Chapter 6

Chapter 6: Ellipses and Hyperbolas

(A) Ellipses

In this section we investigate some algebraic and geometric properties of ellipses, and discuss
applications.
y
b
P  x y 


–a F 1  – c 0  O F 2  c 0  a x

–b

The Cartesian equation of this ellipse is

2 2
x - ----
y
---- + 2- = 1 (1)
2
a b
The centre of this ellipse is at the origin.
The major axis of an ellipse is the line segment of greatest length joining two points on the
ellipse. The major axis of the ellipse above has length 2a .

The vertices1 of an ellipse are the endpoints of the major axis. The vertices of the ellipse above
are the x intercepts  a 0  and  – a 0  .

The y intercepts are  0 b  and  0 – b  .

The points F 1  – c 0  and F 2  c 0  are called the foci2 of the ellipse. The coordinates of the foci

are found using

2 2
c = a –b (2)

1. The word vertices is the plural of the word vertex.

2. The word foci is the plural of the word focus.

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 Chapter 6

Note:
• We say that this ellipse has a horizontal orientation since all the important points (centre,
vertices, foci) lie on a horizontal line (the major axis).
• The defining characteristic of an ellipse is that the sum of the distances between the focal
points and any point on the ellipse is the length of the major axis. Trace P around the ellipse
on the previous page to investigate this property.

Example 1
Sketch the ellipse with equation
2 2
x - -----
y
----- + - = 1
25 16
showing intercepts and foci.

Solution
2 2
Here, a = 25  a = 5 and b = 16  b = 4 . Note a  b .

Also, c = 25 – 16 = 3
y
4

–5 F  – 3 0  O F  3 0  5 x

–4

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 Chapter 6

Example 2
Sketch the ellipse with equation
2 2
x y
----- + ------ = 1
9 16
showing the intercepts.

Solution
2 2
Here, a = 9  a = 3 and b = 16  b = 4 . Note b  a .
y

F  0 7 

–3 O 3 x

F  0 – 7 

–4

Notes:
• We say that this ellipse has a vertical orientation since the important points lie on a vertical
line (the major axis).
• For ellipses with a vertical orientation the major axis is the segment of length 2b . Thus, the
vertices for the ellipse in Example 2 are  0 4  and (0,-4).

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 Chapter 6

• The ellipse in Example 1 has a  b while the ellipse in Example 2 has b  a . In general,
if a  b the ellipse has a horizontal major axis (horizontal orientation), but

if b  a the ellipse has a vertical major axis (vertical orientation).

• In the case when b  a , equation (2) is not defined and we must instead use
2 2
c = b –a (3)
to determine the coordinates of the foci.
In Example 2, the coordinates of the foci are thus F 1  0 – c  and F 2  0 c  , where (3) is used to

find c .

Question: What shape do we have when b = a ? Answer: A circle.

General Equation of an Ellipse

The Cartesian equation of an ellipse with centre  h k  is

2 2
------------------
x – h  - -----------------
y – k-
2
+ 2
= 1 (4)
a b

If a  b the ellipse has a horizontal major axis with vertices  h  a k  and foci  h  c k  , where

equation (2) is used to find c .

If b  a the ellipse has a vertical major axis with vertices  h k  b  and foci  h k  c  , where

equation (3) is used to find c .

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 Chapter 6

Example 3
Find the centre, vertices and foci of the ellipse with equation
2 2
9x + 4y + 36x – 8y + 4 = 0
Hence sketch the ellipse.

Solution
2 2
First, we will complete the square. Therefore 9x + 36x + 4y – 8y + 4 = 0 becomes
2 2
9  x + 4x  + 4  y – 2y  + 4 = 0
2 2
9   x + 2  – 4  + 4   y – 1  – 1  + 4 = 0
2 2
9  x + 2  – 36 + 4  y – 1  – 4 + 4 = 0
2 2
9  x + 2  + 4  y – 1  = 36
2 2
x + 2 y – 1
------------------- + ------------------- = 1
4 9
2 2
So we have a = 4  a = 2 and b = 9  b = 3 , and since b  a the ellipse has a vertical
orientation.
We also have:
Centre: C  – 2 1 

Vertices:  h k  b  =  – 2 1  3  . That is, V  – 2 – 2  and V  – 2 4  .

