Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 327 (2016) 310–321

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Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jvolgeores

Initial phases of explosion earthquakes accompanying Vulcanian

eruptions at Lokon-Empung volcano, Indonesia
Taishi Yamada a,⁎, Hiroshi Aoyama a, Takeshi Nishimura b, Hiroshi Yakiwara c, Haruhisa Nakamichi d,1,
Jun Oikawa e, Masato Iguchi f, Muhamad Hendrasto g, Yasa Suparman g
a
Graduate School of Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-0810, Japan
b
Department of Geophysics, Graduate School of Science, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8578, Japan
c
Nansei-Toko Observatory for Earthquakes and Volcanoes, Faculty of Science, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima s892-0871, Japan
d
Earthquake and Volcano Research Center, Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan
e
Earthquake Research Institute, University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-0032, Japan
f
Sakurajima Volcano Research Center, Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Kyoto University, Sakurajima-Yokoyama, Kagoshima 891-1419, Japan
g
Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation, Geological Agency, Bandung 40112, Indonesia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: We examine the initial phases of explosion earthquakes accompanying Vulcanian eruptions at Lokon-Empung
Received 20 December 2015 volcano in Indonesia to reveal the triggering process of explosive eruptions. In 2012–2013, 56 Vulcanian erup-
12 August 2016 tions at Lokon-Empung were observed by our temporary observation network being comprised of four broad-
Accepted 15 August 2016
band seismometers and two infrasound microphones at 1.6–6.8 km from the active vent. The seismic records
Available online 16 August 2016
of each explosion earthquake share almost the same waveform characteristics of initial phases, consisting of a
Keywords:
small compressional onset (P phase) and a subsequent large dilatational phase (D phase). Particle orbits of
Explosion earthquakes both phases show straight motion from beneath the active vent, which suggests that these phases are composed
Vulcanian eruptions of a longitudinal body wave. For each explosion, the origin times of the P phase precedes 0.8–2.5 s before the oc-
Lokon-Empung currence of an explosion at the vent that are detected by infrasound data. Since the signal-to-noise ratio of the P
Implosion source phase is insufficient for a quantitative analysis, we analyze the D phase dominating the initial phases. Our analysis
for the signals of 0.2–1.0 Hz shows the D phase are well explained by a cylindrical contraction source with a half-
cosine shaped time function located at 1.0–1.3 km depth beneath the active vent. We also recognize that some
explosions are followed by a prominent tremor that coincides with continuous ash emission (ET). The seismic
amplitudes and intensity of the D phase of events in ET are larger than the explosions without accompanying
tremor (EX). The frequency distribution of the time interval from the previous eruption is also different in the
events in ET and EX. The implosion source in the initial phases of explosion earthquakes at several km beneath
the active vent has been reported at Sakurajima volcano. Since our result shows considerable agreement with
the previous works at Sakurajima, both Lokon-Empung and Sakurajima may share similar initial processes of Vul-
canian eruptions.
© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction adopted to explain the main phases of explosion earthquakes or signals

Explosion earthquakes accompanying Vulcanian eruptions provide
us with considerable information facilitating the understanding of the
conduit magma dynamics leading to volcanic eruptions. Kanamori et
al. (1984) proposed the single force model, which has been one of the
most representative macroscopic source models for explosion earth-
quakes for the last few decades. The single force model has been
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: taishi@mail.sci.hokudai.ac.jp (T. Yamada).
1
Now at Sakurajima Volcano Research Center, Disaster Prevention Research Institute,
Kyoto University, Sakurajima-Yokoyama, Kagoshima 891-1419, Japan.
in Very Long Period (VLP) band (N 10 s) signals (e.g., Nishimura and
Hamaguchi, 1993; Chouet et al., 2003; Chouet et al., 2005).
On the other hand, there are some researches focusing on more mi-
croscopic source mechanism of explosion earthquakes. Especially, re-
vealing how the excitation of explosion earthquakes begins is
important in understanding eruption dynamics. For instance, the initial
phases of explosion earthquakes have been explained by the combina-
tion of the volumetric sources at Sakurajima volcano in Japan (e.g.,
Uhira and Takeo, 1994; Tameguri et al., 2002). At Volcán de Colima in
Mexico, Zobin et al. (2006) explained the initial phases of explosion
earthquakes with the rapid expansion and upward movement of gas
bubbles or slug in the conduit. Meanwhile, the dominance of a

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2016.08.011
0377-0273/© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 T. Yamada et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 327 (2016) 310–321 311

downward single force on the initial phases has been reported at several
volcanoes (e.g., Ohminato et al., 2006; Johnson et al., 2008). The differ- (a) Celebes Sea
ences and varieties of the interpretations among these previous studies
about the beginning processes of explosion earthquakes motivate the
present study. Even if they are accompanied by similar eruption styles,
Lokon-Empung
recognized as Vulcanian eruptions or episodic explosive degassings,
we can see the variety about the source mechanism of initial phases of Minahasa Pe
ninsula
explosion earthquakes. New case studies and comparisons with previ-
ous results are valuable for understanding what types of factors control
the differences among mechanisms of explosive eruptions. In the pres- Molucca Sea
ent study, the initial phases of explosion earthquakes at Lokon-Empung
volcano, an active volcano in northern Sulawesi, Indonesia, where Vul-
canian eruptions have occurred frequently, are examined to infer their Sulawesi Island
beginning process. We conducted temporary broadband seismic and
infrasound observations at Lokon-Empung for about one year from Sep-
tember 2012. Seismic and infrasound data are analyzed focusing on the
initial process of the explosive signals. We then compare the result of (b) 200

our analysis with the previous models on eruption process of explosive 6 km

eruptions reported at other volcanoes.

2. Seismic and infrasound observation at Lokon-Empung 4 km

Lokon-Empung is a twin volcano located in Minahasa Peninsula, Su-

AGO
2 km Empung
lawesi island, Indonesia (Fig. 1a). It is one of the most active volcanoes in
the volcanic arc in northern Minahasa Peninsula. Magma properties of
Lokon-Empung are characterized as andesite (Morrice et al., 1983). Tompaluan crater
TIN
Through the last two decades, frequent Vulcanian eruptions and small
1400
pyroclastic flows have been occurring at Tompaluan crater (Yasa et al., 1200
2012), which is located between the two edifices, Lokon (altitude of 1000 WAI 12
00
1580 m) and Empung (altitude of 1340 m). 40
800
Lokon 10
We carried out temporary seismic and infrasound observations at 0 TAR KKVO 00
600
Lokon-Empung for about one year from September 2012. Spatial distri-
butions of the temporary stations are shown in Fig. 1b. Four Trillium 40
seismometers (Nanometrics Inc.) were installed on the flank of Lokon-
Empung, with horizontal distances from the Tompaluan crater ranging
from 1.7 to 6.8 km. The Trillium 40 is a broadband seismometer that
has flat velocity response characteristics in the range of 40.2 s and
85 Hz. All seismometers were installed on a concrete plate in a pit
about 1 m deep and buried. Two broadband microphones (SI102,
Fig. 1. (a) Location of Lokon-Empung volcano. (b) Observation network at Lokon-Empung
Hakusan Co.) with a flat pressure response at 0.05–1500 Hz were
from September 2012 to September 2013. Four Trillium 40 broadband seismometers were
installed at the Kakaskasen Volcano Observatory (KKVO) operated by installed at WAI, TIN, TAR, and AGO, represented by black squares. An SI 102 infrasound
the Center for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation microphone was installed at KKVO, represented by the gray square. Another SI 102 was
(CVGHM) from September 2012 and at WAI from June 6, 2013. One added at WAI in June 2013. A tiltmeter (Pinnacle Denali) was also installed WAI.
borehole tiltmeter (Pinnacle Denali, Halliburton) was also equipped in Concentric circles are drawn at 2, 4, and 6 km from the Tompaluan crater.

