent material. Special
fluid imaging and tracking methods have to be developed. The silicon micro
fabrication is not accessible by chemists and biologists and often proves to be
very expensive and inaccessible for rapid prototyping.
In Table, I compare the relative merits of several representative material
systems for microfluid channels according to the criteria presented earlier:

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Valves
Valves are important elements in a micro fluid system. They provide complex
system-level functionalities to a laboratory-on-a-chip system. The following
factors are generally considered when selecting or developing a micro machined
valve:
- The reliability of valve operation. Ideally, a valve should be leak free during
off state and open during ON state.
- The repeatability of valve operation.
- The ability to withstand large pressure.
- The simplicity of valve construction.
- The simplicity of valve operation and control.
- Biocompatibility with the fluid and biological particles.
Valves can be classified according to the mode of operations into several
categories:
- Cyclic valves can be operated multiple times. They can be constant on,
meaning the valve holds its open position without active input of power, or
constant off, meaning the valve maintains sealed position without active power.
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- One-time valves are operated only once during the life of operation.
Constant-on valves will seal off a channel permanently when activated.
Constant-off valves will open once it is activated, for applications such as
collection of environmental samples.
Since the valve is critical for the performance of a microfluid system and for
enabling miniaturization, many valve designs have been developed in the past.
Generally, valve structures fall into the following categories:
- Hard-membrane valves
- Soft-membrane valves
- Plug valves
- Threshold valves
Hard membrane valves use membranes of one of the following materials:
single-crystal silicon, polycrystalline silicon, LPCVD silicon nitride, piezoelectric
thin films, metal thin films, or non-elastomeric organic polymers (such as
Parylene, polycarbonate). Hard membrane valves can be operated by a variety
of principles, the most common ones being based on piezoelectric, electrostatic,
electromagnetic, thermal bimetallic, pneumatic and thermal pneumatic,
actuators. Valves can be based on hybrid combination of principles. For
example, a pneumatic valve may use electrostatic force for holding closed-gap
positions. Hard membranes generally cannot provide good seal in the off state,
especially for regulating valves.
Soft membrane valves uses valves made of elastomer such as PDMS [80]. The
operation principles of elastomeric membranes are limited compared with those
of hard membranes. Since the membrane is soft, it is difficult to integrate
elements such as electrodes. However, soft membrane seal very well and is the
material of choice for conventional valves.
Plug valves can be based on a variety of principles. For example, valves can be
developed by exploiting the large swelling and shrinking capability of ionic

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hydro gels in response to chemical concentrations, pH, temperature, and

electric field or by congregating magnetic or chemically modified particles.
Threshold valves changes its on/off state depending on the pressure or flow
rate. Threshold valves often leverages surface tension principles. Burst valve is
a special kind of threshold valve its state changes from closed to open when the
pressure at its head reaches a certain level.
CASE STUDIES
Case 1: Parallel-Plate Capacitive Accelerometer
Capacitive acceleration sensors are surface micro machined on a wafer with

integrated MOS detection circuitry. The sensor consists of a metal-coated oxide
cantilever with electroplated gold patch at its distal end serving as a proof
mass. The counter electrode is made of heavily doped p type silicon. The
capacitor gap is defined by an epitaxy silicon layer grown on a silicon surface.
Step a. A surface micromachining process was developed, using thermal oxide

as the cantilever structural material and epitaxially grown silicon as the
sacrificial layer.
Step b. The process starts with an n-type, silicon wafer. A heavily boron doped
region is made using an oxide layer as the doping barrier.
Step c. Between steps a and b, the oxide growth, deposition and patterning of
photoresist, and the subsequent oxide etch and photoresist removal are
skipped.
Step d. Another layer of oxide is deposited and patterned,
Step e. Serving as a mask for etching via hole.
Step f. A barrier for doping to form drain, source, and electrical conduction
paths on the slopes via hole.

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Step g. The doping is conducted using ion implantation. During the hole etch,
the heavily doped region will not be attacked because the etchant
reduces it‟s etch rate on heavily doped silicon.
FIGURE: Capacitive accelerometer.
Step h. The oxide barrier is removed.

Step i. This step is followed by the growth of another layer of thick oxide, which
serves as the dielectric insulator, the cantilever, and etching barrier in
regions other than the gate.
Step j. A layer of metal is deposited and patterned. It provides electrical
interconnects to the bottom p+ electrode, electrode on top of the oxide
cantilever, and gate of the field effect transistor.

