Basic Statistic Concept Review

Observational studies
We do studies to gather information and draw conclusions. The type of conclusion we
draw depends on the study method used:
 In an observational study, we measure or survey members of a sample without
trying to affect them.
 In a controlled experiment, we assign people or things to groups and apply some
treatment to one of the groups, while the other group does not receive the
treatment.

Observational - Sample Problem

Drinking tea before bedtime. A study took random sample of adults and asked them
about their bedtime habits. The data showed that people who drank a cup of tea before
bedtime were more likely to go to sleep earlier than those who didn't drink tea. Which
type of study method is this? Observational study or experiment

= Observational study
Social media and happiness. A study randomly assigned volunteers to one of two
groups: One group was directed to use social media sites as they usually do. One group
was blocked from social media sites. The researchers looked at which group tended to
be happier?

= Experiment
Categorical Variable
As the name suggests, categorical variables are those variables that fall into a particular
category. Hair color, gender, college major, college attended, or disability, are all
categories that could have lists of categorical variables. Usually, the variables take on
one of a number of fixed variables in a set.
For example: The category “hair color” could contain the categorical variables “black,”
“brown,” “blonde,” and “red.”
The category “gender” could contain the categorical variables “Male” or “Female”.

Sample and Sample type

When we are interested in a population, it is often impractical and sometimes
undesirable to try and study the entire population. For example, if the population we
were interested in was frequent, male Facebook users in ASEAN, this could be millions
of users (i.e., millions of units). If we chose to study these Facebook users using
structured interviews (i.e., our chosen research method), it could take a lifetime.
Therefore, we choose to study just a sample of these Facebook users
Whilst we discuss more about sampling and why we sample later in this article, the
important point to remember here is that a sample consists of only those units (in this
case, Facebook users) from our population of interest (i.e., X million frequent, male,
Facebook users in ASEAN) that we actually study (e.g., 500 or 1000 of these Facebook
users).

Sampling techniques
As we have mentioned above, when we are interested in a population, we typically
study a sample of that population rather than attempt to study the whole population
(e.g., just 500 of the X million frequent, male Facebook users in ASEAN). If we imagine
that our desired sample size was just 500 of these Facebook users, the question arises:
How do we know what Facebook users to invite to take part in our sample? In other
words, what Facebook users will become part of our sample?
The purpose of sampling techniques is to help you select units (e.g., Facebook users) to
be included in your sample (e.g., of 500 Facebook users). Broadly speaking, there are
two groups of sampling technique: probability sampling techniques and non-probability
sampling techniques.
Probability sampling techniques
Probability sampling techniques use random selection (i.e., probabilistic methods) to
help you select units from your sampling frame (i.e., similar or exactly that same as your
population) to be included in your sample. These procedures (i.e., probabilistic
methods) are very clearly defined, making it easy to follow them. Since the
characteristics of the sample researchers are interested in vary, different types of
probability sampling technique exist to help you select the appropriate units to be
included in your sample.
These types of probability sampling technique include simple random sampling,
systematic random sampling, stratified random sampling and cluster sampling.

Simple random sampling

Simple random sampling is a type of probability sampling technique. With the simple
random sample, there is an equal chance (probability) of selecting each unit from the
population being studied when creating your sample.
Imagine that a researcher wants to understand more about the career goals of students
at a single university. Let's say that the university has roughly 10,000 students. These
10,000 students are our population (N). Each of the 10,000 students is known as a unit.
In order to select a sample (n) of students from this population of 10,000 students, we
could choose to use a simple random sample.
With simple random sampling, there would an equal chance (probability) that each of
the 10,000 students could be selected for inclusion in our sample. If our desired sample
size was around 200 students, each of these students would subsequently be sent a
questionnaire to complete (imagining we choose to collect our data using a
questionnaire).
Systematic Sampling
• Systematic sampling is a technique for creating a random probability sample in which
each piece of data is chosen at a fixed interval for inclusion in the sample. For example,
if a researcher wanted to create a systematic sample of 1,000 students at a university
with an enrolled population of 10,000, he or she would choose every tenth person from
a list of all students.
Stratified random sampling
Stratified random sampling is a type of probability sampling technique. Unlike the simple
random sample and the systematic random sample, sometimes we are interested in
particular strata (meaning groups) within the population (e.g., males vs. females;
houses vs. apartments, etc.) With the stratified random sample, there is an equal
chance (probability) of selecting each unit from within a particular stratum (group) of the
population when creating the sample
Imagine that a researcher wants to understand more about the career goals of students
at the University of Bath. Let's say that the university has roughly 10,000 students.
These 10,000 students are our population (N). In order to select a sample (n) of
students from this population of 10,000 students, we could choose to use a simple
random sample or a systematic random sample. However, sometimes we are interested
in particular strata (groups) within the population. Therefore, the stratified random
sample involves dividing the population into two or more strata (groups). These strata
are expressed as H.

Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling refers to a type of sampling method. With cluster sampling, the
researcher divides the population into separate groups, called clusters. Then, a simple
random sample of clusters is selected from the population. The researcher conducts his
analysis on data from the sampled clusters.
Compared to simple random sampling and stratified sampling, cluster sampling has
advantages and disadvantages. For example, given equal sample sizes, cluster
sampling usually provides less precision than either simple random sampling or
stratified sampling. On the other hand, if travel costs between clusters are high, cluster
sampling may be more cost-effective than the other methods.
Non-probability sampling techniques
Non-probability sampling techniques refer on the subjective judgement of the
researcher when selecting units from the population to be included in the sample. For
some of the different types of non-probability sampling technique, the procedures for
selecting units to be included in the sample are very clearly defined, just like probability
sampling techniques. However, in others (e.g., purposive sampling), the subjective
judgement required to select units from the population, which involves a combination of
theory, experience and insight from the research process, makes selecting units more
complicated.
Overall, the types of non-probability sampling technique you are likely to come across
include quota sampling, purposive sampling, convenience sampling, snowball sampling
and self-section sampling.
Convenience Sampling