a 2.7 m deep hole at WAI. Seismic and infrasound data were digitalized
at each station by an HKS-9550 data logger (Keisoku Giken Co.) with 24-
bit resolution and 100 Hz sampling frequency. The data were continu-
ously saved in flash memories with time marks synchronized with
GNSS.
3. Waveform characteristics of seismic and infrasound signals
3.1. Characteristics of explosion earthquakes
We extract 56 seismic and infrasound signals recorded during the
temporary observation using continuous data and an eruption list com-
piled by KKVO based on short-period seismic signals and visual observa-
tions. Here we classify them into four types based on the waveform
characteristics (Fig. 2).
(1) Explosion (EX) (Fig. 2a, 13 events)
The events in Explosion (EX) are characterized by the clear onset
with a rapid increase in seismic amplitude and following expo-
nential decay. These events are also accompanied with impulsive
infrasound signals.
(2) Explosion + Tremor (ET) (Fig. 2b, 29 events)
The events in Explosion + Tremor (ET) have the same waveform
characteristics as the events in EX for the first explosive signal
part. The difference from the events in EX is the appearance of
continuous tremor after the explosive part. For instance, in the
case of the event on Nov. 28, 2012 (10:05) (Fig. 2b), a continuous
tremor appears about 40 s after the P-wave arrival and lasted for
about 100 s. Because the successive vibration of infrasound is also
recorded at the same time at KKVO and the continuous ash emis-
sion is seen from the vent, the tremor is thought to be associated
with material ejections from the vent.
(3) Obscure Explosion (OE) (Fig. 2c, 7 events)
The events in Obscure Explosion (OE) have an onset character-
ized by gradually increase in seismic amplitude, which makes it
difficult to identify the exact arrival time of P-wave. The maxi-
mum amplitude of seismic and infrasound signals of these events
are relatively smaller than that of the events categorized in the
other types (Fig. 3a).
(4) Tremor (TR) (Fig. 2d, 7 events)
A continuous tremor on both seismic and infrasound waveforms
characterizes the events in Tremor (TR). It is conceivable that the
vibration signal accompanies the continuous ash emission as the
312 T. Yamada et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 327 (2016) 310–321

(a) Explosion (EX) Nov. 21, 2012 (09:51)

WAI UD
same as the tremor part of the events in ET. Since we focus on the
initial part of explosion earthquakes, the events in OE and TR are

4.0e-04 (m/s)
not analyzed in the present study.

Fig. 3b represents the temporal sequence of eruptions during the ob-

servation period. N 70% of eruptions are occurred in the period from
KKVO Infrasound
middle of November 2012 to early February 2013. After a series of erup-

2.0e+02 (Pa)
tions from May 2013 to April 2013, the volcanic activity of Lokon-
Empung has decreased and only 3 eruptions are identified from May
2013 to September 2013.
As a representative event of explosion earthquakes having a clear
onset (EX and ET), the seismic and infrasound waveforms of the event
200 (s) on Nov. 28, 2012 (10:05) are shown in Fig. 4. The vertical axis in Fig.
4a denotes the horizontal distance from Tompaluan crater. Each seismic
(b) Explosion + Tremor (ET) trace records not only the explosion earthquake but also the arrival of
Nov. 28, 2012 (10:05)
WAI UD the air shock associated with the Vulcanian eruption at each station.

9.0e-04 (m/s)
The displacement waveforms of the initial part of the same explosion
earthquake are shown in Fig. 4b. The horizontal components of seismic
traces (NS and EW) are rotated to radial and transverse (RAD and TRA)
components with reference to the Tompaluan crater. The waveforms
with red and blue color show the signals for 0.65 s from P-wave arrival
KKVO Infrasound and subsequent signals for 1.0 s, respectively. The polarity of P-wave ar-
2.5e+02 (Pa)

rival (red) is compressional in vertical and radial components at all sta-

tions except the vertical component at TIN. The traces with blue color
show dilatational signals on vertical and radial components. By contrast,
no eminent signal can be seen at traces of transverse component. Fig. 4c
represents the particle orbits of those initial part of the explosion earth-
200 (s)
quake. The color of each orbit corresponds to the same time windows in
Fig. 4b. The amplitude of the orbits at each station is normalized by the
(c) Obscure Explosion (OE) maximum amplitude in the radial component. On the horizontal cross
Dec. 27, 2012 (16:12)
WAI UD section, each orbit shows a straight motion along with radial directions.
7.0e-05 (m/s)

On the vertical-radial cross section, the motion along with the direction
towards beneath the crater can be recognized. From the aspects de-
scribed above, we infer that the initial part of explosion earthquake is
composed of a longitudinal body wave coming from beneath the crater.
The polarity of the P-wave arrival (red traces) is compressional and sub-
KKVO Infrasound
sequent phase (blue) is dilatational. Such a compressional-dilatational
1.5e+01 (Pa)

sequence in the initial part is a feature common to the explosion earth-

quakes observed at Sakurajima volcano (Uhira and Takeo, 1994;
Tameguri et al., 2002). Hence, we hereafter describe the primary com-
pressional P-wave arrival as the P phase and the secondary dilatational
motion as the D phase, following Tameguri et al. (2002).
200 (s)
To investigate the nature of the broadband seismic signals of these
initial phases, we apply low pass filters with different cutoff frequencies
to the vertical displacement waveform at WAI (Fig. 5). In the 2.0 Hz low
(d) Tremor (TR) Oct. 7, 2012 (14:05)
WAI UD
pass waveform, there is no significant difference from the raw wave-
form and short period (b1 s) signals are still preeminent. These short
5.0e-04 (m/s)

period signals are removed in the 1.0 Hz low pass waveform, so the
shapes of both the P and D phases can be seen clearly. The amplitude
of the P phase becomes small in the 0.5 Hz low pass waveform, and it al-
most diminishes in the 0.2 Hz low pass waveform. On the other hand,
we can see the shape of the D phase even in the 0.2 Hz low pass wave-
KKVO Infrasound
form. These low pass waveforms show that the D phase is an important
part of the initial phases of explosion earthquakes. However, amplitude
5.0e+01 (Pa)

of the D phase in 0.1 Hz low pass waveform is only about 1% of that of

Fig. 2. Four types of ground velocity and infrasound waveforms accompanied by eruptions
at Lokon-Empung. (a) Explosion (EX): events characterized by a sudden increase in
seismic amplitude followed by its exponential decay (13 events). (b)
Explosion + Tremor (ET): events having the same waveform characteristics as the
500 (s) events categorized as Explosion (EX) but with subsequent continuous tremor (29
events). (c) Obscure Explosion (OE): events having a gradual increase in seismic
amplitude, which makes it difficult to identify the arrival time of P-wave (7 events). (d)
Tremor (TR): events characterized by a continuous tremor without any preceding
explosions (7 events). The time window (500 s) is longer than that of other types
(200 s). The present study adopts the local time of the northern Sulawesi area
(UTC + 8) to represent the eruption date.
 T. Yamada et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 327 (2016) 310–321 313

1.0e-03

The maximum seismic amplitude at WAI (m/s)