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Step k. The metal layer consists of Cr followed by thick gold, with the Cr used
to satisfy a critical requirement of enhancing the adhesion between the
gold and the substrate. Finally, a wet silicon etch is performed to
undercut epitaxial silicon beneath the oxide cantilever.
The released cantilever is naturally bent due to intrinsic stress present in
the metal and oxide thin films. The upward bending is approximately 1.5 at the
end of the cantilever. Under the influence of applied acceleration, the beam will
further deform from the stationary profile.
Case 2: Torsional Parallel-Plate Capacitive Accelerometer
FIGURE: Schematic diagram of a surface micro machined parallel-plate

capacitor serving as an accelerometer.
Exposure of a silicon wafer with circuitry to high temperature under

prolonged duration may cause dopants in active regions of the circuits (e.g.,
source and drain) to diffuse out. This will irreversibly change electrical
characteristics or introduce device failure in extreme cases. The top-level
surface micro machined structures need to be deposited and processed under
relatively low temperatures. The oxide structural layer used in Parallel-Plate

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Capacitive Accelerometer requires high temperature to be deposited and is

therefore not suited here.
The new device consists of a flat nickel-top plate supported by torsional

bars. Counter electrodes are located on the substrate surface. Since the plate
weight is asymmetrically distributed with respect to the rotational axis,
acceleration along normal axis to the substrate will cause the top plate to rock
in one direction or another.
Step a. The process starts with a silicon wafer that has already gone through
the complete cycle of IC fabrication. Conducting electrode patches on
the IC wafer serve as the bottom electrodes.
Step b. First, a conductive layer, metal 1, is deposited over the substrate
surface.
Step c. This serves as a seed layer for subsequent electroplating. A second layer
of conductive metal (metal 2) is deposited and patterned, forming
bottom electrode patterns.
Step d. The combined thickness of these two metal layers is 5 mm. Next, a
photoresist layer is deposited and patterned, opening windows to reach
the metal 1 layer.
Step e. Electro-plating of nickel takes places in the open window to define the
movable plate.
Step f. The thickness of the electroplated nickel determines the thickness of the
movable plate and that of the torsional bar. The photoresist is removed,
following by the etching of the sacrificial metal. The bottom conductive
layer (seed layer) is etched as well. It is important to make sure that the
metal 1 layer underneath the anchor is not removed.
All steps, including deposition and etching, take place under room
temperature.

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The sensor‟s response is calibrated within a broad temperature range (- 55

to 125 C) as dictated by military and automotive industry specifications. Here,
capacitive sensing is advantageous over other modes of sensing (e.g.,
piezoresistive) as the temperature sensitivity is relatively low.
Case 3: Membrane Parallel-Plate Pressure Sensor
A membrane pressure sensor can detect pressure differential across the

membrane. Two pressure ports are typically required. To simplify the pressure
sensor design and use, absolute pressure sensors are often desirable. In such
sensors, the reference pressure at one side of the membrane is integrated. One
popular choice is to provide a zero pressure reference (vacuum) by hermetic
sealing.
FIGURE: Fabrication process of pressure sensor with sealed cavity.

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A pressure sensor with batch processed, hermetically sealed vacuum

chamber. The use of vacuum avoids expansion of trapped air and increases the
bandwidth by eliminating air damping inside the cavity. The device must retain
resolution over a temperature range from - 25 C to 85 C. However, the need for
vacuum packaging and integration with integrated circuits presents a critical
challenge.
The sensor cross section is shown in the last step of Figure. A membrane made
of doped silicon serves as the pressure sensing element and one electrode. The
counter electrode consists of patterned metal thin film on the bottom substrate
(made of glass in this case). A fabrication process was developed where the
micro machined silicon membrane was transferred to a glass substrate.
Step a. The process begins with a silicon wafer.

Step b. An oxide mask is deposited and patterned.
Step c. Serving as a chemical barrier during a wet anisotropic etching of
silicon
Step d. 9-mm-deep recessed region is created with the slopes being surfaces.
Step e. An-other layer of oxide is grown, this time as a conformal coating.
Step f. The oxide is then photo lithographically patterned.
The depositing of photoresist film over a wafer with recessed cavities poses a
challenge. The uniformity of the spin-coated resist layer will be negatively
impacted by the presence of surface topology. Further, photo exposure action
on the bottom of the cavity, which is 9-mm away from the ideal focus plane of
the photolithography exposure tool, reduces line width resolution. During
process, caution should be exercised whenever photolithography is performed
on wafers with significant topographic features.
Step g. A boron diffusion step at 1175 C is conducted.

