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CH - 1
CH - 1
BY: SBHATLEAB H.
CHAPTER ONE
ELECTROMAGNETIC PRINCIPLES
INTRODUCTION
Magnetism plays an integral part in almost every electrical device used today in industry,
research, or the home. Generators, motors, transformers, circuit breakers, televisions, computers,
tape recorders, and telephones all employ magnetic effects to perform a variety of important
tasks.
All electromagnetic devices make use of magnetic fields in their operation. These magnetic
fields may be produced by permanent magnets or electromagnets. Magnetic fields are created by
alternating- and direct-current sources to provide the necessary medium for developing generator
action and motor action. Throughout this book we will be studying the application of magnetic
fields to electromechanical energy conversion processes as demonstrated in rotating electric ma-
chinery. Also, transformers provide energy transfer from one electric circuit to another via the
changing magnetic field. It will become apparent that there is both transfer and storage of energy
in the magnetic fields of the various electromagnetic devices. Hence all electromagnetic devices
are constructed with appropriate magnetic circuits.
1.1. ELECTROMAGNETIC RELATIONSHIPS
A. Magnetic Lines of Force
The "quantity of magnetism" which exists in a magnetic field is the magnetic line of force, or
more simply, the magnetic flux. In the SI system magnetic flux is measured in units called
webers, abbreviated Wb, and its symbol is ( (the Greek lowercase letter phi). The weber is
defined in terms of an induced voltage, so that the definition of the unit will be postponed until
we study electromagnetic induction. Although there is no actual flow of magnetic flux, we will
consider flux to be analogous to current in electric circuits.
B. Magnetic Flux Density
The total magnetic flux that comes out of the magnet is not uniformly distributed, as can be seen
in Figure 1.2. A more useful measure of the magnetic effect is the magnetic flux density, which
is the magnetic flux per unit cross-sectional area. We will consider two equal areas through
which the magnetic flux penetrates at right angles near one end of the permanent magnet along
its centerline. From the illustration it becomes apparent that there is a greater amount of magnetic
flux passing through an area that is nearer the magnet pole. In other words, the magnetic flux
density increases as we approach closer to the end of the magnet. However, it must be noted that
the magnetic flux density inside the magnet is uniformly constant. Magnetic flux density is
measured in units of tesla (T) and is given the symbol B. One tesla is equal to 1 weber of
magnetic flux per square meter of area.We can state that
1
B 1.1
A
where B = magnetic flux density, T
= magnetic flux, Wb
A = area through which penetrates perpendirularly, m2
Example 1.1 The total magnetic flux out of a cylindrical permanent magnet is found to be
0.032 mWb. If the magnet has a circular cross section and a diameter of 1 cm, what is the
magnetic flux density at the end of the magnet?
Solution
The total flux = 0.032 x 10 -3 Wb, cross-sectional area of magnet:
D2 (0.01)2
A 78.53 106 m2
4 4
0.032 103
B 0.407 T
A 78.53 106
Note that this magnetic flux density exists only at the immediate end of the magnet. As we move
away from the end of the magnet, the magnetic flux spreads out, and therefore the magnet flux
density decreases.
C. Magnetomotive Force
We have seen that an increase in the magnitude of current in a coil or a single conductor results
in an increase in the magnetic flux. If the number of turns in a coil are increased (with the current
remaining constant), there is an increase in magnetic flux. Therefore, the magnetic flux is
proportional to the products of amperes and turns. This ability of a coil to produce magnetic flux
is called the magnetomotive force. Magnetomotive force is abbreviated MMF and has the units
of ampere-turns (At). The magnetomotive force is given the symbol F m. Strictly speaking, the
units of MMF are amperes because turns are dimensionless quantities. However, from a
pedagogical standpoint, we prefer and shall use throughout this book the units of ampere-turns
(At) for MMF. We may write
Fm NI 1.2
where Fm = magnetomotive force (MMF), At
N = number of turns of coil
I = excitation current in coil, A
Magnetomotive force in the magnetic circuit is analogous to electromotive force in an electric
circuit.
Example 1.2 The coil in Figure 1.7 has 1000 turns wound on a cardboard toroid. The mean (or
average) diameter D of the toroid is 10 cm, and the cross section is 1 cm. The total magnetic flux
in the toroid is 3Wb when there is an excitation current of 10 mA in the coil.
2
(a) What is the magnetic flux when the current is increased to 20 mA?
(b) What is the magnetic flux density within the coil when the current is 20 mA?