(a) (b)

1.0e-04

1.0e-05

Explosion (EX)
Explosion + Tremor (ET)
Obscure Explosion (OE)
Tremor (TR)
1.0e-06
1.0e-01 1.0 1.0e+01 1.0e+02 1.0e+03 Nov. 1 Jan. 1 Mar. 1 May 1 Jul. 1 Sep. 1
The maximum infrasound amplitude at KKVO (Pa) 2012 2013

Fig. 3. (a) The maximum seismic and infrasound amplitude of each eruption type. (b) The maximum seismic amplitude, the date of each eruption. The volcanic activity of Lokon-Empung
had turned down around March 2013. The scale of the vertical axis of seismic amplitude and the symbols of each event are the same as a.

the raw waveform. Therefore, it demonstrates that the signals below events in EX and ET having an enough signal to noise ratio at all traces.
0.2 Hz are not essential and signals in LP band (0.2–1.0 Hz) are domi- We use the displacement waveforms filtered between 0.2 and 1.0 Hz for
nant on the D phase. the calculation. The length of each waveform is set to be 3 s from the P-
To examine the waveform similarity of each explosive event quanti- wave arrival. Fig. 6 represents an example of result of the calculation in
tatively, we calculate cross-correlation functions of seismograms of the the case of vertical component at WAI. We obtain a high average (0.92)

(a) Nov. 28, 2012 (10:05) (b) (c)

P wave Air shock
UD RAD TRA RAD UD UD
6.0e-05 (m/s)

6.0e-06 (m)
TRA RAD TRA
AGO

6
2.5e+02 (Pa)

KKVO 5
Horizontal distance from the crater (km)

up up
4
2.0e-04 (m/s)

3.0e-05 (m)

crater
TAR
crater

3
8.5e-04 (m/s)

6.0e-05 (m)

TIN

2
8.5e-04 (m/s)

8.0e-05 (m)

P phase

WAI

D phase
3.0 (s)
1

(b)

0
0 50
Time (s)

Fig. 4. (a) Seismic and infrasound signals associated with Vulcanian eruption on Nov. 28, 2012 (10:05). Seismic traces show vertical ground velocity. (b) The initial part of displacement
waveforms of the same events of (a). The seismic traces for 0.65 s from P-wave arrival are colored with red. The following blue traces represent the seismic signals for 1.0 s. (c) The particle
orbits of initial part of explosion earthquakes of the same events of (a) and (b) on three cross sections. The color of each orbit corresponds to the same signals shown in (b). In (b) and (c),
horizontal components of seismic traces are rotated to radial (RAD) and transverse (TRA) directions with reference to the Tompaluan crater.
314 T. Yamada et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 327 (2016) 310–321
WAI UD Nov. 28, 2012 (10:05)
RAW
Low pass 2.0 Hz
Low pass 1.0 Hz
Air shock
Low pass 0.5 Hz
Low pass 0.2 Hz
Low pass 0.1 Hz
10
0 20
Time (s)
Fig. 5. Vertical displacement waveform at WAI and its low pass waveforms with different
cutoff frequencies. The present study adopted a four-pole causal Butterworth filter over all
low pass and band pass waveforms. The P phase consists of the signals shorter than 0.5 Hz,
and the D phase consists of more broad signals. Another downward phase (black arrow),
excited by air shock arrival to the station, appears about 5 s after the P-wave arrival at WAI.
for all event pairs of vertical traces at WAI, and the averages of other
traces are summarized in Table 1. The result suggests that most of the
explosive events share the similar waveform characteristic of the D
phase, implying that these explosion earthquakes have a common
source process at the beginning.
3.2. Origin time of explosion earthquakes and infrasound signals
As shown in Fig. 2, infrasound microphones observed the impulsive
pressure pulse accompanying the Vulcanian eruptions at Lokon-
Empung. Some previous studies have considered such air-shock waves
associated with explosive eruptions as being excited by the destruction
of a lava plug at the crater bottom (e.g., Ishihara, 1985; Yokoo et al.,
2009; Johnson and Lees, 2010). Fig. 7 represents the vertical component
of seismic signals and infrasound waves accompanying the Vulcanian
eruption at 05:06 on July 22, 2013. This is one of the cases when
infrasound signals are well recorded both at WAI and KKVO stations.
The seismometer at TAR was not operational due to an instrumental ac-
cident. It is valuable for inferring the source dynamics of the explosive
eruption to examine the difference of origin time between the air-
shock wave and the explosion earthquakes (e.g. Minakami et al.,
1970; Ishihara, 1985). The onsets of seismic signal at WAI and TIN sug-
gest that the apparent propagation velocity of the P-wave, Vapp, is about
3000 m/s at that area (dashed line in Fig. 7a). Furthermore, the impul-
sive onsets of infrasound waveforms at WAI and KKVO and the down-
3.3e-05 (m)
ward motion of the seismogram at TIN can be explained with the
infrasound velocity, Vi, as 354.6 m/s (dashed line in Fig. 7). If we assume
that the source location of the infrasound signals at the vent, origin time
of the infrasound signal represents the moment when volcanic mate-
rials are suddenly and rapidly ejected from the vent. With this assump-
3.0e-05 (m)
tion, we can see in the Fig. 7 that the excitation of the explosion
earthquake precedes about 1 s to the explosion at the vent. Moreover,
because the pressure disturbance by the volcanic explosion propagates
as a shock wave in the vicinity of the vent (e.g. Ishihara, 1985;
Gottschämmer and Surono, 2000; Yokoo et al., 2009), the velocity of
infrasound near the vent will be higher than that estimated for the
2.1e-05 (m)
rest of the path. Therefore, the explosion at the vent can be later than
the result of our simple evaluation. Unfortunately, since the microphone
at WAI was operational for only the last three months of our observation
(only three events occurred during this period), it is difficult to discuss
the origin time of signals using the infrasound data at WAI given
1.2e-05 (m)
above. Hence, we compare the time difference between P-wave arrival
at WAI and impulsive onset of infrasound at KKVO, where 5135 m
away from the active vent. For the event on July 22, 2013 (05:06), the
time difference, Δt, is 15.10 s. If the excitation of seismic wave and the
explosion at the vent occurred at the same time, it is expected that Δt
would become 13.95 s adopting the same parameters as in Fig. 7. There-
3.7e-06 (m)
fore, the generation of the P phase still precedes to the explosion at the
vent by 1.1 s. The average of Δt for all explosive events are 14.93 s and
the origin times of explosion earthquakes are prior to the explosion
for 0.5–2.1 s. Meanwhile, the standard deviation of Δt for all explosive
events is 0.40 s. In adiabatic process, the sound speed c is expressed as
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
8.4e-07 (m)
c¼ γRT=M; ð1Þ
where γ is the specific heat ratio, R is the gas constant, T is the temper-
ature, and M is the molecular weight (e.g., Crawford, 1968). If we as-
sume γ = 1.4, R = 8.3 J K−1 mol− 1, T = 288 − 308 K, and M = 28, it
30
yields the travel time between the active vent and KKVO as 14.3–
14.8 s. Moreover, if the temperature T is a constant as 293 K, the wind
velocity with ±5 m/s can cause difference of arrival time of sound for
±0.4 s at KKVO. Even considering such uncertainties, the excitation of
explosion earthquakes prior to the explosion at the vent seems to be
common to those events.
4. Seismic analysis of the D phase
4.1. The correction of site amplification
The particle orbits analysis in Section 3 shows that the P and D
phases consist of compressional and dilatational body waves, respec-
tively. The P phase is contaminated by short period signals in the raw
waveforms, and amplitude of the P phase becomes quite small in the
low pass waveforms. Therefore, quantitative analysis on the P phase
will be difficult. Hence, the present paper analyzes the source character-
istics of the D phase focusing signals of 0.2–1.0 Hz, which are dominant
on observed waveforms of the D phase.
Before analyzing the D phase, the effect of the site amplification fac-
tor at each station on the observed waveforms is corrected. This has to
be done because we operated only 4 seismic stations and our seismom-
eter pits were installed on the tropical soft soil, which could have affect-
ed the amplitude of the observed waveforms. Here, we adopt the
method using the S-wave coda of far field earthquakes described in
Mayeda et al. (1991) for the correction of amplification. Although
Mayeda et al. (1991) evaluated the site effects on S-wave amplitude,
we regard the method is valid for the D phase that consists of P-wave
for simplicity. Fig. 8 shows examples of power spectra of S-wave coda
of a far field earthquake for each trace. Five far field earthquakes,
which occurred during our observation period and had their
 T. Yamada et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 327 (2016) 310–321 315