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Step h. To form doped regions as thick as 15 mm. This is followed by the

stripping of the oxide and growth and patterning of yet another oxide
layer.
Step i. The second oxide layer is used in a subsequent boron dif-fusion
step to define a doped region (depth = 3 mm), which becomes the
thickness of the membrane diaphragm.
Step j. A layer of silicon oxide is deposited and patterned, to form a
dielectric insulation.
Step k. The researchers patterned via holes in the oxide, which allow a
subsequently deposited polysilicon to contact the boron doped region and
provide electrical contact with the membrane later.
A short diffusion session (at 950 C) is performed to dope the polysilicon; this is
followed by a chemical mechanical polishing (CMP) step to increase the top
surface smoothness. The polishing step enhances the yield of the sealing step
later.
Step l. A layer of metal (consisting of Cr and Au) is deposited and

patterned, with the gold facing the front side of the wafer.
Step m. An oxide layer is deposited and patterned to re-side on the bottom
of the cavity to provide electrical isolation in case the top membrane
touches the bottom electrode. The researchers flip bonded the wafer onto
a glass wafer, which is coated with a composite Ti-Pt-Au layer.
Step n. The backside of the silicon wafer is etched in an anisotropic silicon
etchant to dissolve the silicon other than the heavily doped, raised
membrane.
Alternatively, hermetically sealed cavities can be formed by chemical vapour
deposition under vacuum to encapsulate strategically placed etch holes.
Capacitive pressure sensors with or without hermetic sealing can also be made
using surface micromachining processes.

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Case 4. Membrane Capacitive Condenser Microphone
A condenser microphone, which is a pressure sensor for measuring acoustic

pressure fronts created when sound waves travel through air or liquid. Sound
waves are oscillating pressure waves.
A condenser microphone consists of a parallel-plate capacitor; with one

solid plate (called a diaphragm) that moves under incoming acoustic waves
while another one being perforated (called a backplate). The perforation
reduces the amount of plate deformation. A capacitor formed between these
two electrodes would therefore change its value in response to incoming sound
waves. The monolithic integration of the capacitor with integrated circuit is key
to realizing high resolution and miniaturization.
FIGURE 4.11: Fabrication process of condenser microphone.
The condenser microphone does not involve wafer bonding. The schematic
diagram of the microphone is shown in the Figure. Mechanically, the device
consists of a perforated plate made of polyimide thin film, and a solid plate
made of the same material. Metal conducting thin films are integrated with

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both plates. The capacitor is electrically connected to the on-chip integrated

circuitry.
The fabrication process of this device combines surface and bulk

micromachining steps. It starts with a silicon wafer that contains fully
processed integrated circuit elements.
Step a. The wafer is covered with a passivation oxide dielectric.

Step b. A composite metal thin film (consisting of chromium, platinum,
and chromium) is deposited and photo lithographically patterned. A layer
of photo patternable polyimide is deposited and patterned, overlapping
with the metal thin film below. The researchers used a Cr layer to
increase adhesion between the platinum layers to the surrounding
structural layers.
Step c. A layer of aluminium is deposited on top of the polyimide, with its
thickness defining the gap of the future parallel-plate capacitor.
Step d. On top of the aluminium, a composite metal thin film (Cr/Pt/Cr) is
deposited and patterned to form a conducting plate with perforation
holes.
Step e. Another layer of polyimide is deposited and patterned, with proper
registration to the perforated electrode plate below.
Step f. Next, a layer of chromium is deposited on the backside of the wafer
and patterned. The chromium layer provides sufficient selectivity during
the subsequent deep reactive ion etching, which etches through the
backside of the wafer, exposing the backside of the first Cr/Pt/Cr
composite layer.
Step g. The aluminium sacrificial layer is then etched away, resulting in a
finished device.
In the finished device, the diaphragm exhibits a tensile intrinsic stress of 20
MPa, which is ideal for keeping the diaphragm flat. The thickness of the