Solution
(a) If we double the current to 20 mA. then
3
flux can be produced in an iron-core coil than in an air-core coil. Thus we see that the reluctance
of the magnetic circuit depends on the material properties of the magnetic circuit. For our
purposes, the materials are classified as either magnetic or nonmagnetic. Only the ferrous
(irons and steels) group of metals, including cobalt and nickel, are magnetic materials. All other
materials, such as air, insulators, wood, paper, plastic, brass, and bronze, including vacuum, are
nonmagnetic materials. The strength and pattern of the magnetic field in nonmagnetic
materials would be identical to that of air or vacuum (free space). In our discussions we will
assume that the magnetic properties of air and vacuum are the same. We consider some of the
peculiar characteristics of magnetic materials in subsequent sections.
The reluctance of a homogeneous magnetic circuit may be expressed in terms of its physical
dimensions and magnetic property as follows:
l
m 1.4
μA
where m = reluctance of the magnetic circuit, At/Wb
l = average or mean length of the magnetic path, m
A = cross-sectional area of the magnetic path, m2
= 0 r , absolute (or total) permeability of the magnetic path, H/m
Reluctance is in essence magnetic resistance, that is, the property of a magnetic circuit which is
reluctant or unwilling to set up magnetic flux. The reciprocal of reluctance is termed as
permeance, which is anologous to conductance in electric circuits.
E. Permeability
Permeability is the magnetic property that determines the characteristics of magnetic materials
and nonmagnetic materials. The permeability of free space and nonmagnetic materials has the
following symbol and constant value in SI units:
0 4 107 H / m
As we can see, the reluctance of magnetic materials r is much lower than that of air or
nonmagnetic materials 0 . From the inverse relationship of reluctance and permeability, we
determine that the total permeability of magnetic materials is much greater than that of air.
However, the value of permeability varies with the degree of magnetization of the magnetic
material and, of course, the type of material. Since the permeability of magnetic materials r is
variable, we must employ magnetic saturation (B-H) curves to perform magnetic circuit
calculations. Permeability in magnetic circuits is somewhat analogous to conductivity in electric
circuits.
Example 1.3 In Figure 1.7 we assume that the magnetic flux is practically uniform in the cross-
sectional area of the toroid. The mean path length is 0.314 m and the cross-sectional area through
which the flux exists is 78.5 x 10 -6 m2. Calculate the number of ampere-turns required to set up
magnetic flux of 1 Wb.
Solution
The reluctance of the homogeneous magnetic circuit is
4
l 0.314
m 3.18 109 At / Wb
μA 4 10 78.5 106
7
5
or B H 1.6
Equation (1.6) shows that the magnetic flux density is directly dependent on both permeability
and magnetic field intensity. Only in air or free space is the permeability ( 0) constant, and thus a
linear relationship between B and H exists. In the next section we consider ferromagnetic
materials in which the absolute permeability is not a constant but depends on the degree of
magnetization.
1.2. MAGNETIC CIRCUITS AND CALCULATIONS
6
Figure 1.8 Typical Magnitizations curves.
B. Hysteresis
Hysteresis in magnetic materials results in dissipation of energy, which is proportional to the area
of the hysteresis loop. Hence the following conclusions can be drawn:
1. Flux density B always lags with respect to the magnetizing force H.
2. An expenditure of energy is essential to carry the specimen through a complete
cycle of magnetization.
3. Energy loss is proportional to the area of hysteresis loop and depends upon the
quality of the magnetic material.
B
C
D
A
Br
L K
E O H
7
B
H
If we wish to compare the permeability of magnetic materials with that of air, we may use the
relative permeability r, which is defined by the equation
r
0
Where = absolute permeability of the material. H/m
0 = 410-7H/m = permeability of free space
r = relative permeability
From the typical magnetization curves of Figure 1.8, we can calculate the value of absolute and
relative permeabilities for any magnetic operating condition. When we do this we observe that
the value of relative permeability is not a constant but obtains a maximum value at about the
knee of the B-H curve.
Example 1.4 Calculate the absolute and relative permeabilities of cast steel operating at
magnetic flux densities of 0.7 T and 1.0 T.
Solution
From the saturation curve for cast steel, the values of H are 400 At/m and 800 At/m.
respectively. The absolute permeabilities are:
For 0.7 T:
B 0.7
1.75 103 H / m or T / At / m
H 400
For 1.0 T:
B 1.0
1.25 103 H / m
H 800
The relative permeabilities are
For 0.7 T:
1.75 103
r 1392.61
0 4 107
For 1.0 T:
1.25 103
r 994.72
0 4 107
Thus we see that cast steel has at least 1000 times more ability to set up magnetic
flux lines than do nonmagnetic materials.