25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8 1.00
7
0.95
6
5 0.90
4
0.85
3
2 0.80
1
0.75
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Fig. 6. The maximum values of normalized cross-correlation of the 0.2–1.0 Hz band pass waveforms of the EX and ET. The data used here were obtained at WAI. The numbers on the
horizontal and vertical axes correspond to the event numbers (Table 3). Although some events (11, 12) yield relatively poor correlation values to other events, these are mainly due to
the difference of the waveform shape following the D phase.

epicenter N 150 km from Lokon-Empung, are selected from the earth- force. All of these mechanisms can generate an isotropic dilatational
quake catalogue compiled by the U.S. Geological Survey (2013). We wave field in the horizontal direction. In terms of a moment tensor ex-
set the coda time window for 60 s, and the window starts at twice the pressions, isotropic and vertical cylindrical contractions are given by
S-wave travel time from the origin time of the far field earthquake. As
3 2 2 3
AGO is the least amplified station in our network, we set AGO as a refer- Mxx Mxy Mxz 1 0 0
ence station and corrected the amplitude of the 0.2–1.0 Hz signals of the M ¼ Myz Myy Myz ¼ −ΔV ðλ þ 2μ Þ4 0
4 5 1 0 5; ð2Þ
observed waveforms at WAI, TIN, and TAR. Mzx Mzy Mzz 0 0 1

2 3
4.2. Possible source mechanisms for the D phase λþμ 0 0
M ¼ −ΔV 4 0 λþμ 0 5; ð3Þ
The configuration of our seismic network is limited, so adopting a 0 0 λ
waveform inversion analysis using the full moment tensor will result
in an unstable solution. Table 2 shows the corrected D phase amplitude where ΔV is the volumetric change at the source, which can be derived
(0.2–1.0 Hz; Nov. 28, 2012 10:05) of the radial component at each sta-
tion and its reduced displacement for the body wave (McNutt, 1992). 6 Jul. 22, 2013 (05:06)
The reduced displacements are comparable in the range of 31–79 cm2
for 0.5 Hz, despite the wide range in azimuthal coverage. Therefore, KKVO
Distance from the crater (km)

source mechanism of the D phase can be considered to be horizontally

isotropic. The present study conducts waveform fitting for observed
/s
m

waveforms of the D phase using synthetic waveforms to investigate 4

6.0e+02 (Pa)
6
4.
35

2.0e-05 (m)

the source depth from the vent, the source mechanism, and the source
=
Vi

time function and its magnitude. Following three source mechanisms

are assumed for the potential mechanism of the D phase: isotropic con- TIN
traction, contraction of a vertical cylinder, and downward vertical single
2
WAI
m/s
Vapp = 3000

Table 1
The average of normalized cross-correlation of 0.2–1.0 Hz band pass waveforms of events
in EX and ET for each trace. Shock wave (> 400 m/s ?)

0
UD RAD TRA 0 5 10 15 20 25
AGO 0.77 0.86 0.67 Time (s)
TAR 0.78 0.85 0.62
TIN 0.86 0.85 0.88
Fig. 7. Seismic (gray) and infrasound (black) waveforms of the events on Jul. 22, 2013
WAI 0.92 0.85 0.72
(05:06), when we succeeded at observing infrasound simultaneously at WAI and KKVO.
316 T. Yamada et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 327 (2016) 310–321

1e-07 below:
Power spectrum (m2/s)
UD

1e-08       
ð1=2Þ 1− cos 2π t=tp  ; 0 ≤t≤tp
SðtÞ ¼ ð4Þ
0; tp bt
1e-09
WAI
1e-10 TIN and
TAR
AGO
      
1e-11
 p ;
ð1=2Þ 1− cos π t=t 0≤t≤tp
0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 5.0 SðtÞ ¼ ð5Þ
1; tp bt
Power spectrum (m2/s)

1e-07 NS
where the constant tp defines the period of the source time functions by
1e-08
the second. The one-cycle cosine function represents a force system at
the source that is restored after one cycle of function. On the other
1e-09
WAI hand, the half-cycle cosine function means that the force system never
TIN returns to the original state. According to Ohminato and Chouet
1e-10 TAR
AGO (1997), at least 25 grids are required per wavelength for stable finite-
1e-11 difference calculation. Therefore, we calculate synthetic waveforms
0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 5.0 with tp in every 0.1 s, satisfying the condition that the S-wave wave-
length be longer than 1000 m.
1e-07
Power spectrum (m2/s)