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diaphragm is 1.1 mm, whereas the thickness of the backplate is 15 mm. The
gap of the capacitor is 3.6 mm. The size of the membrane is 2.2 mm by 2.2
mm, with the size of acoustic holes and the spacing between them being 30 *
30 mm2 and 80 mm, respectively.
Case 5. Capacitive Boundary-Layer Shear Stress Sensor
Fluid flowing past a solid surface introduces a boundary layer, inside which the
flow velocity is reduced. Inside the boundary layer, the velocity varies with the
distance to the wall surface (y). The shear stress is defined as the velocity
gradient at the boundary multiplied by the viscosity of the fluid:
Shear stress sensors reveal critical fluid flow conditions at the bottom of the
boundary flow, which are difficult to measure conventionally. The area integral
of shear stress produces drag force. The shear stress information can be used
for active control of turbulent flow field, for actively monitoring fluid drag, and
for achieving drag reduction.
Techniques for measuring fluid shear stress fall into two categories: direct
measurement and indirect measurement. Two popular techniques are the hot-
wire/hot-film anemometer (indirect measurement) and the floating-element
technique (direct measurement).
Floating-element shear stress sensor was the first MEMS shear stress
sensor developed. The floating element shear stress sensor determines the
magnitude of local shear stress directly by measuring the drag force it
experiences. As shown in Figure, a suspended floating element is flush
mounted on the surface of a wall. The displacement of the floating element due
to the shear force (drag force) acting on the plate is transduced into plate
displacement, which can be measured by a variety of techniques, including
electrostatics, piezoresistivity, piezoelectricity and optical sensing.

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FIGURE: A floating element shear stress sensor.
The electronics detection uses a differential capacitance readout scheme.

Three passivated electrodes are located on the surface of the wafer underneath
the element and a thin conductor is embedded in the polyimide. The coupled
capacitances between the drive electrode in the center and the two
symmetrically placed sense electrodes are modified by motion of the floating
element. This change in capacitance is transduced by connecting the sense
electrodes to a pair of matched depletion-mode MOSFET‟s on chip.
The fabrication process for the device begins from a silicon wafer with MOS
circuits already defined. The entire wafer is passivated with 750-nm-thick
atmospheric chemical vapour deposition of silicon dioxide and a 1-mm
polyimide layer (Dupont 2545). The polyimide is added between the passivated
electrodes and the sacrificial layer to eliminate stress cracking in the silicon
dioxide layer. A 3-mm-thick aluminium layer is evaporated as the sacrificial
layer. It is patterned photo lithographically. A 1-mm-thick polyimide layer is

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coated again and cured. This is followed by the evaporation of a 30-nm thick
chromium layer, which serves as the floating electrode. A 30-mm-thick
polyimide layer is applied in seven coating steps. A layer of aluminium is
deposited on the top layer and serves as a mask for etching the polyimide to
define the plate and the cantilever. .
Case 6: Multiaxis Capacitive Tactile Sensor
In this case, a compact sensor capable of measuring normal contact and shear
contact in two axes was made. A parallel-plate capacitor is formed by bonding
a silicon wafer with a glass one. One piece consists of a cone-shaped silicon
mesa suspended by a circular silicon membrane with a thickness of t and a
radius of a. The glass piece consists of a recessed region in which electrodes
are patterned. Four electrodes, each with an area of L2, are arranged in a quad
configuration. Four capacitors are formed, between the four electrodes and the
suspended plate. These are denoted C1 through C4. If a normal force is applied
perpendicular to the substrate, the distance between the movable mass and
the bottom electrodes is reduced uniformly for all four capacitors.
FIGURE: Schematic diagram of a bulk-micro machined parallel-plate capacitor

serving as a differential mode tactile sensor.

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However, if a shear force is applied to induce rotational movement of the silicon

mass, the changes of capacitance for the four capacitors will be different. Two
capacitances increase while the other two decrease, with almost the same
degree of change.
The processing of the silicon part began with a standard p-type silicon wafer,
which is polished on both sides (Figure a). All standard IC processes were
performed on the front side. First, a buried n-type layer (3.5 mm deep) was
formed by doping. Then a 6-mm-thick n-type epitaxial silicon layer was grown
(Figure b). The buried n type layer and the epitaxial layer constitute the
thickness of a flexible membrane. A deep p-type diffusion doping is performed
to electrically isolate each capacitor electrodes (not shown). A composite layer
of silicon oxide followed by silicon nitride is grown on both sides. The silicon
nitride and oxide on the backside is patterned to serve as an etch mask for wet
anisotropic etching (Figure d). After the etching, a contact pad on top of a
membrane is formed by anisotropic silicon wet etch (Figure e). The silicon
nitride and oxide layers are then re-moved using wet chemical etchants. The
silicon wafer is then bonded to a glass wafer, which consists of a recessed
region (3 mm deep) with patterned electrodes on the bottom. Anodic bonding is
achieved at 400 C with a voltage bias of 1000–1200 V.
FIGURE 4.14: Fabrication process of tactile sensor.

