Soil Salinization Case Study

By: Kelley Kralik

Soil Science (ENVL 3432)

Fall 2020

Stockton University

Environmental Science and Geology Program

Instructor: Dr. Jessica Hallagan

Abstract:

Soil salinization is the process of salt accumulation in soils. In the western United States,

high levels of salinization are becoming more prominent in agriculture. This leads to a

decreasing crop yield and a loss in revenue to the farmers. In California, three sites were looked

at to determine how their soils were doing and if there were any recommendations on how to

help them. Site A had the Ramona series. This exhibited very little salinization levels and the

farmer only needs to better their irrigation techniques. At Site B, the Hesperia series was very

degraded and needed a drainage system and the use of halophyte plants to try and reverse the

effects of soil salinization. At Site C, the soil series is Wekoda, and the recommendation is to use

halophytes and to use better irrigation methods, but if the problem keeps getting worse, then a

drainage system would need to be installed.

Introduction:

Soil salinization is the process of water-soluble salts accumulating in the soil, but the

main focus is on increased soil salinity in agriculture. The impacts of high soil salinization levels

are damaging the health of the soils that are being affected by this issue. This problem is not just

happening in the United States either, but instead the entire world where there is irrigated

agriculture. With an increase in population, there is a higher demand for food, and with this

comes the problem of increased salt salinity. The rise in demand of food is putting farmers to

work, but the farmers are not taking care of the soil that they are using. The decrease of the soil’s

health leads to a decrease in crop yield and revenue. When looking at this problem in the United

States, the western semi-arid and arid regions of the country is where soil salinization occurs the

most.
 In the Arkansas Basin, the problem of soil salinization from irrigation is occurring.

Irrigation makes dry soils more productive, but if there is an increased amount of salts in the soil,

the salinization levels will increase. Scientists in Arkansas are looking at the salinity levels

through a hydrologic model (Frasier, et al., 2006). This model shows the relationship between

crop yield and salization, which is that higher the salinity levels, the lower the crop yield will be.

Crop yield is not the only issue that comes with soil salinization, but problems with

revenue as well. In California, farmers are experiencing high losses of crops, which is decreasing

the revenue that they would normally make from selling crops. High-resolution models were

used to determine the issues with soil salinization in California, where farmers were having

trouble with their soil (Welle & Mauter, 2017). Billions of dollars and millions of tons of crops

were lost because of the salinity in the soil. Another experiment takes place in San Joaquin

Valley, California which explores the idea that irrigated agriculture is unsustainable because of

soil salinization. The salinization problem is moving deep into the soil reaching the aquifers, and

causing that water’s salinity levels to rise (Schoups, 2005). This salinization occurred from

alluvium parent material when the area was below sea level. The soil contains chlorides, sulfates,

carbonates, and bicarbonates of calcium, magnesium, and potassium, which is common in

semi-arid and arid regions. These salts occur on the crust, which can cause issues to our drinking

water, surface water, and crop production. With crop production in San Joaquin, salts are

accumulating at the roots, which is toxic to many plants.

The majority of the population lives in semi-arid and arid regions, which is where the

population is increasing the most. This region is where a majority of irrigation farming occurs, so

with soil salinization increasing in this area, the soil’s degradation rate is also increasing.

Irrigation adds water that is high and salts, which increases the concentration of salts in the soil.
With little precipitation or drainage, the concentrations of salts keep increasing. High levels of

soil salinity can be due to its parent material, which could be high in salts, and the region of

farming, which lacks precipitation. Precipitation is needed to leach salts from the soil in

semi-arid to arid areas (Nachshon, 2018). There are four classes of salt-affected soils: saline,

sodic, saline-sodic, and normal-unaffected (Weil & Brady, 1996). In the western United States,

the class of soil is known as saline. Saline soil is when the total salt concentration is too high, but

sodium is too low. This type of soil is measured with electrical conductivity (EC), which

measures how fast an electrical current is carried (Weil & Brady, 1996). Saline soils have an EC

greater than 4 dS/m. This means that saline soils have a moderate degree of salinity. Another

property of these soils include a low sodium adsorption ratio (SAR). This ratio compares the

concentration of sodium to levels of magnesium and calcium in a solution (Weil & Brady, 1996).

The saline soil SAR is lower than 13. With saline soils, it is estimated that half of croplands in

the western U.S. will become too salinized, and that food production would decrease drastically

(Nachshon, 2018).