8
D. Series and Parallel Magnet Circuits
By definition, a series magnetic circuit contains magnetic flux, which is common throughout the
series magnetic elements. These series magnetic elements may consist of composite sectors of
ferromagnetic materials of different lengths and cross-sectional areas, and of air gaps. The
simplest series magnetic circuit would be of a toroid of homogeneous material and the steel core
of a transformer. More complex series circuits which contain air gaps are illustrated in Figure
1.6.
Parallel magnetic circuits are defined by the number of paths that the magnetic flux may follow.
Any of these paths or branches may consist of composite sectors of magnetic materials,
including air gaps. A detailed calculation for a typical parallel magnet circuit is demonstrated in
Section 1.5.
Electric Circuit Analogs
In our discussion so far, we note the following analogous relationships between magnetic
quantities and electric quantities:
Electric circuit Magnetic circuit
E (volts) Fm (NI ampere-turns)
I (amperes) (webers)
R (ohms) m (ampere-turns/weber)
1 (henries/meter)
(conductvity)
We can draw useful electrical analogs for the solution of magnetic circuit problems. In an
electrical circuit the driving force is the voltage, the output is the current, and the opposition to
establishing current is the resistance. In the same way, the driving force in the magnetic circuit is
the magnetomotive force, the output is the magnetic flux, and opposition to establishing the flux
is the reluctance.
Thus we have for the magnetic circuit of Figure 1.9a the analogous electric circuit and the
analogous magnetic circuit in Figure 1.9b and c, respectively. The iron and air portions of the
magnetic circuit are analogous to the two series resistors of the electric circuit. Analogous to the
electric circuit, the magnetomotive force must overcome the magnetic potential drops of the two
series reluctances in accordance with Kirchhoff's voltage law applied to magnetic circuits.
Therefore,
Fm miron mag 1.8
is the equivalent magnetic-potential-drop equation. Since the permeability of ferromagnetic
materials (iron) is a variable depending on the state of magnetization, we must use the B-H
curves to obtain the magnetic field intensity if the magnetic flux density is available. Hence we
can calculate the MMF drop for the iron from Eq. (1.5) as follows:
Fmiron H iron l iron At 1.9
Finally, the general MMF-drop equation for series magnetic circuits is modified for calculation
purposes to the following form:
9
l ag
Fm H iron l iron 1.10
0 A ag
(a)
I Rl
+ Rag
E
-
(b)
1
+
NI ag
-
(c)
Figure 1.9 Iron-core toroid with air gap: (a) Magnetic circuit; (b) analogous electric circuit; (c) analogous
magnetic circuit.
Given the physical parameters of the series magnetic circuit and the value of magnetic flux or
magnetic flux density, the required magnetomotive force can be calculated in a straightforward
manner using Eq. (1.10).
The general principles of electric circuits embodied in Ohm's and Kirchhotf's laws are applied as
analogous equivalents to parallel magnetic circuits. With the presence of air gaps, most complex
magnetic circuits are solved using the seriesparallel equivalent analogs.In analogous equivalents,
Kirchhoff's current law for magnetic circuits states that the sum of magnetic fluxes entering a
junction or node is equal to the sum of magnetic fluxes leaving the junction or node. Needless to
a say, magnetic flux must not be perceived as flowing.
Fringing and Leakage Flux
In a series magnetic circuit containing an air gap, there is a tendency for the airgap flux to spread
out (i.e., to create a bulge) as shown in Figure 1.10. This spreading effect, termed fringing,
reduces the net flux density in the air gap.
10
Fringing
flux
Useful
flux
11
9. Total ampere turns for the complete magnetic circuit can now be found by adding
algebraically the ampere turns needed by the various parts of the magnetic circuit.
B. Calculation of Ampere Turns for the Air Gap
Total ampere turns for the air gap is given by,
Fag = (Flux) ag (reluctance)
lg
Reluctance for air gap, ag (for which r=1)
0 A g
lg
Thus Fag
0 Ag
lg
A g 0
1
Bg l g
0
1
Bg l g (1.11)
4 10 7
Hence to calculate the ampere turns for the air gap, the following general procedure may be
followed:
1. calculate the magnetic flux in the air gap,
2. calculate the gap area from the given data.
3. calculate gap density, Bg , and
Ag
using Eq. (1.11), calculate the ampere turns needed for the air gap.
12
C. Series Magnetic Circuits
Example 1.5 Illustrates the method of solution for a simple one-material series circuit.