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The sensor output with respect to applied calibration forces has been
characterized. In the range of 0 to 1 gram, normal forces cause a capacitance
change of 0.13 pF, whereas shear forces causes a differential capacitance of
0.32 pF. The capacitance change is linearly proportional to the calibration force
within this range.
Case 7: Gas Chromatography Channels

Chromatography involves a sample (or sample extract) being dissolved in a
mobile phase (which may be a gas, a liquid or a supercritical fluid). The mobile
phase is then forced through an immobile, immiscible stationary phase. The
phases are chosen such that components of the sample have differing solubility
in each phase. A component which is quite soluble in the stationary phase will
take longer to travel through it than a component which is not very soluble in
the stationary phase but very soluble in the mobile phase. As a result of these
differences in mobility‟s, sample components will become separated from each
other as they travel through the stationary phase.
The time between sample injection and an analyte peak reaching a detector at
the end of the column is termed the retention time (tR). Each analyte in a
sample will have a different retention time. The time taken for the mobile phase
itself to pass through the column is called tM.
In 1975, a group of researchers at Stanford University unveiled an integrated
gas chromatographer (GC) made from glass wafers shown in Figure. The gas
chromatographer device separate components within a gas mixture and
analyze relative concentrations of gas species. Gas separation channels have
semicircular cross sections, 200 mm across and 40 mm deep On a 4 diameter
(100 mm) wafer, channels as long as 1.5 m was realized. The channel walls
were made of glass.
The system is used for chemical trace analysis of pollutants and toxic elements
in the environment. Instead of packing a channel with solid phase materials,
the wall of the channel serves as the absorption element. Under a same

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pressure gradient applied between the inlet and the outlet, difference gas
molecules exhibit different Gas species that have started at the same location
and time would arrive at the exit at different time. With the advancement of
micro fabrication technology, the GC chip can be further miniaturized. Long
GC columns can be packed with higher efficiency using three-dimensional
channels fabricated in silicon, glass, or polymer materials. tR.
Figure: Schematic diagram of an integrated gas chromatography system.

Case 8: Electrophoresis in Micro channels
Electrophoresis separation of multiple species in a liquid sample is a powerful
technique for assaying or purification. According to our earlier discussions
about electrophoresis, different species travel at different speed under a given
electric field. In order to maximize the efficiency of electrophoresis separation,
those species should begin within close vicinity of each other, rather than being
spread out over a long sample plug.
Figure: Schematic diagram of a glass micro electro separation chip.

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EP separation with precision defined plug sizes can be achieved using double-T
type injectors. A glass microchip for electro separation of biological molecules
has been developed.
First, a buffer solution is injected between the buffer and waste ports. An
analyte is then injected between the analyte and analyte waste ports. An
analyte plug with precision volume is formed between the two T junctions. An
EP potential is applied between the buffer and the waste ports, causing the
analyte plug to move along the EP column towards the waste port. Different
species within the plug of analyte are detected at end of the separation column.
Figure: Operational principle of electro separation chip.
There are many designs and fabrication methods to implement this EP

separation system. One of the simplest, and earliest demonstration, is
discussed below. It begins with a glass wafer, a material that is no different
from conventional EP separation columns. A Cr thin film is deposited over the
glass, and photo lithographically patterned (step b). The patterns in the Cr are
used to define the position and size of channels. Glass is etched in regions not
covered by Cr using a solution containing HF and NH4F to a desired depth
(step c). The Cr mask is removed (step d). Another glass chip is positioned on
top of the glass substrate and permanently bonded. The channel is therefore
made of glass entirely. Metal electrodes are inserted into ports externally.

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Case 9: Neuron Probes with Channels