High soil salinization levels are not only affecting our crop yield, but also the wildlife

populations surrounding the agriculture areas. With the salinity levels increasing in the

surrounding water, this contributes to hurting the organisms that it comes in contact with (Lemly,

2006). Even though soil salinization is a major issue, research is being done to try and find a

solution.

With analytical instrumentation, scientists can conduct research and find better results,

for example using Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS). MODIS focuses

on collecting remotely sensed data used to monitor, model, and assess the effects of natural and

human activities (Survey, n.d.). This assesses soil salinity on a regional scale, and with this
technology, scientists are trying to find a solution in the Red River Valley area (Lobell, et al.,

2010). The spectroradiometer was not the only technology used either. Other researchers in the

Rio Grande Valley region used Landsat EMT+, which is an infrared spectrometer to identify the

salinity levels in the surrounding soil to help improve the management of the levels (Howari,

2003). Technology is not the only way to find a solution to this problem either. Núñez and

Finkbeiner (2020) studied different agricultural soil profiles with increased amounts of salt. They

used electrical conductivity and crop yield to help determine which soils were best with more

salts. While these scientists focused on soils, Hayat (2019), focused on plants that thrived off of

high salinity levels. Using these plants would increase crop yield because they are intaking more

salts. Finding the solution to soil salinization is crucial if the population keeps increasing. From

the research done above, high soil salinity has negative impacts from irrigated agriculture, but

scientists are trying to find solutions, so humans can live more sustainably on this planet.

Stakeholders:

The people who should be most concerned with the issue of soil salinization are farmers

who use irrigation. They should be concerned because soil salinization is ruining their soils, and

with their soils degrading, the crop yield is decreasing, which means less revenue for them. Some

farmers could have to potentially close their farm if their soils are not producing enough. The

issue of soil salinization affects them the most. Other people who should be concerned are the

people who are neighbors to these farms that use irrigation. With the increase in soil salinity,

there will be an increase in salinity in the water as well, which will ultimately affect the drinking

water. This can lead to many health issues if the levels keep rising.

Evaluation:
In California, there are three farmers that are monitoring their soil degradation. Between

the three farms, there are different soil series with different qualities of yields and different
characteristics. With the climate in the area being in a semiarid, warm environment, there is

about an average rainfall of 400 millimeters per year. The average annual temperature is about

25℃. In Table 1, are some basic characteristics about each soil that was studied.

Table 1 shows the basic characteristics about the different soil series.
Soil GPS Coordinates Quality of Parent Texture Land Use
Series Yield Material

Ramona 36.89531°, -119.87598° Slightly Alluvium Sandy Prime farmland

Degraded derived loam if irrigated
from granite

Hesperia Degraded Alluvium Fine sandy Prime farmland

36.69384°, -119.91935° derived loam, if irrigated and
from granite saline reclaimed of
sodic excess salts and
sodium

Wekoda 36.90425°,-120.57304° Moderately Alluvium Clay Farmland of

Degraded derived statewide
from importance
sedimentary
rock

At each of these sites, the soils are facing different quality of yields associated with

salinization. For example, Hesperia is the most degraded soil because it exhibits the highest

levels of salinization. Hesperia has a high surface salinization risk or is already saline because of

the electrical conductivity that already exists between 0 - 30 centimeters, the water table at the

surface, and finally the flooding and ponding. This type of soil is also saline-sodic, which is one

of the four classes of a salty soil. Saline-sodic means that the concentration of total salts is too

high and sodium dominates in the soil. In the clay textured soil known as Wekoda, this series is

moderately degraded. This series exhibits a small risk of surface salt concentration because of

the water table at the surface, flooding and ponding, and little contribution from electrical

conductivity and the persistent water table. Since the texture is clay, it is more susceptible to high
levels of salinization because water does not flow through clay as well as it would with a sandy

texture. The Ramona is only slightly degraded because it has the lowest level of salinization. At

the Ramona site, there is low surface salinization risk because of the water table at the surface

and the flooding and ponding. It is a sandy loam textured soil, which means it is well drained

soil, so the water does not just sit at the surface.

Each soil series is also facing salinization because of the parent material, which is

alluvium from being below sea level. The salinization levels are also higher because the soil is

used for farmland, which means there is irrigation use. With the surface salt concentrations in

mind, the chemical properties from each soil with different crops were determined. Below is the

data that shows why Hesperia and the others are degrading.

Table 2 shows the chemical properties of each soil series.