The circuit of Figure 1.11 is a magnetic core made of cast steel. A coil of N turns is wound on it.
For a flux of 560 Wb, calculate the necessary current, neglecting any fringing effects.The cross-
sectional area A is constant.
Solution
N = 550 turns
l1 = 20 cm = 20 10-2 m
l2 = 12 cm = 12 10-2 m
A = 4 cm2 = 4 10-4 m2
=560 10-6 Wb
560 106
B 140 10 2 1.4T
4
4 10
For B = 1.4 T, H = 2200 At/m (from the B-H curve of Figure 1.7). The average or mean length
of the magnetic path is 20 + 12 + 20 + 12 cm = 64 = 0.64 m. Therefore,
Hl=NI=20000.64 At
2200 0.64
I 2.56 A
550
13
17 cm PART A
I 2 mm
N N
10 cm
PART B
20 cm
15.03 104 At / Wb
lB
ii) Reluctance of part B, B
0 r A B
Cross-sectional area of part B, AB = 9 10-4 m2 .
Relative permeability r , of part B = 1200
Length of mean path of flux in part B, l B = 17 + 8.5 + 8.5 = 34 cm = 0.34 m
14
Thus reluctance of part B,
0.34
B
4 10 1200 9 10 4
7
25.04 104 At / Wb
lg
iii) Reluctance of air gaps, ag
0 A
Length of mean path of flux in the two air gaps, lg = 2 + 2 = 4 mm = 0.004 m.
0.004
ag
Hence reluctance of two air gaps, 4 10 7 9 10 4
353.5 104 At / Wb
iv) Total reluctance of the magnetic circuit,
A B ag
15.03 25.04 353.5 104
393.57 104 At / Wb
v) The magnetomotive force produced by two coils on iron part B, each having 1000 turns
and carrying a current of 1 A
= (2 1000) 1 (mmf = NI)
= 2000 At.
vi) As per Ohm's law for magnetic circuits, mmf = Flux Reluctance
NI
2000
393.57 10 4
5.08 10 4 Wb
vii) Flux density,
B
A
5.08 10 4
0.564 Wb / m 2 [Tesla ]
4
9 10
Example 1.7 An electromagnet is of the form and dimensions as shown in Figure 1.13. It is
made of iron of square section 4 cm side. A flux of 1.1 mWb is required in the air gap.
Neglecting leakage and fringing, calculate the number of ampere turns required. Take the
relative permeability to be 2000 at this flux density.
Portion D 30 cm
2 mm
Portion C
25 cm
15
The magnetic circuit of the electromagnet shown in Figure 1.13 is completed by four parts
connected in series, viz. (i) iron portion C (ii) air gap, (iii) iron portion D, and (iv) air gap.
Total ampere turns required for this magnetic circuit, F T = ampere turns required for iron portion
C , F C + ampere turns required for air gap, F ag + ampere turns for iron portion D, F D + ampere
turns of air gap, F ag.
Or FT FC Fag FD Fag
Or FT FC FD 2Fag
16
Ampere turns required for two air gaps = 2 1094 = 2188 At
Total ampere turns required, F T = 68+ 82+ 2188 = 2318 At
D. Parallel Magnetic Circuits
Figure 1.14a shows a parallel magnetic circuit.There are NI ampere-turns on the center leg.The
flux that is produced by the MMF in the center leg exists in the center leg and then divides into
two parts, one going in the path afe and the other in the path bcd. If we assume for simplicitv that
afe = bcd, the flux is distributed evenly between the two paths. Now
g = afe + bcd 1.11
Where g = flux in portion g
afe = flux in portion afe
bcd = flux in portion bcd
Equation (1.11) is actually the analog of Kirchhoff's current law, but now we can say that the
amount of flux entering a junction is equal to the amount of flux leaving the junction.
Another observation that we may make on this circuit is that the MMF drops around a circuit are
the same no matter what path we take. Thus the MMF drop around afe must be equal to the
MMF drop around bcd. This can be stated more precisely as
Hala + Hflf + Hele = Hblb + Hclc + Hd ld 1.12
(a)
afe bcd
ma mb
ag
mf + mc
-
g
me md
(b)
17
Iafe Ibcd
Rg
Rf Rc
+
-
Re Ig Rd
(c)
Figure 1-14 Magnetic circuit with center leg: (a) Magnetic circuit; (b) equivalent magnetic circuit; (c)
analogous electric circuit.
