FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF INGREDIENTS
Functional Definition/Explanation of Property
Property
AERATION Foams are the process of whipping
or beating air into a liquid (generally
lipids.) Foams are a type of aeration.
(Foam) In this process, fat in the product
becomes partially solidified and
protein partially denatured. They are
an extremely efficient way to
incorporate air. They rely on the
mechanical use of instruments to
create spaces for oxygen to enter
although excessive beating can cause
a structural breakdown of the
product.
BROWNING Enzymatic Browning (where oxygen
present in fruits and vegetables
Dextrinisation
causes the reaction)
Caramelisation
Oxidation Non-Enzymatic Browning (where
other properties e.g. heat
application cause the browning
process.)
The two forms of non-enzymatic
browning are:
Dextrinisation (the browning of
starch foods)
Caramelisation (the browning of
sugars by heat application.) These
are irreversible processes which
change the taste, structure and
texture of a product.
CARAMELISATION Caramelisation is the chemical
reaction in which monosaccharides
(BROWNING OF and disaccharides turn brown with
SUGAR) the application of heat (i.e. any
product containing sugar may
caramelise upon heating.) This
occurs when products containing
fruits, honey, milk, sugar cane, maple
syrup and cereals come in contact
with heat. Although not often
recognized, Caramelisation is
responsible for many browning
processes.
Examples of Practical
application
Cream
Pavlova
Sponges
Meringues
Roulades
Soufflés
Mousses
Omelette
Enzymatic Browning (oxygen
present) occurs in these
foods/products:
· Fruit and Vegetable products
e.g. bananas, peaches, pears,
apples and apricots (i.e. those
foods low in acid.)
Non-Enzymatic Browning
occurs in:
· Dextrinisation of starch e.g.
browning of toast, in baked
goods and in gravies;
· Browning of red meats
(through heat application
process);
· Caramelisation of sugars e.g.
sweet making and sweet
products, in fruits, vegetables,
milk, meat and baked products.
Caramelisation occurs in:
· Browning of biscuits
· Cakes and other baked
products
· Commercial milks
· Ice-creams
· Honeycomb (Violet crumbles)
· Crème Caramel
Factors affecting functional property
 Factors affecting the rate and
effectiveness of foaming include:
 The product being beaten;
The length of beating time;
The severity of the beating;
The use of additives e.g. gelatine
or sugar;
The age of the product
(especially in products such as
cream);
 The temperature of the product
Enzymatic Browning is affected by:
 Rate and amount of contact of
oxygen with product.
(prevention by covering with
syrup, acid or water);
 Amount of acid in fruit or
vegetable;
 Time left in oxygen zone;
 Temperature of work area.
Non – Enzymatic Browning is
affected by:
 Length of time heated;
 Temperature;
 Type of starch, sugar or protein
in product;
 Addition of other ingredients;
The degree of Caramelisation that
occurs varies according to:
 the amount of sugar used;
 the length of heating time;
 the type of sugar;
 the addition of other ingredients;
 the temperature the sugar
reaches.
DEXTRINISATION Dextrinisation is the process
involving the browning of starch
foods when subjected to dry heat.
It is defined as the breakdown of
(BROWNING OF starch into dextrin’s (disaccharides.)
STARCH) It is a non-enzymatic browning and
chemical change which is easily
digested as partial breakdown is
complete. The characteristics of
colour, taste, aroma and flavour may
change as a result of this process.
COAGULATION Coagulation refers to the change in
and form of the structure of protein from
DENATURATION a liquid to a solid.
After the process of denaturation
(where the helix structure of protein
is broken down into smaller
molecules), the protein will separate
from other nutrients and coagulate.
In this process, peptide bonds break
and uncoil.
A denatured protein cannot return to
its original state.
CRYSTALLISATION Crystallisation is the result of the
cooling of a supersaturated solution
(very concentrated) where solid
crystals form. This occurs after
substances separate from solutions
or where a change from a liquid to a
solid causes crystals. The result will
occur only at very high concentration
levels and is seen in the main in
sucrose (and sometimes lactose and
maltose.)
GELATINISATION The process wherein starch granules
form a suspension in cold water.