Neural physiology is one of the grandest scientific and medical quests of the
mankind. Understanding of neurological physiology will lead to prevention and
curing of many debilitating illnesses that severely affect the quality of life, such
as Alzheimer‟s‟ disease and Parkinson‟s disease. In order to study neurological
signal processing, which is conducted in complex three-dimensional tissues
with myriads of connections, advanced engineering tools for imaging,
recording, and affecting neurological behaviours are needed. One of such tools
is micro machined neurological recording probe, which can be made with small
size and high density for minimizing unintended damages and extracting rich
data.
Here we discuss a representative work by Wise‟s group that incorporates
microfluid channels in micro machined neural probes. Such probes are used
for injecting solutions. The probe must be sufficiently stiff to penetrate neural
tissues. In this case, it is made of single crystal silicon. We focus on the
fabrication process of the silicon channel. Because the channel is long, it is
impractical to use embedded sacrificial layers and later remove it. The lateral
undercut of the channel would take a very long time. Also due to the length of
the channel, the cross section of the channel need to be relatively large in order
to produce sufficient flow of chemical solutions under moderate-to-low
pressure differences (to avoid harming biological tissues). It is difficult to use
deposited sacrificial-layer material to realize large cross section because the
deposition process would take a long time.
The fabrication process requires only one mask. The front surface is doped to
form a 3-mm-thick region with high concentration (part b). The concentration
is sufficiently high to effectively reduce the etch rate in anisotropic silicon
etching solutions such as EDP. The front surface of silicon wafer is etched
using reactive ion etching, which does not discriminate against silicon material
of different doping concentrations (part c). The intended channel region is

SMART MATERIALS
opened through this layer in the form of a chevron pattern, as shown in Figure
d. Anisotropic silicon etching is performed to undercut materials underneath
the doped regions. The etching profile underneath the Chevron-shaped mask is
shown in Figure e. significant undercut can be achieved to produce channels
with relatively large cross-sectional areas.
Figure: Micro fabrication technique.
Deep boron diffusion is performed to define the probe shank. The entire inner
surface of the channel reaches a concentration necessary to produce etches
stop effects. The channel is sealed using thermal oxidation and LPCVD
deposited dielectrics. After the depositing and patterning of electrodes and
dielectric shields, the silicon wafer is then dissolved in anisotropic etching
solutions, which selectively remove bulk silicon with only background
concentrations, leaving silicon shanks freestanding

SMART MATERIALS
Figure: Fabrication process of embedded micro channels
Case 10: PDMS Microfluid Channels

Channels made of Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) are very popular because of
the easy accessibility of material, rapid fabrication, and many desirable
performance aspects of the material. The PDMS material can be obtained in
viscous liquid precursor form from many vendors under various trade names,
such as Sylgard Silicone Elastomer from Dow Corning and RTV silicone from
GE Silicones. The most commonly used PDMS materials are Sylgard 184 (Dow
Corning) and RTV 615 (GE Silicones).
The precursor materials consist of two parts, the base and curing agent. The
two parts are mixed and then cured under room temperature, in vacuum, or
under elevated temperatures (rapid cure), with recommended mixing ratio,
resulting in a Thermoset, transparent elastomeric solid. The Sylgard 184

SMART MATERIALS
silicone elastomer, for example, may be cured fewer than one of the following
recommended conditions - 24 hours at 23 C, 4 hours at 65 C, 1 hour at 100 C
or 15 minutes at 150 C.
FIGURE: PDMS molding.

To realize precision three-dimensional features, the uncured precursor can be
poured over surfaces with three-dimensional patterned features (Figure, made
by a variety of means (including bulking etching, photoresist patterning, etc)
(steps a and b). Once the elastomeric material is removed, the surface features
translate into recessed or raised regions (step c). The PDMS material can then
be bonded to another piece of substrate to form an enclosed channel (step d).
The matching substrate can be silicon, glass, polyimide sheet, or even another
piece of PDMS.
The PDMS material exhibits volume shrinking in all directions after it is
removed from the mold. The dimensional change resulting from shrinking is
influenced by the material, by the amount of materials poured, and by the
curing method. This must be carefully calibrated for each use.
Case 11: Parylene Surface Micro machined Micro Channels

Surface micro machined channels have been made using photoresist as the
sacrificial layer and chemical vapour deposited Parylene thin film as the
structural layer. The use of the Paralene-photoresist systems replaces the high
temperature LPCVD polysilicon/oxide system.

SMART MATERIALS
A representative fabrication process for realizing Parylene channels,

monolithically connected to fluid inlet/outlet ports in silicon substrate is
shown in Figure.
FIGURE: Fabrication process for a Parylene channel.

The process starts with a silicon wafer (step a), which is coated with a thin
layer of silicon dioxide
The oxide on the backside is photo lithographically patterned, and used as a
mask for anisotropic silicon etching (step b).
A layer of photoresist is spin coated and patterned (step c).
The front side of the wafer is then coated with a layer of Parylene thin film (step
d).
A layer of polyimide is spin coated and patterned to mechanically enhance the
stiffness of the channel to prevent collapsing (step e).
The remaining silicon in the etched backside holes are removed until the
silicon dioxide on the front side is reached (step f).
This can be accomplished through anisotropic wet etching or plasma etching.
The oxide at the bottom of the cavity is then removed in a hydrofluoric acid
bath (step g).
The photoresist sacrificial material is removed using acetone to create open
channels through the now-open inlet and outlet ports (step h).