EW

1e-08 4.4. Waveform fitting

1e-09
WAI
1e-10 TIN
TAR
AGO
1e-11
0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5
Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 8. Examples of power spectra of S-wave coda of a far field earthquake that occurred at
09:16 (UTC) on Dec. 17, 2012 (0.649° S, 123.807° E; Mw, 6.1; 248 km from Tompaluan
crater). Although the spectra at TIN show specific strong signals around 3.0 Hz, these
signals are not used for the correction of amplification.
from the seismic moment (Kumagai et al., 2014; Nishimura and Iguchi,
2011). Lame's coefficients, λ and μ, are calculated from the P-wave, the
S-wave, and the density of the media.
4.3. Calculation of synthetic waveforms
Synthetic waveforms are calculated with the finite-difference meth-
od following Ohminato and Chouet (1997), taking account of the topog-
raphy around Lokon-Empung with 40 m grid spacing. We obtain the
topographic data from SRTM-3 (USGS, 2006) and interpolated it to cre-
ate the computational grid. The calculation regards the media as homo-
geneous, and the P-wave and S-wave velocities (Vp and Vs) and the
density are set as 2700 m/s, 1624 m/s, and 2500 kg/m3, respectively, re-
ferring to Yasa et al. (2012). These parameters have been adopted for
hypocenter determination of volcanic earthquakes at Lokon-Empung
by KKVO. The calculation area is set at 16 km × 16 km, from the surface
to the depth of 8 km from the summit of Lokon, and point sources are
assumed beneath the Tompaluan crater (1°21′52″ N, 124°47′57″ E), at
elevations ranging between 1000 m and − 3000 m relative to sea
level with an 80 m interval. We assume two source time functions for
calculation of the synthetic waveforms: one-cycle cosine (Eq. (4)) and
half-cycle cosine (Eq. (5)), respectively. Their expressions are given
Table 2
Amplitude of the band pass (0.2–1.0 Hz) waveforms and the reduced displacement of the
D phase (radial component) of the events on Nov. 28, 2012 (10:05).
WAI
D phase amplitude (0.2–1.0 Hz: 10e−06 m) 13.33
Distance from Tompaluan crater (km) 1.68
Reduced displacement(cm2) 79.41
Due to the limitation in the number of our seismic stations, the anal-
ysis in the present study assumes that the source of the D phase is locat-
ed beneath the crater. However, the P-wave arrival time of the observed
explosion earthquakes at each station cannot be explained by the
sources located beneath the crater with homogeneous P-wave velocity.
1.0 2.0 5.0
For example, in case for the event on November 28, 2012, the hypocen-
ter is determined as being located about 800 m northwest from the ac-
tive vent by the hypomh program (Hirata and Matsu'ura, 1987) with
the P-wave velocity as 2.7 km/s. The depth of hypocenter is estimated
as 2.4 km below the sea level. If we fix the source location beneath the
active vent, the P-wave velocity that satisfy travel times to each seismic
station are as follows; WAI: 2.2 km/s, TIN: 2.3 km/s, TAR 2.7 km/s, AGO
3.2 km/s. We regard that those values reflect inhomogeneous structure
of volcanic edifice, and are in realistic range. We set the time window for
waveform fitting so that observed and synthetic vertical waveforms of
the D phase coincide for each station. The time windows of horizontal
components are the same as that of vertical component. The strength
of the seismic source is estimated from the amplitude ratio between ob-
served and synthetic waveforms of the D phase. As the observed D
phase consists of a longitudinal body wave and has less amplitude in
the transverse component, only vertical and radial components are
used for magnitude estimation and misfit evaluation. The source
strength m was estimated by Eq. (6).
1 X Nr X
2
usn ð maxÞ
m¼ ð6Þ
2Nr n¼1 1 uon ð maxÞ
Here, Nr, uon(max), and usn(max) denote the number of seismic sta-
tions, the maximum amplitude of the observed D phase, and the maxi-
mum amplitude of the synthetic D phase due to a unit source strength,
respectively. The unit source strength is fixed as 1.0 × 1012 Nm for the
isotropic and cylindrical contraction sources and as 1.0 × 1010 N for
the downward vertical single force. For the isotropic and cylindrical
sources, the unit source strength M0 (the scalar seismic moment) is ob-
tained by
M0 ¼ 12 ðjm1 j þ jm2 jÞ; (7)where m1 and m2 denote the largest diago-
nal elements of the seismic moment tensor (Jost and Herrmann, 1989).
The synthetic waveforms are re-sampled to the same sampling interval
TIN TAR AGO
as the observed waveforms (0.01 s) and filtered (0.2–1.0 Hz) with the
6.96 5.60 1.32 same method applied to the observed waveforms. The goodness of
2.57 3.66 6.80 waveform fit between the observed and synthetic waveforms is evalu-
63.42 72.68 31.82
ated by the squared error e, as expressed by Eq. (8), following
 T. Yamada et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 327 (2016) 310–321 317

Ohminato et al. (1998):
X
2 X
Ns  2
uon ðpΔt Þ−usn ðpΔt Þ
X
Nr
1 1 p¼1
e¼ ; ð8Þ
N r n¼1 X
2 X
Ns
 o 2
un ðpΔt Þ
1 p¼1
where uon and usn are the observed amplitude with correction of site fac-
tors and that of synthetic waveform at the nth station and Δt, Nr, and Ns
are the sampling interval of the waveforms, the number of samples of
waveforms, and the maximum number of samples, respectively. Eq.
(8) normalizes the absolute amplitude of each trace so that misfits at
each station are evaluated evenly irrespective of the amplitude of each
trace, which depends mostly on the distance from the seismic source.
4.5. Resolution test
Before analyzing the observed data, we perform a series of numerical
tests using simulated seismograms to evaluate the accuracy of the
waveform fitting method. The simulated seismograms are calculated
by the finite-difference method, as described in Section 4.3, under the
following conditions: a cylindrical contraction of 1.0 × 1012 Nm, source
elevation of 40 m above sea level, and a half-cosine with duration of
tp = 0.5. The simulated seismograms are contaminated by random
noise with the same signal-to-noise ratio as the observed data (WAI
100; TIN 100; TAR 10; AGO 10). Fig. 9 shows the result of the numerical
test. The minimum squared error (e = 1.0 × 10−3) is obtained properly
at 40 m above sea level with the correct source mechanism and source
time function type. The error of the estimated amplitude of the D phase
is b 4% (1.03 × 1012 Nm). Although not shown here, we obtain the prop-
er minimum squared error using synthetic waveforms with different
source parameters. Therefore, we conclude that our method for wave-
form fitting is applicable for estimating the source parameters of the D
phase at Lokon-Empung.
5. Results
We select 25 events to analyze the D phase under the condition that
each one had a good signal-to-noise ratio and occurred when all seis-
mometers were operational. Table 3 shows the results of the waveform
fitting: estimated source mechanism, source time function, minimum
squared error e, source elevation, seismic moment, volumetric changes,
and waveform types for each analyzed event. The error ranges of the el-
evation and the seismic moment were defined as a 3.0% error increment
above the minimum residuals, following previous works (e.g., Chouet et
1.0e+10
1.0
Squared error e
al., 2005). The minimum squared error is obtained by a cylindrical con-
traction and a half-cosine function at elevations ranging between 40
and −200 m from sea level for 22 events. Since the Tompaluan crater
is at an altitude of 1100 m, those source elevations corresponds to a
depth of 1.0–1.3 km beneath the active vent. On the other hand, the
combination of an isotropic contraction and a half-cosine function re-
sulted in the minimum residual for 3 events, at elevations varying be-
tween − 680 and − 920 m. Because the signal-to-noise ratio of the
data at the most distant station AGO is relatively poor for the events in
which an isotropic contraction resulted in the minimum residual, the
traces at AGO seem to affect the resolution of the source mechanism
and depth from the vent. On the other hand, other events that had bet-
ter signal-to-noise ratios for traces at AGO usually obtained the mini-
mum squared error with a cylindrical contraction. Therefore, we
consider that the cylindrical contraction explains the observed D
phase the best at Lokon-Empung. Fig. 10 shows an example of the wave-
form fitting between observed and synthetic waveforms. The traces of
vertical and radial components in shaded window are used to calculate
the squared error. The amplitude of the D phase and phase characteris-
tics of UD and RAD components are well explained by the synthetic
waveforms. The estimated seismic moment ranges in 0.74–
6.03 × 1012 Nm, and the corresponding volumetric change of contrac-
tion becomes 148–1197 m3 assuming μ as 6.6 GPa. Fig. 10 shows that
the observed waveforms at AGO show a phase shift of the D phase be-
tween vertical and radial components. Even at other stations, such a
phase shift of D phase can be seen. The phase shift in the observed
waveforms may be explained by the heterogeneity of the seismic veloc-
ity structure of the media. For instance, the presence of the velocity
structure having a slow velocity layer near the surface can cause such
a phase shift (e.g. Pujol, 2003).
6. Discussion
6.1. Source characteristics of initial phases of explosion earthquakes
Our analysis shows that the D phase at Lokon-Empung can be ex-
plained by a cylindrical contraction at a depth of 1.0–1.3 km beneath
the vent. The D phase at Sakurajima also has been explained by a cylin-
drical contraction source at 2 km beneath the vent, which is deeper than
our result (Uhira and Takeo, 1994; Tameguri et al., 2002). The volume
change of the D phase was estimated as 2000–6000 m3 by Uhira and
Takeo (1994), and as 230–1100 m3 by Tameguri et al. (2002).
Tameguri et al. (2002) explained the P phase at Sakurajima with an ex-
pansion source at the same source location of the D phase. Based on the
similarity of initial phases of explosion earthquakes at both Lokon-
Empung and Sakurajima, we estimate the seismic moment of the P
phase at Lokon-Empung assuming that the source mechanism of the P
phase as an expansion source at the same location of the D phase (Fig.
11). The seismic moment of the P phase is calculated from the ampli-
tude ratio of the vertical displacement of the P and D phases at WAI tak-
ing account of the effect of source mechanism difference (isotropic and
cylindrical) of the P and D phases on vertical ground amplitude. A linear