The drop in MMF around either path afe or bcd must also be equal to the MMF drop along path
g. But g also has an "active source," the NI ampere-turns of the coil. The actual MMF existing
between X and Y is the driving force NI minus the drop H glg in path g. Then we can write
(NI - H glg) = Hala + Hflf + Hele 1.13
= Hblb + Hclc + Hdld
Again we can draw analogous magnetic and electrical circuits as in Figure 1.14b and c. For
Figure 1.l4b we may write
NI - mgg = bcd (mb + mc + md ) 1.14
= afe (ma + mf + me )
and in Figure 1.l0c we may write
E - RgI g = Ibcd (Rb + Rc + Rd ) 1.15
= Iafe (Ra + Rf + Re )
In the analogous magnetic circuit, note that NI is drawn in series with R mg , although physically
the coil surrounds the central magnetic path.
18
Example 1.8 In Figure 1-14a, the following dimensions apply:
lg = lf = lc = 12 cm
la = lb = le = ld = 14 cm
Aa = Ab = Ac = Ad = Ae = A = 1 cm2
Ag = 3 cm2
The material is sheet steel. The flux densitv in the center leg is 0.9 T. Calculate the MMF
required to produce this flux density.
Solution
The total flux in the center leg is 0.9 3 10-4 = 2.7 10-4 Wb. The flux divides into two parts,
the left-hand path through afe and the right-hand path through bcd. The flux density in path g is
Bg = 0.9 T and therefore H g = 320 At/m. The flux density in section a is
2.7 104
Ba 1.35T
2 1 10 4
and therefore
Ha = 950 At/rn
Ha = Hb = Hc =Hd =He= Hf
Therefore,
NI = H glg + Ha (la + lf + le )
= 320 12 10-2 + 950 ( 14 + 12 + 14 ) 10-2
= 38.4 + 380 = 418.4 At
Example 1.9 We can add one more degree of complexity to the circuit of Figure 1.14a. In Figure
1.15 we cut an air gap in the center leg, and the air gap is 1.5 mm wide. All other dimensions
remain unchanged and the flux density in the center leg is still 0.9 T. Find the number of ampere-
turns on the center leg required to produce this flux density.
Solution
We can still use the equivalent-circuit concept as shown in Figure 1.14b, the only difference
being that NI is now in series with two reluctances in the center path, the air gap and the steel in
leg g.
(NI) - (MMF drop in air gap) - (MMF drop in section g )
= MMF drop in section b + c + d
= MMF drop in section a + f + e
In the center leg, the flux density is still fixed at 0.9 T. Therefore.
Bg = 0.9 T
The MMF drop per unit length in the center steel section is still H g = 320 At/m, as before.
Therefore,
MMF drop in leg g = 320 (12 - 0.15) 10 -2 = 37.92 At
The MMF drop across the air gap is found from
19
F mgap = H gaplgap
For air
= 0 = 410-7 Wb/(At/m) or H/m
Therefore,
0.9
H gap 7
7.16 105 At / m
4 10
20
through it, is called electromagnetic induction. The operation of electrical equipments like
motors, generators, transformers, etc. is mainly based upon the laws formulated by
Faraday.
A. Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
Faraday conducted the following experiment to obtain an electric current with the aid of
magnetic flux.
S S
S
G G N G N
S N
S N
Motion
Motion
Flux
e Flux
EMF
emf
21
C. Magnitude of Induced Emf in a Coil
Let a coil consist of N number of turns over it. Assume that the flux through the coil changes
from its initial value 1 to 2 in an interval t second.
Initial value of' flux linkages = N1
Value of flux linkages after t s = N2
Change of flux linkages in time t s == N1 N2
The term flux linkages used over here simply means the product of flux in Weber and the
number of turns with which the flux is linked. Now as per Faraday's laws of electromagnetic
induction, induced emf in the above coil due to a change of flux is given by,
N 1 2
Induced emf V
t
Based on the above, the instantaneous value of emf induced in the coil can be represented as,
d
e ( N)
dt
d
Or e N 1.16
dt
The negative sign in the Eq. (1.16) above equation signifies that the induced emf generates a cur-
rent tending to oppose the increase of flux through the coil. The relation expressed by the above
equation can be called Faraday's law.
D. Dynamically Induced emf
Dynamically induced emf is produced by the movement of the conductor in a magnetic field.
Figure 1.18 shows a uniform magnetic field of flux density B tesla, in which the conductor is
moving in the direction shown and cuts the flux at right angles.
If l = length of the conductor in meter cutting the field
v = velocity of motion of conductor in m/s
dx = distance moved by the conductor in time dt
A
22
The dynamically induced emf is the rate of change of flux linkages, i.e.