SMART MATERIALS
Many components have been incorporated in such a system, these include:

- One-time valve
- On-chip thermal pneumatic source
- Electro osmosis pumps
Case 12: PDMS Pneumatic Valves

Soft membrane valves using elastomeric (rubber) polymers are almost
exclusively used in macroscopic valves and pumps. The advantage of soft
membrane valves is good seal against liquid or air in the off state. However, soft
membrane valves are more challenging from the design and fabrication point of
view, as soft membranes and perhaps matching seats must be integrated into a
micro system. PDMS is a commonly used soft membrane material because of
its relatively simple processing and desirable softness. Large deformation (50–
150 mm) has been reached on a membrane (1*1 to 2*2 mm2) under pressure
input of approximately 100 mW for various working fluids, including air.
One representative method for making functional valves using external
pneumatic control is discussed here. The valve involves two layers of PDMS
thin film (Figure). Both the first and second layers follow the PDMS molding
method discussed in the previous case. For the first layer, the thickness of the
PDMS is kept as small as possible; hence, the ceiling directly above a channel
is very thin (Figure). The PDMS precursor is allowed to settle and planarizing
before being cured.
The second layer consists of pneumatic control lines (Figure). The first and
second layers are bonded together with channels crossing each other. Oxygen
plasma treatment can make the two layers bond permanently. The two-piece
PDMS assembly is then bonded to a substrate. The channel formed in the first-
layer PDMS is used to transport liquid, whereas channels in the second-layer
PDMS are used to convey pressure, either by gas or liquid.

SMART MATERIALS
FIGURE: Pneumatic controlled PDMS valve.
FIGURE: Fabrication process of a peristaltic pump in PDMS.

Pressure applied in second-layer channels pushes the PDMS membrane down,
sealing the channel underneath.
This method can be used to construct micro pumps. One possible
configuration is shown in Figure. The channel in the first layer crosses the
pressure lines above it in three interaction areas, forming three well-defined
PDMS membranes. Three pres-sure lines working in a peristaltic fashion will
push liquid continuously, in two possible directions.

SMART MATERIALS
PROBLEMS
Problem 1: Design
For a microfluid channel with a length of 1 mm, and a square cross-sectional
area of 20 mm2, find the volumetric flow and average flow speed if one end of
the channel is subjected to a water column that is 5 m tall. The other end is
connected to atmosphere pressure.
Problem 2: Fabrication
Identify three practical methods of forming the channel with dimensions
discussed in Problem 1, if the height of the channel is 4 mm. Part of the
channel must be transparent in the visible spectrum for optical observation.
Sacrificial etching is generally not practical due to large channel length.
Problem 3: Design
Find the Reynolds number of the flow situation of Problem 1 if the width of the
channel is 5 mm.
Problem 4: Review
Find a method to make an array of fluid channels with the length of 1–10 mm
and the size of the channel cross section being 10 nm exactly. The cross
section of the channel should be a circle or a square. Discuss the method of
patterning. Pay attention to practicality, efficiency, and accuracy.
Problem 5: Design
A segment of a microfluid channel is 10 mm long, with a rectangular cross
section of 30 mm wide and 1 mm tall. What is the required pressure to achieve
a volumetric flow rate of 10nl/min for water at room temperature?
Problem 6: Review
Draw detailed fabrication process for the gas chromatography chip of Case
14.1. Justify the choice of masking layer.

SMART MATERIALS
Draw detailed fabrication process of neuron probes with integrated fluid

transport channels according to. Draw the process at a representative cross
section along the probe. Discuss the etching selectivity in each step.
Problem 8: Design
The PDMS pneumatic valve discussed in Case 14.6 utilizes a thin elastomer
membrane with a certain area defined by the crossing of the fluid and control
lines. It forms reliable seals due to the contact of PDMS surfaces. Discuss at
least three strategies for reducing the threshold voltage necessary to close the
valve. For each strategy, discuss the effect on fabrication process.
Design a complete fabrication process for making a Parylene cantilever probe
with integrated fluid delivery channel. The channel is opened at the free end of
the cantilever. The probe consists of a bulk silicon micro machined handle. The
handle further consists of an etched cavity that fluidically communicates with
the integrated channel. The cavity serves as a fluid reservoir and inlet. Note the
sidewall of the cavity and the handle can be sloped or vertical. The drawing
shows a case with vertical walls. Detailed lithography steps can be ignored in
the drawing. The process drawing should illustrate progression for both the
channel and the handle pieces.
Problem 10: Challenge
Develop a micro valve with a footprint of no more than 1 mm2 that can be
controlled by electricity. The valve should be able to completely stop a liquid
flow with a back pressure of 30 KPa. The valve must be operated with a voltage
of less than 100 V. The smaller the footprint and the electric voltage, the better.
The leak rate of the valve should be zero. No out-of-chip pneumatic sources
should be used. The valve must be able to be repeatedly operated