relationship of seismic moment of the P (MP) and D (MD) phases is seen

1.0e-01
Half cosine, Cylindrical contraction, tp = 0.5
Half cosine, Cylindrical contraction, tp = 0.4
Half cosine, Cylindrical contraction, tp = 0.6
Half cosine, Isotropic contraction, tp = 0.5
1.0e-02
One cosine, Cylindrical contraction, tp = 1.0
One cosine, Isotropic contraction, tp = 1.0
Half cosine, Downward single force, tp = 0.5
One cosine, Downward single force, tp = 1.0
1.0e-03
-2400 -1600 -800 0 800
Source altitude from sea level (m)
Fig. 9. Result of the numerical test used to evaluate the resolution of the waveform fitting
method. Simulated seismograms were calculated with a cylindrical contraction source at
40 m above sea level with the half-cosine function (tp = 0.5).
at both volcanoes, although the ratio of seismic moment of the P and D
phases (MD/MP) at Lokon-Empung is about two times larger than that at
Sakurajima (Fig. 11). Tameguri et al. (2002) interpreted the initial
phases of explosion earthquakes as follows: the bursting of a gas bubble
in water saturated magma at a depth of 2 km from the crater (Sekine et
al., 1979) generates the P phase, and a pressure decrease in the conduit
due to the upward movement of gas flow excites the D phase. Another
interpretation for initial phases was given by Uhira and Takeo (1994):
the P and D phases reflect the breaking of a plug sealing the conduit,
and the subsequent depression of the conduit caused by the upward
movement of accumulated gas or gas rich magma, respectively. Both
of these previous works inferred the depression of the conduit due to
the upward movement of gas or magma as the source process of the D
318 T. Yamada et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 327 (2016) 310–321

Table 3
Results of waveform fitting analysis of the D phase.
No., MECH, STF, VC, CC, and IC denote the event number (Fig. 6), the estimated mechanism, the source time function, the volumetric change, the cylindrical contraction, and the isotropic
contraction, respectively.

No. Date LT MECH STF tp e Elevation (m) Seismic moment (10e+12 Nm) VC (m3) Waveform type

1 Nov. 21, 2012 9:51 CC Half cosine 0.4 1.01 −200 ± 80 3.74 ± 0.02 743 ± 5.6 Explosion + Tremor
2 Nov. 28, 2012 10:05 CC Half cosine 0.4 0.74 40 ± 80 6.03 ± 0.02 1197 ± 5.2 Explosion + Tremor
3 Dec. 1, 2012 16:11 CC Half cosine 0.4 1.1 −200 ± 80 3.35 ± 0.02 665 ± 4.4 Explosion + Tremor
4 Dec. 3, 2012 15:42 CC Half cosine 0.4 0.77 −200 ± 0 3.23 ± 0.27 641 ± 54.2 Explosion + Tremor
5 Dec. 6, 2012 17:18 CC Half cosine 0.4 0.83 −200 ± 80 1.60 ± 0.13 319 ± 25.8 Explosion + Tremor
6 Dec. 8, 2012 23:01 CC Half cosine 0.4 1.01 −200 ± 0 1.26 ± 0.01 250 ± 2.7 Explosion + Tremor
7 Dec. 11, 2012 12:09 CC Half cosine 0.4 1.07 −200 ± 0 3.16 ± 0.07 628 ± 14.0 Explosion + Tremor
8 Dec. 17, 2012 12:09 CC Half cosine 0.4 0.88 −200 ± 80 2.85 ± 0.04 567 ± 8.6 Explosion + Tremor
9 Dec. 22, 2012 18:04 CC Half cosine 0.4 0.68 200 ± 160 1.09 ± 0.22 217 ± 45.1 Explosion + Tremor
10 Dec. 24, 2012 9:11 CC Half cosine 0.5 0.68 −200 ± 80 1.86 ± 0.35 369 ± 69.7 Explosion
11 Dec. 24, 2012 17:24 CC Half cosine 0.4 3.96 −200 ± 80 1.85 ± 0.03 368 ± 7.8 Explosion
12 Dec. 27, 2012 14:02 CC Half cosine 0.4 1.19 −200 ± 80 0.74 ± 0.03 148 ± 12.1 Explosion
13 Dec. 29, 2012 21:04 IC Half cosine 0.4 0.98 −920 ± 560 0.92 ± 0.09 50 ± 4.9 Explosion + Tremor
14 Jan. 1, 2013 16:56 IC Half cosine 0.4 1.43 −680 ± 320 1.42 ± 0.77 78 ± 42.2 Explosion
15 Jan. 8, 2013 4:09 CC Half cosine 0.4 1.04 −200 ± 160 2.24 ± 0.04 446 ± 8.2 Explosion + Tremor
16 Jan. 8, 2013 9:49 CC Half cosine 0.4 0.97 −200 ± 80 3.31 ± 0.26 657 ± 52.2 Explosion + Tremor
17 Jan. 16, 2013 3:02 CC Half cosine 0.4 0.89 −200 ± 0 3.67 ± 0.30 729 ± 60.1 Explosion
18 Jan. 16, 2013 15:33 CC Half cosine 0.4 0.91 −120 ± 80 4.12 ± 0.33 817 ± 67.2 Explosion + Tremor
19 Jan. 16, 2013 19:39 CC Half cosine 0.4 0.92 −120 ± 80 3.02 ± 0.27 600 ± 55.1 Explosion + Tremor
20 Jan. 19, 2013 2:22 CC Half cosine 0.5 0.75 −200 ± 160 1.67 ± 0.30 332 ± 61.1 Explosion + Tremor
21 Jan. 31, 2013 6:54 CC Half cosine 0.4 0.9 −120 ± 80 2.81 ± 0.25 558 ± 50.5 Explosion
22 Jan. 31, 2013 10:44 CC Half cosine 0.4 0.79 −200 ± 0 4.39 ± 0.35 873 ± 70.4 Explosion + Tremor
23 Feb. 27, 2013 20:51 IC Half cosine 0.4 1.05 −680 ± 400 1.64 ± 0.31 90 ± 35 Explosion
24 Mar. 10, 2013 5:06 CC Half cosine 0.4 0.83 −200 ± 80 1.40 ± 0.11 277 ± 22.6 Explosion
25 Apr. 7, 2013 22:53 CC Half cosine 0.4 0.91 −120 ± 80 1.73 ± 0.14 344 ± 28.0 Explosion + Tremor