Bldx
Dynamically induced emf
dt
dx
Bl
dt
dx
As (velocity)
dt
Thus dynamically induced emf = Bl V 1.17
E. Statically Induced emf
When the conductor or coil remains stationary and the flux linking with these conductors or coil
undergo a change, an emf is induced in the conductors. Such an induced emf is termed as
statically induced emf. Statically induced emf can be further classified as (i) self-induced emf
and (ii) mutual induced emf.
Self-induced emf
Any electrical circuit in which the change of current is accompanied by the change of flux, and
therefore by an induced emf, is said to be inductive or to possess self inductance. Thus the
property of the coil which enables to induce an emf in it whenever the current changes is called
self-induction.
23
i.e. I
I
Now if current is changed at a certain rate, the flux also changes at the same rate. Thus, the rate
of change of flux = rate of change of current cons tan t . Substituting this in Eq.
I I
(1.18),
e N rate of change of current
I
N di
Or e 1.19
I dt
N
The term i.e. flux linkages/ampere is generally called the self-inductance of the coil or the
I
coefficient of self-induction and is denoted by a symbol L. With this replacement, Eq, (1.19)
becomes,
di
e L 1.20
dt
N
Where L henry
I
Mutually Induced emf
The phenomenon of generation of induced emf in a circuit by changing the current in a
neighbouring circuit is called mutual induction. Consider two coils P and S such that P is
connected to a cell through switch K and S to a galvanometer as shown in Figure 1.20. When the
switch K is closed suddenly to start current in the coil P, the galvanometer gives a sudden "kick"
in one direction. Now when K is opened, the galvanometer again shows a deflection but in the
oppoaite direction. The above cbservations indicate clearly that an induced current is set up in
the coil S when the current is changed in the coil P, though the coil S is not connected physically
to coil P. Two coils possessing this property are said to have mutual inductance. The unit
of mutual inductance is also henry. It is denoted by M. Two coils are said to possess a mutual
inductance of 1 henry when current changing at the rate of l ampere per second in one coil
induces an emf of 1 volt in the other.
P S G
K
24
2
K
1
Or 2 K1
Also I
Or cons tan t
I
Now 2 2 I
I
K1
Or 2 current
I
When current is changed at a certain rate, 2 also changes at the same rate. Thus,
K1
Rate of change of 2 rate of change of current 1.21
I
According to Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction the emf induced in S is given by,
eS N 2 rate of change of flux 2 1.22
where N2 is the number of turns in coil S
Combining Eqs (1.21) and (1.22),
K1
eS N 2 rate of change of current
I
K di
Or eS N 2 1
I dt
di
M
dt
N K N
Where M 2 1 2 2
I I
flux linkage of coil S
current in coil P
The constant M in the above equation , which is equal to the flux linkages of coil S per ampere
of current in coil P, is called the coefficient of mutual induction or mutual inductance.
Hence the coeffiaicnt of mutual induction is defined as the number of lines of force passing
through the secondary coil S when unit current changes in the primary coil P. It is also
numerically equal to the induced emf in one circuit due to a unit rate of change of current in the
other circuit.
25
F. Inductance
Having introduced the necessary electromagnetic background, we can now address inductance.
Inductance is, in some sense, a mirror image of capacitance. While capacitors store energy in an
electric field, inductors store energy in a magnetic field. While capacitors prevent voltage from
changing instantaneously, inductors, as we shall see, prevent current from changing
instantaneously.
Consider a coil of wire carrying some current creating a magnetic field within the coil. As shown
in Figure 1.21, if the coil has an air core, the flux can pretty much go where it wants to, which
leads to the possibility that much of the flux will not link all of the turns of the coil. To help
guide the flux through the coil, so that flux leakage is minimized, the coil might be wrapped
around a ferromagnetic bar or ferromagnetic core as shown in Figure 1.22. The lower reluctance
path provided by the ferromagnetic material also greatly increases the flux . We can easily
analyze the magnetic circuit in which the coil is wrapped around the ferromagnetic core in
Figure 1.22(a). Assume that all of the flux stays within the low-reluctance pathway provided by
the core, and apply (1.3):
F Ni
1.23
Figure 1.21 A coil with an air core will have considerable leakage flux.
N
i
e _
+
(a) (b)
Figure 1.22 Flux can be increased and leakage reduced by wrapping the coils around a ferromagnetic
material that provides a lower reluctance path. The flux will be much higher using the core (a) rather
than the rod (b).