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Best VTU Student Companion App You Can Get

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MR. AMARESH KUMAR DHADANGE

Prepared by-Amaresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., MED

2015 SCHEME VTU CBCS SYLLABUS

Smart Materials and MEMS 15ME745 03 3-0-0 60 40 3Hrs

This course provides a detailed overview to smart materials, piezoelectric

Helps to understand the principles and concepts of using MEMS, ER & MR

MODULE 1: Introduction, Memory Alloys

(Refer Text book: Smart structures, A V Srinivasan)Chapter No.:1, 2, 3

Unit1: Introduction: Closed loop and Open loop Smart Structures.

Unit 2: Shape Memory Alloys: Shape Memory Alloys: Introduction,

MODULE -2: Electro rheological and Magneto rheological Fluids, Fibre

(Refer Text book: Smart structures, A V Srinivasan) Chapter No.:4, 7

Unit-3 Electro rheological and Magneto rheological Fluids: Mechanisms

Prepared by-Amaresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., MED

Unit-4 Fibre Optics: Introduction, Physical Phenomenon, Characteristics,

MODULE-3: Vibration Absorbers, Biomimetics

(Refer Text book: Smart structures, A V Srinivasan) Chapter No.:5, 8, 9

Unit 5: Vibration Absorbers: Introduction, Parallel Damped Vibration

Unit 6: Biomimetics: Characteristics of Natural structures. Fibre reinforced:

MODULE -4: MEMS, Piezoelectric Sensing and Actuation

Unit7: MEMS: History of MEMS, Intrinsic Characteristics, Devices: Sensors

Unit 8: Piezoelectric Sensing and Actuation: Introduction, Cantilever

MODULE-5: Polymer MEMS & Micro fluidics, Case Studies

Unit 9: Polymer MEMS & Micro fluidics: Introduction, Polymers in MEMS

Unit 10: Case Studies: MEMS Magnetic actuators, BP sensors, Microphone,

Prepared by-Amaresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., MED

1. “Smart Structures –Analysis and Design”, A. V. Srinivasan, Cambridge

CO 1: Describe the methods of controlling vibration using smart systems and

CO 2: Explain the principle concepts of Smart materials, structures, Fibre

CO 3: Explain the principle concepts of vibration controller, Biomimetics

CO 4: Analyze the properties of smart structures, MEMS, with the applications

CO 5: Summarize the methods and uses of Micro fabrications, Biomimetics,

Kx Blooms Knowledge Level (K1, K2, K3, K4, K5, K6)

Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, Evaluation

Prepared by-Amaresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., MED

Shape Memory Alloys: Introduction, Phenomenology, and Influence of stress

Prepared by-Amaresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., MED

Prepared by-Amaresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., MED

History of Smart Materials

Prepared by-Amaresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., MED

Fig: Integrated Sensor-Actuator systems with controller are analogous to

TYPES OF SMART MATERIAL

a) PIEZOELECTRIC MATERIALS: These materials that produce a voltage

b) SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS: Shape memory polymers are Thermo responsive

f) HALOCHROMIC MATERIALS: commonly materials that change their colour

Prepared by-Amaresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., MED

A smart structure has the capability to respond to a changing external

Prepared by-Amaresh Kumar, Asst. Prof., MED

Smart structures are a new emerging materials system which combines

TYPES OF SMART STRUCTURES

Smart Structures Can Distinguished by two types:

1. Closed Loop Smart Structures

2. Open Loop Smart Structures

CLOSED LOOP SMART STRUCTURES

A closed-loop smart structure senses the changes to diagnose the nature of

OPEN LOOP SMART STRUCTURES

Smart structures are on an evolutionary path, in the following sequence:

 Actively smart structures

Potential Feasibility in Smart structures has features intermediate between

One can make a distinction between smart structures and intelligent