Foci:  h k  c  =  – 2 1  c  =  – 2 1  9 – 4  = F  – 2 1  5  .

The following page has the sketch.

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 Chapter 6

y
V  – 2 4 
 – 4 1 
F  – 2 1 + 5 

4 2 4 2
– 2 – ---------- – 2 + ----------
3 3
 0 1 
 – 2 1 

O x

F  – 2 1 – 5 

V  – 2 – 2 

Notes:
• We have included the x -intercepts. These have been found by letting y = 0 .
• The minor axis of the ellipse has length 2a = 4 . Since a = 2 we know that the ellipse
touches the y axis at  0 1  .

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 Chapter 6

Eccentricity

The eccentricity, denoted e , of an ellipse is a measure of deviation from the circular. It is calcu-
lated using
2 2
c a –b
e = --- = --------------------- if a  b , (5)
a a
or
2 2
c b –a
e = --- = --------------------- if b  a . (6)
b b
The ellipse on page 1, with a  b , reveals we must have 0  c  a .

First, consider c = 0 : From equation (5) we have e = 0 and a = b . We know that a = b rep-
resents a circle. Thus, an eccentricity of zero represents zero, or no, deviation from the circular.

Next, consider c = a : From equation (5) we have e = 1 and b = 0 . Geometrically, this rep-

resents a straight line from – a to a . Thus, an eccentricity of one represents maximum deviation
from the circular.

A similar argument holds for an ellipse with b  a .

So for an ellipse we have
0e1

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 Chapter 6

Applications

(i) Planets

The planets in our solar system revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits with the sun at one
focus. Most of these orbits are close to circular (see Table 1). However, Pluto and Mercury have
more eccentric orbits, with e = 0.25 for Pluto and e = 0.21 for Mercury.

Planet Eccentricity

Mercury 0.21
Venus 0.01
Earth 0.02
Mars 0.09
Jupiter 0.05
Saturn 0.06
Uranus 0.05
Neptune 0.01
Pluto 0.25

Table 1: Eccentricities of planetary orbits

Note: In 2006 it was decided that Pluto should be reclassified as a dwarf planet. Previously, Pluto
was classified as a planet.

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 Chapter 6

(ii) Halley’s Comet

Historical note.
It was evident at an early age that Sir Edmund Halley (1656-1742) was a talented
astronomer and mathematician. Halley made many important scientific contributions
whilst still an undergraduate, at Oxford University. Taking this into account, King
Charles II commanded that his degree be conferred without Halley having to sit exam-
inations.
Halley was good friends with Sir Isaac Newton and spent much time, effort and money
into helping Newton publish his famous Principia Mathematica. On the orbits of com-
ets, Newton favoured parabolic orbits, but Halley thought comets with elliptical orbits
might exist. Using Newton’s theory of motion, Halley calculated that the comet of 1682
was periodic and was the same comet sighted on previous occasions at roughly 76 year
intervals. In 1705, Halley published his prediction that the comet (now known as Hal-
ley’s comet) would reappear in December 1758. Unfortunately, Halley did not live to
see his prediction come true when the comet was sighted on Christmas night 1758.
Halley’s Comet was last seen, although rather faintly, in 1985-86 and is due to return in
2062. The first recorded sighting of the comet was in China in 240 B.C.
Halley is also credited with publishing the first meteorological chart, and producing a
set of mortality tables which were influential in future actuarial work.

Halley’s comet follows an elliptical orbit which is 36.18 AU1 long and 9.12 AU wide.
From these measurements its eccentricity is calculated as follows:
2 2
 36.18
------------- –  9.12 ----------
2
a –b
2  2   2 
e = --------------------- = -------------------------------------------------- = 0.97
a 36.18  2
This value suggests a large deviation from a circular orbit (as it is very close to 1).

(iii) Miscellaneous

Applications of ellipses occur in aeronautical engineering (airplane wings), fluid mechanics

(water pipes), geology (stones on a beach become more elliptical as waves impact on them), pale-
ontology (fossil formation), and many other fields.

1. One AU (Astronomical Unit) is defined as half the length of the major axis of Earth’s orbit.
1 AU = 92,600,000 miles = 148,993,400 kilometres.