Soil Crop Ksat CEC EC Sodium pH Fragile
Series Growth cmolc/kg ds/m Absorption Soil
Ratio Index

Ramona Slightly 9.0 12.3 0.7 0 8.1 Not

Hindered Rated

Hesperia Very 5.5 18.7 36.6 15 9.2 Fragile

Poor

Wekoda Poor 0.2 25.3 11.9 2 8.6 Fragile

Table 3 shows the cations and anions in the surface horizon.

Soil Series Na Ca K Mg SO₄ NO₃ HCO₃ Cl
cmolc/ cmolc/ cmolc/ cmolc/ cmolc/ cmolc/ cmolc/ cmolc/
kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg

Ramona 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 0 0.3 0.4

Hesperia 28.6 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.8 0 0.3 21.9

Wekoda 17.0 12.9 6.3 9.1 4.4 0.3 0.9 11.3

 For the soil series of Hesperia, the crop growth is very poor, and this can be due to the

factors listed in Table 2 and Table 3. The EC of this soil is 36.6 ds/m, which represents a very

saline soil, which is the highest degree of salinity. This measures the amount of salts in soil, so

this series is experiencing the highest levels of salinization out of the three sites. The sodium

absorption ratio is also very high at 15. This means that the intake of salts is increasing. The salts

in the soil are most likely sodium and chloride. Based on Table 3, Hesperia’s sodium cation and

the chloride anion levels are 28.6 cmolc/kg and 21.9 cmolc/kg respectively. There is a great deal

of salts in the soil, which explains the poor crop growth in this area. The pH of the soil is also the

highest. The high pH represents a sodic soil with carbonates. The pH is high because of the

hydrolysis reaction of sodium carbonate, which is a salt. The Hesperia soil is also fragile, which

means it is more susceptible to degradation compared to non-fragile soils. This occurs because

high sodium levels will promote colloid separation and dispersion, which destroys the soil’s

structure. The evidence layed out in Table 2 and Table 3 shows why Hesperia is the most

degraded soil. High salinization levels lead to poor plant growth because salts can cause poor

aeration, low nutrient availability, and a high pH, which isn’t favorable to plants (Weil & Brady,

1996).

In the Wekoda series, the crop growth is poor due to the salinization levels in the soil.

This soil has a high CEC of 25.3 cmolc/kg, which means that the soil has a high concentration of

clay and can hold a lot of cations, like sodium and calcium. Sodium has a concentration of 17

cmolc/kg and calcium has a concentration of 12.9 cmolc/kg. Since these concentrations are high,

it means that the Wekoda series has increased salt levels. The pH in this series is 8.6 which is due

to the hydrolysis reaction of sodium carbonate, which is why there is a concentration of that

compound in this soil. The Wekoda series has an EC of 11.9 ds/m, which based on the degree of
salinity, it is very saline. The kSat of this soil is 0.2, which represents the flow of water through

the soil. This number is low, so not much water flows through the soil, which can lead to an

increase in salinization levels since the salts are not being washed out. The soil index also says

that it is a fragile soil, so it can be degraded easily, which in this case is due to high salinization

levels.

For the Ramona soil series, the crop growth is slightly hindered. There is a very little

salinization occurring, but a high pH represents the increased levels of salt. Since salinization

increases the pH, this will promote colloid separation and dispersion, just like the past two soil

series. Based on Table 3, there are very little concentrations of cations and anions in the soil.

There is a good flow rate through the soil, based on the kSat number of 9, this is because it has a

more sandy texture. The SAR is at 0, so not much salt is entering the soil. The EC is at 0.7 ds/m,

which falls under the non-saline category for the degrees of salinity. Ramona would fall under

the soil class known as unaffected soil, which means the concentrations of sodium and total salts

are within normal range and do not affect soil properties (Weil & Brady, 1996).

Strategy:

Since high levels of salinization are becoming more apparent in agriculture, which is

decreasing the crop yield and the soil health, there must be methods to help try and solve this

issue. The first strategy that farmers and others could try to eliminate the high levels of salinity is

to instal a drainage system in the fields. In some agricultural areas, issues like waterlogging,

which means soils are saturated with water, can increase the consequences of high salinity levels.

Waterlogging can cause salt accumulation by using capillary action to pull in the salts that are

found in the soil (Singh, 2015). A drainage system could be installed which would help control

the issues of waterlogging and salinization. The purpose of this system is to carry the salt in the
soil away from the plant roots so they do not pull in high salt concentrations (Singh, 2015). The

drainage system also lowers the water table. This will help decrease the saturation of the soil,

which will carry the salts away from the roots (Singh, 2015). By bringing the salts away from the

plant roots, the roots will be less likely to pull the salts into their system.