26
From Faraday’s law, changes in magnetic flux create a voltage e, called the electromotive force
(emf), across the coil equal to
d
eN 1.24
dt
Substituting (1.23) into (1.24) gives
d Ni N 2 di di
eN L
dt dt dt
where inductance L has been introduced and defined as
N2
Inductance, L heneries 1.25
Notice in Figure 1.22 (a) that a distinction has been made between e, the emf voltage induced
across the coil, and V, a voltage that may have been applied to the circuit to cause the flux in the
first place. If there are no losses in the connecting wires between the source voltage and the coil,
then e = v and we have the final defining relationship for an inductor:
di
vL
dt
As given in (1.25), inductance is inversely proportional to reluctance . Recall that the
reluctance of a flux path through air is much greater than the reluctance if it passes through a
ferromagnetic material. That tells us if we want a large inductance, the flux needs to pass through
materials with high permeability (not air).
Example 1.10 Inductance of a Core-and-Coil. Find the inductance of a core with
effective length l = 0.1 m, cross-sectional area A = 0.001 m2, and relative permeability μr
somewhere between 15,000 and 25,000. It is wrapped with N = 10 turns of wire. What is the
range of inductance for the core?
Solution
When the core’s permeability is 15,000 times that of free space, it is
μcore = μrμ0 = 15,000 × 4π × 10−7 = 0.01885 Wb/At-m
So its reluctance is
l 0.1
5305 At / Wb
core A 0.01885 0.001
and its inductance is
N2 102
L 0.0188 H 18.8 mH
5305
Similarly, when the relative permeability is 25,000 the inductance is
27
N 2 N 2 r 0 A 102 25,000 4 10 7 0.001
L
l 0.1
0.0314 H 31.4 mH
The point of Example 1.9 is that the inductance of a coil of wire wrapped around a solid core can
be quite variable given the imprecise value of the core’s permeability. Its permeability depends
on how hard the coil is driven by mmf so you can’t just pick up an off-the-shelf inductor like this
and know what its inductance is likely to be. The trick to getting a more precise value of
inductance given the uncertainty in permeability is to sacrifice some amount of inductance by
building into the core a small air gap. Another approach is to get the equivalent of an air gap by
using a powdered ferromagnetic material in which the spaces between particles of material act as
the air gap. The air gap reluctance, which is determined strictly by geometry, is large compared
to the core reluctance so the impact of core permeability changes is minimized.
The following example illustrates the advantage of using an air gap to minimize the uncertainty
in inductance. It also demonstrates something called Ampere’s circuital law, which is the
magnetic analogy to Kirchhoff’s voltage law. That is, the rise in magnetomotive force (mmf)
provided by N turns of wire carrying current i is equal to the sum of the mmf drops R φ around
the magnetic loop.
Example 1.11 An Air Gap to Minimize Inductance Uncertainty. Suppose the core of Example
1.10 is built with a 0.001 m air gap. Find the range of inductances when the core’s relative
permeability varies between 15,000 and 25,000.
28
N2 102
And the inductance is L 0.0001248 H 0.1248 mH
801,027
When the core’s relative permeability is 25,000, its reluctance is
l core 0.099
core 3151 At / Wb
core A 25,000 4 10 7 0.001
And the new total inductance is
N2 102
L 0.0001251 H 0.1251 mH
3151 795,775
This is an insignificant change in inductance. A very precise inductance has been achieved at the
expense of a sizable decrease in inductance compared to the core without an air gap.
G. Energy Stored In Magnetic Field
Consider a coil having a constant inductance of L Henry, in which the current increases by di in
dt seconds, then induced emf in the coil , e becomes
di
e L
dt
The applied voltage must balance the voltage drop across resistor R and neutralize the above
induced emf, thus,
di
V iR L 1.26
dt
Multiplying Eq.(1.26) throughout by i.dt
di
V i dt i 2 Rdt L i 1.27
dt
where, V i dt is the energy supplied by the source in time dt
i2 R dt the energy dissipated in the form of heat
Li di the energy absorbed by the inductance of the coil in building up the magnetic field.
Thus energy absorbed by the magnetic field during the time dt second
L i dt Joules
Hence total energy absorbed by the magnetic field when the current increases from zero to I
amperes
I
Lidi
0
I
L idi
0
29
1 2
Energy stored LI J 1.28
2
Energy Stored in Magnetic Field in Terms of Volume of Field
1 2
Energy stored in Magnetic field LI
2
N
Self inductance of the coil, L
I
Thus energy stored
1 N 2
I
2 I
1
N I J
2
Total ampere turns on the coil, NI = Hl
Also flux, BA
Thus energy stored
1
Hl BA
2
BH l A
1
2
But A 1 = volume of the magnetic field
1 B2
Or Energy stored/cubic meter 1.31
2 0 r
30
another, and the action of an electric motor is a third. A fourth example is the attraction of an
armature to an electromagnet, such as in relays, contactors, and lift magnets.
