Phase shifter and

optical activity

Prof. S. Habraken

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 Birefringent Phase Shifters
• Phase shifting (retarder) plate:
– Calcite crystal is uniaxial cut in such a way that
O.A. is perpend to k
– Ee // O.A. Eo perpend O.A.
– Calcite: no > ne so, vo < ve
– e-wave travels faster than o-wave.
– After travelling a thickness d, the optical path
difference is: Δx = d (no-ne)
Phase shift:

2π 2π
Δϕ = k0 Δx = Δx = d (no − ne )
– λ0 of the emerging
The polarization state λ0 wave will
depend upon the phase shift and the incident
polarization state
– When incident linear pol // or perpend to O.A.:
never affected by the retarder: neutral lines

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 Birefringent Phase Shifters

• Wave plate: Δϕ=2π

– Induced optical path retardation
λ0
= 1 wavelength d =m where m is an integer
– No visual effect at λ0 no − ne
– But chromaticity: wave plate at λ0 only

• Half-wave plate: Δϕ=π

– Induced optical path retardation λ0
= λ0/2 d = (2 m + 1)
2 no − ne
– Effect: a linear pol. is symmetrically
rotated w.r.t. the O.A.
– If θ=π/4, crossed pol. is emerging
(rotation = π/2)

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 Birefringent Phase Shifters
• Quarter-wave plate: Δϕ=π/2
– Induced optical path retardation
= λ0/4
– Effect: an incident linear pol. emerges as
λ0
d = (4m + 1)
elliptical pol. 4 no − ne
– If θ=π/4, emerging pol is circular
(only at λ0!!)

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 Birefringent Phase Shifters
• Compensator: Babinet
– Goal: control of a phase shift and
measurement of phase shift plate perfo.
– Principle: 2 wedges with crossed O.A.
and incidence perpendicular to O.A.
– ~Wollaston: permutation of o and e
waves
– Phase shift:

2π
Δϕ1 = d1 (no − ne ) 2π
–
λ0 Δϕ1+ 2 =
Central line: Δϕ=0 (d1 = d2) atλ0any (d1 −λd 2 )(no − ne )
2π
– ΔΔϕ
ϕ2 =varies
− 2 (no − none
dwhen e ) wedge is shifted
λ
w.r.t. the0 other (µm-scale)
– When in between crossed polarizers:
dark lines when Δϕ=2mπ
– With white light: colored fringes

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 Birefringent Phase Shifters
• Compensator: Soleil
Modified Babinet:
–Wedges are oriented with their O.A. //
–A birefringent plate is added with perpend. O.A. and
thickness d2
– Δϕ is constant over the surface and tunable (d1)

• How to build a circular Polarizer:

• B and C: quarter-wave plate

➔ A+B and C+D: circular pol.

➔ B+C: half-wave plate

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 Birefringent Phase Shifters
• Optical Activity: overview
– Some materials (liquid or crystal) can provock the rotation of
a linear pol in a continuous way
– The direction of the rotation informs about the molecular
structure:
• Clockwise: dextrogyre (right-handed)
• Anti-clockwise : levogyre (left-handed)
• The propagation direction is chosen // O.A.

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 Birefringent Phase Shifters
• Optical activity: principle
– No phase shift provoking an elliptical polarization but a rotation
of a linear polarization!
– 1 linear pol wave= math combo of two circular waves R and L
➔ Incident wave:

•Inside the medium: (if kR < kL )

α=
(k L − k R )z πz (nL − nR )
= 8
2 λ0
 Birefringent Phase Shifters
• Optical activity: rotating power
– Examples
• Quartz (SiO2)
Helical structure
α/d ~22°/mm

• Liquids:
weaker effect
but it depends on concentration
– Famous application: saccharimeter

• α also depends on wavelength:

➔ coloration when used in white light and
passes trough an analyzer (polarizer)

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 Birefringent Phase Shifters
• Optical activity: Biot’s Law
1. Rotating active media are existing
2. Two varieties are encountered: levo- and dextro- (gyres)
3. Characterized thanks to the rotating Power α :

1. Rotation angle per mm of material

2. For liquids : α depends on conc (g/l)
4. Dispersion law: α ~ λ-2 :

5. The rotation direction is independent to the propagation

direction: mirror-reflected and travel backwards: cancel the
rotation

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 Birefringent Phase Shifters
Optical activity: Spiral model
• e- oscillating up/down along spirals
! oscillating dipolar momentum p(t)
• Rotational motion of e- on the spiral: ring of
current
! oscillating magnetic dipolar momentum m(t)
• m and p are// or anti // depending on helical
orientation
• Scattering: re emission by elec. and magnet.
dipoles
• Ep is oriented along the helical shape
• Em is oriented perpend. to the helical shape.
• Ep + Em = Es induced scattered field
• Es + Ei = E resulting field
• The rotation direction depend upon the helical
orientation while the effect strength (α) depends
upon the random/ordered orientation of helical
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molecules
 Induced Birefringence
• Stress-Birefringence
– Allows for analyzing the mechanical stress
in a material
– Ex: Plexiglas in between crossed
polarizers

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 Induced Birefringence
• Electro-optic Effect: Kerr effect (1875)
– Strong E field generates birefringence:
Δn = n// − n⊥ = λ0 KE ²
• where(E²)
Quadratic response K =to Kerr cst
a transversal E field
– Kerr cell:
V²
Δϕ = 2π Kl
d²
with l = material thickness
d = distance between electrodes