phase. As shown in Fig. 11, the amplitude of the P phase is much smaller
than that of the D phase at Lokon-Empung. Hence, the increase in pres-
sure exciting the P phase cannot explain the whole pressure drop during
the excitation of the D phase. It is reasonable to assume that the pres-
sure accumulation starts before the excitation of the explosion earth-
quakes, and the P phase triggers the release of the accumulated
pressure. Nishimura and Chouet (2003) investigated two cases of initial
state of the conduit by numerical consideration of magma motion. If the
conduit is filled with dissolved gas or magma up to near the vent before
UD RA RA
4.0e-06 (m)
the explosion, the contraction of the conduit can dominate the initial
phases of explosion earthquakes. However, it is quite difficult to explain
why the P and D phases are excited at 1–2 km depth while the magma
head reaches near the vent. Contrary, if the magma in the conduit rise
from the depth of the source of the P and D phases, the onset of the seis-
mic wave due to the magma motion has the similar time history to the
half-cycle cosine function (Eq. (5)), which explains the observed wave-
forms of the D phase better than the one-cycle cosine function (Eq. (4)).
In the meantime, Nishimura and Chouet (2003) also demonstrated that
the shallow part of the conduit must be pressurized due to the magma
motion. An analysis for observed waveforms after the D phase may
see such a compression phase (e.g., LP phase in Tameguri et al., 2002).

AGO
1.0e+13
Lokon-Empung (the present study)
MD = 11.89 MP
Seismic moment of the D phase MD (Nm)

Sakurajima (Tameguri et al., 2002)

TAR MD = 5.46 MP
1.0e-05 (m)

7.5e+12
2.0e-05 (m)

5.0e+12
TIN

2.5e+12
3.0e-05 (m)

WAI

0
3.0 (s) 0 2.5e+11 5.0e+11 7.5e+11 1.0e+12
Seismic moment of the P phase MP (Nm)
Fig. 10. Example of waveform fitting for the D phase for the event on Nov. 28, 2012
(10:05). Solid black and broken gray lines denote observed and synthetic waveforms,
respectively. Synthetic waveforms were obtained with the combination of a cylindrical Fig. 11. Seismic moment of the P and D phases at Lokon-Empung and Sakurajima
contraction source and a half-cosine function at 40 m from sea level beneath the crater. (Tameguri et al., 2002). The solid and broken regression lines represent linear functions
The estimated seismic moment is 6.03 × 1012 Nm. obtained by averages of data at both volcanoes.
 T. Yamada et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 327 (2016) 310–321 319

Ohminato et al. (2006) showed the downward single force is dominant 15

Explosion (EX)
on the beginning part of explosion earthquakes at Asama volcano. The

number
downward single force is considered as being excited by a removal of 10
a lava plug formed at the top of the conduit. We set the downward sin-
5
gle force as a candidate mechanism in the analysis of the D phase. How-
ever, the result shows that a cylindrical contraction can explain the
0
observed waveforms of the D phase better than a downward single
0 10 20 30
force.
15
Explosion + Tremor (ET)
6.2. The waveform types of explosion earthquakes

number
10

The present study classifies the seismic and infrasound signals asso- 5
ciated with Vulcanian eruptions at Lokon-Empung into four groups
based on the appearance of waveforms (Fig. 3a). In the analysis of the 0
D phase, we do not distinguish the events in EX and ET, because they 0 10 20 30
share the similar seismic waveform characteristics on the initial phases 15
of the explosion part. The tremor part of events in ET corresponds to Obscure Explosion (OE)
continuous ash emission, which is induced by the foaming of saturated 10

number
magma by decompression in the conduit owing to the removal of the
cap (e.g., Miwa et al., 2013). Although such continuous ash emission is 5
not a main objective of the present study, it is interesting that what de-
termines the occurrence of the continuous tremor after the explosion. 0
Fig. 12 denotes the relationship between the maximum vertical ampli- 0 10 20 30
tude of ground velocity and estimated volume change of the D phase. 15
Tremor (TR)
The data of the event in EX and ET are expressed with different symbols
and colors. The symbols of large star correspond to the average of each number 10
event type having the same symbol color. The events accompanied by
5
the tremor (ET) have larger averages of the intensity of the D phase
and the maximum seismic amplitude (581 m3, 1.96 × 10−4 m/s) than
0
that of the event consisting of only an explosion (EX: 408 m3,
0 10 20 30
1.10 × 10−4 m/s). Next we investigate the time interval from the previ-
Time interval from the previous eruption (day)
ous eruption (TIP) of events in different types. Fig. 13 shows the histo-
gram of the TIP for each waveform type. We do not take into account
Fig. 13. The histograms of the time interval from the previous eruption (TIP) of the events
the waveform type of the previous eruption here. The distribution of
in each waveform type.
the TIP of the events in ET has a peak around 0–2.5 days (Fig. 13). On
the other hand, the histogram of the events in EX shows two peaks of ash emission does not always follow the explosion (events in TR). The
the TIP (0–2.5 days, 7.5–12.5 days). These difference between the triggering process of the continuous ash emission is still a challenging
event in EX and ET may be derived from the physical condition of and interesting objective.
magma in the conduit. It also should be considered that the continuous

6.3. Explosive process of Vulcanian eruptions at Lokon-Empung volcano

5.0e-04

Hereafter, we discuss the source process of the Vulcanian eruptions

at Lokon-Empung comparing our data and with previous works at other
The maximum seismic amplitude (m/s)