Another strategy is to practice good irrigation management techniques. This would also

help control the effects from high salinization levels. The purpose of irrigation management is to

control the shallow levels of the water table in the soil (Singh, 2015). When roots are shallow

because of waterlogging and salt accumulation, this degrades the soil. It is also helpful for the

farmers to know what is in their irrigation water because it could be high in salt concentration,

which would increase the rate of degradation in the soil. It would also be beneficial for the

farmer to know what is in their soils. If the soil has poor fertility, then it could be time to give

that plot of land a break. If the farmers know that there are high salinization levels in the soil,

then they could practice different remediation techniques. The farmer would have to know what

kind of salt affected soil they are dealing with. If the soil is a saline soil, the method that would

help decrease salinity levels are to flush with better quality water, use proper drainage, or use

alternatives to irrigation (Weil & Brady, 1996). If the soil is a sodic or saline-sodic soil, the

farmer would have to replace sodium with divalent cation, then flush and repeat (Weil & Brady,

1996).

The last technique that could be used to help combat the high salinity levels in

agricultural soils is incorporating salt resistant crops. The technique known as phytoremediation,

which is the use of plants to extract and remove elemental pollutants, like salts in soil (Hayat, et

al., 2019). Some plants tolerate these issues differently, but the plants that thrive under

waterlogging and high salinization levels could be grown to help control the shallow water table
(Singh, 2015). This is a good technique because salt-tolerant crops thrive in shallow water tables

when there is an increased level of salinization in the soil (Singh, 2015). The plants that tolerate

the highest levels of salt salinization are called Halophytes. Plants like the species of Pennisetum

are able to extract salts from the soil (Hayat, et al., 2019). Halophytes tolerate high salt

concentrations by a more negative water potential to absorb water from a soil solution of low

water potential (Hayat, et al., 2019) If farmers use salt extracting plants when the soil starts to

degrade due to high levels of salinization or incorporate them into the crops, this will help the

soil remain healthy. The use of phytoremediation can increase the soil’s durability and increase

crop yield so there is no loss of crops or revenue (Hayat, et al., 2019).

Final Recommandation:

For Site A, which has the Ramona soil series, the best recommendation would be to

practice the best irrigation practices. This was chosen because it is an unaffected salt soil, so

there are very little effects happening because there are low salinization levels. It is practical to

the farmer to gain knowledge about the water that is being used and the soil that they are planting

their crops in. This is not expensive, but if the salinization levels keep increasing, then it will

eventually cost more. There would also be very little to no laborers needed to accomplish this

task. It would be most beneficial to stay up to date every year when the crops are about to be

planted, so there is no loss in crop yield or revenue.

For Site B, the Hesperia soil series, the best recommendation is to install a drainage

system and to incorporate halophytes in the field. This is chosen because the soil is already

facing damage, so installing a drainage system would help push the flow of salts through the soil,

so they are not just stuck at the roots. It might not be practical, but it is better than losing money

and crops from high salinization levels. It would be expensive to instal the system, but it would
be more beneficial and can save money in the future. There would be many labors because the

field would have to be dug up and there is also a limited time frame due to growing crops. For

adding halophytes into the field, it was chosen because there are such high concentrations of salt

in the soil. The addition of these plants are practical because it is just planting crops that help the

soil’s health. It would not be as expensive as the drainage system, but both of these methods

would increase the fertility of the soil greatly. Also, the farmer should improve their irrigation

methods. Since this is a sodic-saline soil, the farmer would have to replace sodium with divalent

cation, then flush and repeat to decrease the levels of salinity.

For Site C, the Wekoda soil series, the best recommendation would be to practice good

irrigation techniques to not increase the salinity levels in the soil. This is practical and

inexpensive, since it would just be gaining more knowledge about the irrigation water and soil

type. It would also be beneficial to instal a drainage system because the salinity levels are

increasingly destroying the soil’s health, so it would be best to fix this problem sooner, rather

than later. It would be expensive, but better than losing crops and money from high salinization

levels. If the farmer does not want to spend that much money, then incorporating halophytes into

the field can help decrease the salinity levels.

Conclusion:

Soil salinization is becoming a much bigger problem in agriculture than ever before.

Some farmers do not care or they do not notice until it is too late. In semi-arid and arid regions,

farmers should check their soils and their irrigation waters more often to help control the

problem. If the soils keep becoming more damaged, then it could be too late to reverse the effects

from high salinization. The three sites in California are each facing three different severities of
salinization problems, but if these levels start becoming too high, then crop yield and revenue

will be lost.
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