When heated in the presence of
· Toasting bread
· Baked goods
· Brown gravies and sauces
· Toasted breakfast cereals,
Formation of baked crusts on
vegetables e.g. potatoes,
pumpkin and onions
· Raw eggs to cooked
(scrambled, boiled)
· Production of Cheese
· Baked/fried fish
· Creme Caramel
· Meringue (protein denatured
during beating; heat causes
coagulation)
· Fudge
· Toffee
· Caramel
· Fondant
· Lemon Meringue Pie (filling)
· Roux
· Cheese Sauce
The degree of Dextrinisation is
determined by:
 the length of time the product is
heated;
 the temperature,
 the type of starch in the product;
 addition of other ingredients;
 the action of certain enzymes,
 the action of acids; and
 the amount of exposure to dry
heat the product encounters.
The rate of Coagulation is affected
by:
 High Temperature - the higher
the temperature, the faster
coagulation will occur. Over-
heating causes a gel to firm.
 Agitation ( excessive mechanical
action may cause over
coagulation);
 The action of enzymes e.g.
rennin causing milk to coagulate;
 A change in pH; and
 The addition of salt - begins the
process of denaturation.
The size of crystal formation is
dependent on these factors:
 the rate of growth of the
crystals.
The rate of crystal growth can be
affected by:
 The concentration of sugar in the
solution.
 The concentration of sucrose
(disaccharide which increases
rate of Crystallisation);
 The temperature of the solution;
 Stirring the solution causes a
grainy textured product as
Crystallisation occurs too fast;
 Addition of additives such as
fats, honey, corn syrup or cream
of tartar also change the form of
the product.
Gelatinisation is affected by:
 Temperature (control of, to
prevent burning whilst ensuring
boiling point is reached);
 water, these swell and thicken and a
gel results. The cellulose wall of the
starch ruptures when swollen
granules bump into each other and
water is absorbed. This process is
known as Gelatinisation.
EMULSIFICATION An emulsion is a colloid in which
liquids that do not normally mix are
spread throughout each other, for
example, oil and vinegar.
An emulsifier like egg yolk is needed
to stop them from separating.
Emulsifying is done by slowly adding
one ingredient to another while
simultaneously mixing. This disperses
and suspends tiny droplets of one
liquid in the other.
LEAVENING Leavening is the air that causes
breads, cakes, and other baked goods
to rise when they go in the oven. That
gas is produced in different ways,
depending on what type of leavening
agent you use. The leavening agent
produces a gas, and the gas causes
the dough or batter to rise.
The introduction of gases into baked
products to give volume and texture.
This is achieved through physical
(whisking and beating) AERATION
and chemical (baking powder, yeast)
methods.
· Custard  Ratio of starch to liquid (in
accordance with use and type of
starch used.
 Length of time product is
heated;
 Degree of agitation (i.e. constant,
steady stirring is required for
effective gelatinisation.
 Addition of other ingredients
e.g. acids, stabilizing agent, sugar.
 Crema (foam) in espresso – Emulsification is affected by:
coffee oil in water (brewed  The order in which the
coffee), unstable emulsion ingredients are combined
 Mayonnaise and Hollandaise  Vigorous beating or whisking
sauce – these are oil-in- (insufficient beating may mean
water emulsions that are an emulsion may not form)
stabilised with egg yolk  The temperature of the
lecithin ingredients.
 Homogenised milk – an
emulsion of milk fat in water
and milk proteins
 Vinaigrette – an emulsion of
vegetable oil in vinegar. If
this is prepared using only oil
and vinegar (i.e., without an
emulsifier), an unstable
emulsion results
 Butter – an emulsion of
water in butterfat
There are 3 main categories of  Amount of agitation
leavening agents  Type of chemical leavening
product
1) Physical - Physical leavening  Heat applied to biological agent
involves physically forcing air
into a batter or dough.
Creaming butter and sugar,
whisking egg whites
2) Chemical - baking powder or
baking soda - carbon dioxide
gas creates little air pockets in
the batter
3) Biological- Biological
leavening refers to using living
organisms to leaven dough –
Yeast
Also Steam
team plays a role in ALL baked
goods
When the water in the dough
turns to steam, the
H2O molecules begin to spread
out and take up way more
space. This forces the dough or
batter to expand.