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 Chapter 6

(B) Hyperbolas

In this section we investigate some algebraic and geometric properties of hyperbolas, and discuss
applications.
b
b
y = – --- x y y = --- x
a
a


P  x y 

–a O a F 2  c 0 
F 1  – c 0  x

The Cartesian equation of this hyperbola is

2 2
x - ----
y
---- – 2- = 1 (7)
2
a b
The centre of this hyperbola is at the origin.
The x intercepts  a 0  and  – a 0  are called the vertices of the hyperbola.

Note that no y intercepts exist. In fact, no part of the curve exists between x = – a and x = a .
The hyperbola has two branches: a left branch and a right branch, which are symmetric about
the y axis.

The points F 1  – c 0  and F 2  c 0  are called the foci of the hyperbola. The coordinates of the

foci are found using

2 2
c = a +b (8)

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 Chapter 6

Asymptotes are straight lines approached by points P  x y  on the branches of the hyperbola as
these points radiate away from the centre of the hyperbola.
The hyperbola above has two asymptotes, given by
b
y =  --- x (9)
a
Note:
• We say that this hyperbola has a horizontal orientation since all the important points (centre,
vertices, foci) lie on a horizontal line.
• The defining characteristic of a hyperbola is that the magnitude of the difference between the
distances from the focal points to any point on the hyperbola is 2a . Trace P around the
hyperbola on the previous page to investigate this property.

Example 4
Sketch the hyperbola with equation
2 2
x - -----
y
----- – - = 1
25 16
showing intercepts, foci and asymptotes.

Solution
2 2
Here, a = 25  a = 5 and b = 16  b = 4 .

4
Therefore, c = 25 + 16 = 41 , and asymptotes are given by y =   --- x .
 5

2
Note that x has a positive coefficient, and that the hyperbola has a horizontal orientation.

The following page has the sketch.

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 Chapter 6

4 y 4
y = – --- x y = --- x
5 5

V  – 5 0  V  5 0 
O
F  – 41 0  F  41 0  x

Note: When sketching a hyperbola it is best to locate the centre first and then draw the asymp-
totes. Then include the vertices and foci, and draw your hyperbola so that the branches approach
the asymptotes.

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 Chapter 6

Hyperbolas with a Vertical Orientation

The hyperbola with equation

2 2
y x
----- – ----- = 1 (10)
2 2
a b
has centre at the origin, and vertices and foci on the y axis, as shown below.
y a
y = --- x
b
a F 2  0 c 
y = – --- x
b

O
x

–a

F 1  0 – c 

In this case the foci are F 1  0 – c  and F 2  0 c  , where (8) is used to find c .

The asymptotes are given by

a
y =  --- x , (11)
b

and the vertices are  0 – a  and  0 a  .

Notes:
• We say this hyperbola has a vertical orientation because the important points (centre, verti-
ces, and foci) lie on a vertical line.

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 Chapter 6

• It is not the relative sizes of a and b that determine whether our hyperbola has a horizontal or
vertical orientation (as is the case with an ellipse), but rather which variable has the positive
coefficient.
2
If x has the positive coefficient then the hyperbola has a horizontal orientation
(as in Equation 7 and Example 4).
2
If y has the positive coefficient then the hyperbola has a vertical orientation
(as in Equation 10 and Example 5).
2 2
• In the case of an ellipse the constant a divides x , always.
2
• However, in the case of a hyperbola the constant a is in the denominator of whichever term
has the positive coefficient.
2 2 2
If x has the positive coefficient then the number dividing x is a .
2 2 2
If y has the positive coefficient then the number dividing y is a .

Example 5
Sketch the hyperbola with equation
2 2
y - -----
x
----- – - = 1
25 16
showing intercepts, foci and asymptotes.

Solution
2 2
Here, a = 25  a = 5 and b = 16  b = 4 .

5
Therefore, c = 25 + 16 = 41 , and asymptotes are given by y =  --- x .
4
2
Also note that since y has a positive coefficient the hyperbola has a vertical orientation.

The following page has the sketch.