Vλ/2 : V inducing a ½ wave plate

Ex: Nitrobenzene: V>104V
Solid: BaTiO3
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 Induced Birefringence
• Electro-optic Effect: Pockels effect (1893)
– Crystals without center of symmetry
(Ex: KDP = KH2PO4)
– Linear response (E) to a transv. or longit. field
3 V
Δϕ = 2π no r63
λ0
– Cellule de Pockels
with r63 = electro - optic cst
and n o = ordinary indice

Vλ/2 (KDP):
r63 ~10-11m/V
➔103 V< Vλ/2 <104 V
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 Induced Birefringence
• Electro-optic Modulator (telecom,…)
– Based on Pockels cells (linear response) in between
crossed polarizers
• If V=0: T=0
• If V= Vλ/2: T=1
• If V= Vλ/4: T=0.5
– High modulation frequency
(~30 GHz)
• Electro-optic Shutter (stroboscopic apps…)
– Kerr cells (quadrat. response) in between crossed
polarizers
– High modulation frequency (~10 GHz)

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 Induced Birefringence
• Liquid Crystal Display
– Nematic phase: the crystals are
aligned following a single direction
= uniaxial crystal
– Applied E field: crystal orientation
is modified

2π
Δϕ = eΔn(V )
λ0
where e = thickness
and Δn(V) = birefr vs. Vappl
➔ The phase shift is tunable (variable retardater) and modulated on demand
➔ When sandwiched in between crossed polarizers:
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the intensity is modulated on demand
 Induced Birefringence
• LCD

Transmission mode: Pol. and an. //

e optimized for half-wave plate when V=0
Incident pol oriented at 45° Reflection mode:
➔ Pol rotation by 90° and Tr=0 e for quarter-wave plate when V=0
Δϕ!0 when V~3-4 V ➔ Tr=1 Cumulated rotation <> rotating power!!

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 Magneto-optic effects
• Faraday (1845): B-field // propagation direction
– Rotating Power (no Δϕ)
α=V Bd
– Where V = Verdet cst
– B = Applied magnetic field
– d = cell thickness

Weak effect: 1 cm of water in a B-field = 1

Tesla (20000 x Bearth) induces α~2°

Cumulated
effect by
reflection

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 Effets magneto-optiques
• Magneto-optic memory (MO Disk Sony)
Recording of a dot as bit at state=1:
Alignment of magnetic cells thanks to external B-field +
laser heating (T>TCurie)
Erasing or dot as bit at state=0 : laser heating without
Bext: randomized orientation
➔ Double-pass for a memory recording!
Reading: Laser beam feels an intense local B-field with
bit 1 and back reflected (2-ways)➔ strong pol. rotation

• Cotton-Mouton Effect
– B-field perpendicular to propagation direction
➔ Induced birefringence Δn
Magnetic equivalent to Kerr effect
(also called magneto-optic Kerr effect)

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 Matrix Description of the polarization
• Stokes Vectors (1852)
– Principle: Irradiance measurement (W/m²) after travelling through 4
filters:
1. Neutral filter: absorbing 50% ! I0
2. Polarizer (linear) transmitting E horizontal ! I1
3. Polarizer (linear) transmitting E at +45° (1st+3rd quadrant) ! I2
4. Polarizer (circular) transmitting right handed circular pol. R ! I3

Incident irradiance
horiz. or vertic. pol. tendency
+45° or -45° pol. tendency

circular R or L pol. tendency

Practically, the vector is normalized by dividing by S0

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 Matrix Description of the polarization
• Stokes Vectors (2)
Examples
Polarized light: Horiz. lin. !(1,1,0,0)
Vert. lin. !(1,-1,0,0)
+45° lin. !(1,0,1,0)
R circ. !(1,0,0,1)
Natural light (unpolar.): !(1,0,0,0)

If light is fully polarized !

If light is partially polarized ! Degree of polarization:

If light is non polarized: only S0 <>0 !V=0

<= 1

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 Matrix Description of the polarization

• Jones Vectors (1941): principle

– E(t) is re-written: Amplitude
! coherence compatible!

– Jones takes into account the wave phase:

– For instance, lin. Horiz. and vertic. Pol.:

– Normalization:

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 Matrix Description of the polarization

• Jones Vectors: examples

– Wave with normalized lin. Pol. at 45°:

– R circular wave (E0x = E0y and Δϕ= − π/2):

• Since

• After normalization:

Jones vectors compose an orthonormal base 23

 Matrix Description of the polarization

• Stokes and Jones

Vectors: comparison
– Stokes is applicable at partially
polarized light
(not Jones, by math definition)

– Jones can take into account

coherent behavior of light
(not Stokes which plays with
intensities instead of
amplitudes)

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 Matrix Description of the polarization

• Matrix associated to an optical element

– Jones Matrices:
Polarizing optical element: A matrix following:

– Ex: wave with lin. pol. at 45° travelling through a quarter-wave

plate:

➔ R circular wave
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 Matrix Description of the polarization

• Matrix for multiple optical elements

– Jones matrices multiplication:

Order: element 1, followed by 2, …not commutative!

Ex: 2 quarter-wave plates

with same axis orientations
wave with lin. pol. at +45°

Transmitted wave: lin. pol. at -45°

We verify that: 2 x λ/4 = λ/2

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 Matrix Description of the polarization

• Matrix associated to an optical element

– Mueller Matrices (1943) (Stokes formalism)

Ex: non pol. light through a lin. polarizer:

Emerging wave behavior:
I0/2
Horiz. lin. pol. (degree of pol. ! 1)

Ex: any incident wave travelling through

a quarter-wave plate:
degree of pol. ~ 90%
Emerging wave behavior:
I0 remains
Lin. pol. since S3=0
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 Matrix Description of
the polarization

• Example of Jones
and Mueller Matrices:

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