4.0e-04 volcanoes (Fig. 14). Recent geophysical observations have detected in-
flation of the edifice of volcanoes prior to Vulcanian eruptions (e.g.,
Nishi et al., 2007; Iguchi et al., 2008; Lyons and Waite, 2011;
Nishimura et al., 2012; Nishimura et al., 2013). Although duration of
3.0e-04 the inflation varies in each volcano, such ground deformations have
been interpreted as the increase in pressure at the shallow part of the
conduit caused by the accumulation of gas beneath a lava plug at the
top of conduit. Some previous works also reported the inflation turns
2.0e-04
into deflation due to the depression of the conduit prior to the explosion
(Iguchi et al., 2008; Inza et al., 2014). The present study operated a bore-
hole tiltmeter at WAI during observation period. The tiltmeter was sen-
1.0e-04 sitive, so it recorded the tilt fluctuations due to tidal changes. However,
no considerable precursor inflation can be found from the tilt data. Ver-
Explosion (EX)
tical displacement waveforms also show no considerable signals prior to
Explosion + Tremor (ET) explosions. Precursor ground deformation and seismic disturbance
0 were detected at other volcanoes by high-sensitivity sensors installed
0 500 1000 1500 in a tunnel (Sakurajima) or at an area near the active vent (b500 m)
(Suwanosejima, Semeru). In the case of Lokon-Empung, precursor sig-
Volume change of the D phase (m3)
nals may have been too slight to detect, even at the closest station to
Fig. 12. The maximum vertical amplitude of ground velocity at WAI and the intensity of
the vent (WAI; 1.68 km from Tompaluan crater), if they existed at all.
the D phase. Large stars correspond to the average of the event in EX (green) and that of Furthermore, because the edifice of Lokon is located between WAI and
events in ET (red). Tompaluan crater (Fig. 1a), the complex topography may have reduced
320 T. Yamada et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 327 (2016) 310–321
(Gas leakage ?)
(Lava cap ?)
1000
Elevation (m)
500
(Gas pocket ?)
P phase
0
(Precursor inflation ?)
- 500
a b
P phase
0 0.5
Fig. 14. Schematic illustration of initial process of Vulcanian eruptions at Lokon-Empung (based on Iguchi et al., 2008). (a) Although several types of precursor signals of Vulcanian
eruptions have been reported at other volcanoes, these were not observed in the present study at Lokon-Empung. (b) Explosion earthquakes begin with a compressional wave
(originating at the same region of the subsequent D phase?). (c) Cylindrical contraction occurs at 1.0–1.3 km beneath the crater. A low pressure infrasound signal is excited about 0.1–
1.4 s before the explosion at the crater in most case. (d) An explosion occurs at the crater exciting the intense air-shock wave. (e) Some events are accompanied by a continuous
tremor appearing about 30–130 s after the excitation of the P phase (discussed in Section 6.2).
any ground deformation signals. Therefore, we cannot infer the source
process of the conduit prior to explosions at Lokon-Empung (Fig. 14a).
At Lokon-Empung, explosion earthquakes begin with a compres-
sional wave (P phase) at all stations (Fig. 14b). Although the signal of
the P phase is weak, the waveform characteristics and the comparison
to the result at Sakurajima may suggest that the P phase at Lokon-
Empung has an expansion source and similar source location to subse-
quent the D phase. The analysis for the origin time of the explosion
earthquakes shows that generation of the P phase preceded that of the
explosion at the crater by 0.5–2.1 s, assuming that the sources of the
seismic and infrasound waves are located the vent. Additionally, we re-
examine the difference in origin time between the P phase and the ex-
plosion at the vent assuming that the source depth of the P phase
from the vent is the same as that of the D phase (1.0–1.3 km), and
adopting the same parameters as in Section 3.2. The result indicates
that the explosion at the crater takes place 0.8–2.5 s later than the gen-
eration of the P phase.
Our analysis shows the D phase at Lokon-Empung can be explained
by a cylindrical contraction at 1.0–1.3 km depth from the crater (Fig.
14c). However, the nature of the contraction is still unclear as the initial
source process of Vulcanian eruptions. We see the difference of scalar
seismic moment of the P and D phases (MD/MP) and the source depth
of the D phase from the vent between Lokon-Empung (MD/MP =
11.89, 1.0–1.3 km) and Sakurajima (MD/MP = 5.46, 2 km) (Fig. 11). Ad-
ditional case studies can reveal the scaling relationship of these param-
eters and the initial process of Vulcanian eruptions.
It is also remarkable that the explosive infrasound signals are accom-
panied by the small preceding phase (Figs. 14c, 15). Most events in EX
and ET have such a small preceding phase before the main impulse of
raw infrasound waveforms. The duration of the preceding phase ranges
in 0.1–1.4 s. Previous studies considered that such a small increase in
pressure is induced by the swelling of the lava plug formed at the crater
bottom (Yokoo et al., 2009; Yokoo and Iguchi, 2010). At Sakurajima,
Yokoo et al. (2009) interpreted that the pressure wave from the P and
D phases excites the swelling of the lava plug. Although the preceding
phase of infrasound signal is not analyzed in the present study, the
source process of the preceding phase at Lokon-Empung seems quite
similar to the result of previous studies.
At Sakurajima, an expansion seismic source at a shallow part (LP
phase, Fig. 14d), having almost the same origin time as the explosion
at the crater, was obtained by moment tensor inversion (Tameguri et
al., 2002; Yokoo et al., 2009). As the location of this LP phase was esti-
mated at several hundred meters below the crater, the expansion is
Preceding phase
Explosion
Preceding phase Explosion Continuous tremor
and ash emission
(LP phase ?)
D phase
c d e
D phase
1.0 1.5 2.0
Time (s)
thought to correspond to the explosion of a gas pocket just below the
lava plug. It is common among previous studies (Ishihara, 1985;
Tameguri et al., 2002; Iguchi et al., 2008; Yokoo et al., 2009; Yokoo
and Iguchi, 2010) to interpret that the pressure waves from the P and
D phases trigger the explosion at the crater bottom (LP phase). From
the same perspective, we estimate that the velocity of the pressure
wave must be N1.0 km/s to explain the difference in origin time be-
tween the P phase and the explosion at the active vent for most events.
Tameguri et al. (2002) also obtained a velocity of 1.4–1.9 km/s at
Sakurajima. The volcanic gas temperature at the active vent is around
800 °C (e.g. Ohba et al., 1994), and steam is the most dominant compo-
nent on volcanic gas in many cases. Following Kieffer (1977), an ideal
gas equation of state for steam gives the sound speed as 696 m/s with
800 °C (for the isentropic exponent of 1.31, the molecular weight of
18.02, and the gas constant of 8.32 J K−1 mol−1). This sound velocity
is not fast enough to explain the time sequence obtained by the present
study and Tameguri et al. (2002). However, if the wave propagates as a
shock wave (e.g., Mach number M ≈ 1.4), the velocity can be achieved
to explain the observed data assuming the conduit is filled with the
exsolved gas. Murase and McBirney (1973) estimated a velocity of com-
pressional wave in molten andesite magma of 2.3–2.5 km/s. This veloc-
ity can be decreased if the bubbles exist in the liquid magma. Therefore,
it is also possible to explain that the conduit above the source region of
the P and D phases is filled with the liquid dominant magma rather than
the gas. Such a vertical profile of the conduit just before the explosion is
a still challenging objective and what should be revealed for further un-
derstanding of the dynamics of Vulcanian eruptions.
Jul. 22, 2013 (05:06)
4.0e+02 (Pa)
Preceding phase onset
Impulsive onset
5.0 (s)
Fig. 15. Enlarged raw infrasound waveforms at WAI of the events on Jul. 22, 2013 (05:06).
 T. Yamada et al. / Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 327 (2016) 310–321
7. Conclusions
The present study carried out the broadband seismic observation of
Vulcanian eruptions at Lokon-Empung volcano, and examined the be-
ginning process of explosion earthquakes. Two types of explosion earth-
quakes were examined: the events consisting of the first explosive
signal part and subsequent tremor part (ET), and the explosive part
only (EX). We can see that the events in ET have larger seismic ampli-
tude of the explosive signal part than the events in EX. The frequency
distribution of the time interval from the previous eruption is different
in events in ET and EX. Regardless the occurrence of the subsequent
tremor, the initial phases of the explosion earthquakes consist of a slight
compressional phase (P phase) and a large contraction phase (D phase).
Although the P phase signal is relatively slight, the subsequent D phase
is dominant on the initial part of explosion earthquakes. The origin
times seismic and infrasound signals show the excitation of the explo-
sion earthquakes are prior to the explosion at the vent by 0.8–2.5 s.
Our analysis of the D phase showed that the observed waveforms can
be explained by a cylinder contraction (148–1197 m3) with a half-co-
sine shape function at 1.0–1.3 km beneath the crater. This result and
data show considerable similarity to those obtained by the previous
work at Sakurajima volcano. Initial process of Vulcanian eruptions at
Lokon-Empung and Sakurajima share the following features: the se-
quence of the P and D phases, source characteristics of the D phase
(source mechanism, time function, and location), and a small pressure
increase of infrasound signals before the explosions. These features
may suggest that Vulcanian eruptions at Lokon-Empung and
Sakurajima share the similar initial process.
Acknowledgements
We appreciate the staffs of KKVO for their support during our obser-
vation. We also acknowledge Jurgen Neuberg for the editorial work, and
an anonymous reviewer for careful review that improved the manu-
script. The present study was partly supported by the Ministry of Educa-
tion, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (MEXT) of Japan, under its
Earthquake and Volcano Hazards Observation and Research Program.
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