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 Chapter 6

y 5
y = --- x
4
5 F  0 41 
y = – --- x
4

V  0 5 

O
x

V  0 – 5 

F  0 – 41 

General Equation of a Hyperbola

The Cartesian equation of a hyperbola with centre  h k  is either
2 2
x – h y – k (12)
------------------- – ------------------ = 1
2 2
a b
or
2 2
 y – k  - ------------------
x – h- (13)
----------------- – = 1
2 2
a b

A hyperbola represented by Equation (12) has a horizontal orientation with vertices  h  a k  ,

foci  h  c k  where equation (8) is used to find c , and asymptotes

b
 y – k  =   ---  x – h  (14)
a

A hyperbola represented by (13) has a vertical orientation with vertices  h k  a  ,

foci  h k  c  where equation (8) is used to find c , and asymptotes

a
 y – k  =   ---  x – h  (15)
 b

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 Chapter 6

Example 6
Find the centre, vertices, foci and asymptotes of the hyperbola with equation
2 2
4x – y + 8x + 2y – 1 = 0
Hence sketch the hyperbola.

Solution
2 2
First, we will complete the square. Therefore, 4x + 8x – y + 2y – 1 = 0 becomes
2 2
4  x + 2x  –  y – 2y  – 1 = 0
2 2
4   x + 1  – 1  –   y – 1  – 1  – 1 = 0
2 2
4  x + 1  – 4 –  y – 1  + 1 – 1 = 0
2 2
4  x + 1  –  y – 1  = 4
2 2
x + 1 y – 1
------------------- – ------------------- = 1
1 4
2 2
So we have a = 1  a = 1 , b = 4  b = 2 , and a hyperbola with a horizontal orientation.
We also have:
Centre: C  – 1 1 

Vertices:  – 1  1 1  . That is, V  – 2 1  and V  0 1 

Foci:  – 1  c 1  =  – 1  1 + 4 1  = F  – 1  5 1 

b 2
Asymptotes: y – k =  ---  x – h   y – 1 =  ---  x + 1  .
a 1

That is, y – 1 = 2  x + 1   y = 2x + 3 and y – 1 = – 2  x + 1   y = – 2x – 1

The following page has the sketch.

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 Chapter 6

C  – 1 1 
F  – 1 – 5 1  V  – 2 1  V  0 1  F  – 1 + 5 1 

O
x
5
5 – 1 + -------
– 1 – ------- 2
2

y = – 2x – 1
y = 2x + 3

Note: We have included the x -intercepts, which have been found by letting y = 0 .

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 Chapter 6

Eccentricity

c
The ratio e = --- used to calculate the eccentricity of an ellipse is also used to calculate the eccen-
a
tricity of a hyperbola.
The geometric significance of e for a hyperbola is not as obvious as it is for an ellipse, but an
understanding can be gained by considering the following:
The eccentricity for a horizontal hyperbola is
2 2 2 2 2
c a +b a +b b
e = --- = --------------------- = ----------------- = 1 + ----2-
a a a
2
a
The term under the square root sign is 1+(the square of the slope of the asymptote). Hence
large slope  large eccentricity

small slope  small eccentricity.

Similar arguments apply to a vertical hyperbola. Try working through them yourself.
Note also that for a hyperbola c  a , and hence e  1 .
In more general terms, eccentricity is an important quantity in the study of conic sections. The
ellipse and the hyperbola are two types of conic section. Another is the parabola. These conic sec-
tions can be classified by eccentricity as follows:
An ellipse has 0  e  1 ,

a hyperbola e  1 and

a parabola e = 1 .

Applications

Applications of hyperbolas are found in Einstein’s theory of relativity, and astronomy. For exam-
ple, a comet that does not return to its sun follows a path that is hyperbolic.
Also, many reflecting telescopes, such as the 200 inch Hale telescope on Mt. Palomar in Califor-
nia and the Hubble Space Telescope, which is currently orbiting our planet, contain small hyper-
bolic mirrors.

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 Chapter 6

Summary

Horizontal Vertical
Notes
Orientation Orientation

Ellipse ab ba 2 2

a is in the denominator of the x
term.
Hyperbola 2 2 2
x term has y term has a is in the denominator of the term
a positive a positive with the positive coefficient.
coefficient coefficient

Note: The constant c measures the distance from the centre to focus in all cases. That is,
dCF = c for both ellipse and hyperbola with horizontal or vertical orientation.

References
• Introductory Astronomy and Astrophysics, M. Zeilik, S.A. Gregory, E.v.P. Smith (Saunders
College Publishing 1992)
• Calculus and Analytic Geometry, G.B. Thomas and R.L. Finney (Addison-Wesley 1988).
• The MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/

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