A. Lifting Power of Magnet (Magnetic Tractive Force)
We will consider the forces of attraction acting in an air gap between parallel surfaces Referring
to Figure 1.24, let F be the force in Newton between the poles of the magnets and the pole cross-
sectional area A in square meter having a flux density of B tesla. If the upper pole is pulled
through a small distance x against the force F, then
Work done = Fx J 1.32
Work done as given by above equation is equal to the increase in energy stored in the magnetic
field.
Energy stored per cubic meter of magnetic field
1
BH
2
1 B2
2 0 r
If the field is in air, r = 1
1 B2
Thus energy stored per cubic meter =
2 0
where B is the flux density of the field
Additional volume of magnetic field = Ax m3
Thus increase in energy stored in the magnetic field
1 B2 A
x
2 0
Now by equating the above to equations
1 B2 A
Fx x
2 0
1 B2 A
Or Pull F N 1.33
2 0
B2 A
Pull in Kg wt F kg wt
9.81 2 0
B2 A
Or F kg wt 1.34
19.62 2 0
31
N
x
F
32
Figure 1.25 Lifting electromagnet for Example 1.8.
Thus if N = 1000 turns, I = 0.95 A.
In general we observe that almost all of the ampere-turns are usually consumed by the relatively
small air gap. In a practical case, since leakage flux and fringing have been neglected, increasing
the value of the current by about 20% would probably yield a satisfactory solution.
Example 1.13 A solenoid 80 cm in length and 8 cm in diameter has 4000 turns uniformly wound
over it. Calculate (i) the inductance and (ii) the energy stored in the magnetic field when a
current of 2 A flows in the solenoid.
Solution
i). Inductance of the solenoid is given by,
N
L
I
Flux,
d2
B A 0 H
4
NI d2
0
l 4
4000 2 2
4 10 7 8 10 4
0.8 4
0.06322 10 3 Wb
Inductance,
4000 0.06322 10 3
L
2
0.126 H
1 2
ii). Energy stored in the magnetic field LI
2
33
1
0.216 2 2
2
0.252 J
B. Force on a Conductor
Ampere demonstrated in 1820 that there is a magnetic field associated with a conductor carrying
current. When placed in a transverse magnetic field, this conductor experiences a force that is
proportional to
(a) the strength of the magnetic field,
(b) the magnitude of current in the conductor, and
(c) the length of the conductor in, and perpendicular to, the magnetic field.
In SI units, the electromagnetic force developed on the conductor carrying current in a magnetic
field B is given by
F=BlI newtons 1.35
Much use will be made of this important equation in subsequent chapter.
34
PROBLEMS
1.1. A coil of 200 turns is wound uniformly over a wooden ring having a mean circumference
of 600 mm and a uniform cross sectional area of 500 mm2. If the current through the coil is 4 A,
calculate:
(a) the magnetic field strength,
(b) the flux density, and
(c) the total flux
Ans.: 1333 A/m, 1675×10 -6 T, 0.8375 Wb
1.2. A coil of 1000 turns is wound on air-core toroid as shown in Figure 1.26. The current in
the coil is 5A. Do=7 cm, and Di =5 cm. calculate the flux density inside the coil, assuming that it
is uniformly distributed over the coil cross section.
1.3. A coil of 1000 turns is wound on an air-core toroid as shown in Figure 1.26, where Di=4
cm and Ds= 0.5 cm. If the flux in the cross section is 0.8 Wb, calculate I. Assume that the flux
is confined to the inside of the coil and is uniformly distributed across the cross section.
Ans.: 4.58 A
35
Figure 1.28 magnetic circuit for problem 1.9.
36
H (At/m) 500 1000 2000 3000 4000
B (Wb/m2) 0.6 1.05 1.38 1.5 1.58
1.14. The shunt-field winding of a dc two-pole machine has 1200 turns shown in Figure 1.19.
The magnetic flux path has a net cross-sectional area of 200 cm2. The iron portion has a mean
length of 50 cm, and there are two air gaps, each 0.1 cm in length. The magnetization curve for
the iron in the circuit is:
Draw the magnetization curve, for the two-pole machine shown in Figure 1.31, find the shunt-
field current required to set up a flux of 0.02 Wb in each air group. Neglect all leakage and
fringing effects.
37