Polarization rotators

Polarization II Wave plates

Zero-order
Multi-order

Rhombs

Phase compensators
Beam-splitting and
recombining

Circular polarizers
3D TV

Photography

Reflection & polarization

Prof. Rick Trebino
Georgia Tec!" Scattering & polarization
www.frog.gatech.edu
Polarized skylight
Wave Plates x
Wave plate
z
Optic axis
y
When a beam propagates through a
birefringent medium, one polarization
sees more phase delay than the other. +45° -45°
Polarization Polarization
This changes the relative phase of the
x and y fields, and hence changes the
polarization. Polarization state:

Input Ex = E0 ⎡1⎤
⎢1⎥
(45º): E y = E0 ⎣ ⎦

distance ⎡ exp(ik0 no d ) ⎤
⎢ exp(ik n d ) ⎥ →
Ex = E0 exp (ik0 no d ) ⎣ 0 e ⎦
Output: ⎡ 1 ⎤
E y = E0 exp (ik0 ne d ) ⎢ ⎥
⎡
⎢exp i 2π ⎤
⎢ ( ne − no ) d ⎥ ⎥
k-vector magnitude in ⎢ ⎣ λ0 ⎦ ⎥⎦
⎣
vacuum
 Wave Plates (continued) ⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
Wave-plate output polarization state for ⎢exp i 2π ( n − n ) d ⎥
⎡ ⎤
⎢⎣ ⎢ e o ⎥⎥
+45° linear input polarization: ⎣ 0λ ⎦⎦
Relative
phase Δϕ 2π ⎡ 2π ⎤ Output
(ne − no )d exp ⎢i (ne − no )d ⎥ polarization
λ0 ⎣ λ0 ⎦
Quarter-wave 0 1 45º Linear
plate (QWP) π/2 i Right Circular
e iΔϕ = exp(iΔϕ ) =
π cos Δϕ + i sin Δϕ -1 -45º Linear
Half-wave 3π/2 -i Left Circular
plate (HWP) 2π 1 45º Linear

A QWP converts ±45° linear to circular polarization, and a HWP

rotates ±45° linear polarization by 90°. Intermediate values of Δϕ yield
elliptical polarization.

We can add an additional 2mπ of phase without changing the polarization,

so the polarization cycles through this evolution as d increases further.
Half-Wave-Plate Physics
When a beam propagates through a half-wave plate, one polarization
experiences half of a wavelength more phase delay than the other.

In phase λ0/n 180° out of phase

Ex(z)

Ey(z) nx < ny

Half-wave plate

If the incident polarization is +45°, then the output polarization is -45°.

Wave Plates and Input Polarization
Remember that our wave plate analysis assumes 45° input
polarization relative to its principal axes. This means that either
the input polarization is oriented at 45°, or the wave plate is.

±45° Polarizer 0° or 90° Polarizer

Wave plate Wave plate

w/ axes at w/ axes at
0° or 90° ±45°
±
A HWP yields 45° A HWP yields 90° or 0°
polarization. polarization.
A QWP yields circular A QWP yields circular
polarization. polarization.
How NOT to Use a Wave Plate
If the input polarization is along one of the wave-plate principal
axes, no polarization rotation occurs!
The light simply experiences a phase delay.

0° or 90° Polarizer ±45° Polarizer

Wave plate Wave plate

w/ axes at w/ axes at
0° or 90° ±45°

This arrangement can, however, be useful. In high-power lasers,

we desire to keep the laser from lasing and then abruptly allow it to
do so. To do so, we switch between the previous case and this.
Thickness of Wave Plates
When a wave plate has less than 2π relative phase delay, we say it’s
a zero-order wave plate. Unfortunately, it tends to be very thin.
Solve for d to find the thickness of a zero-order quarter-wave plate:

2π π
ne − no d =
λ0 2
λ0
d= d
4 ne − no

Using green light at 500nm and quartz, whose refractive-index

difference is ne – no = 1.5534 – 1.5443 = 0.0091, we find:

d = 13.7µm

This is so thin that it’s very fragile and very difficult to manufacture.
Multi-Order Wave Plates
A multi-order wave plate has more than 2π relative phase delay.
We can design a 20th-order quarter-wave plate with 20¼ (20.25)
waves of relative phase delay, instead of just ¼:

2π π
ne − no d = 20 × 2π +
λ0 2
d
81 λ0
d= = 81 d zero−order
4 ne − no

d = 1.1mm Much thicker!

However, because the phase delay depends on wavelength (and d),

the wave plate is now 81 times more wavelength dependent!
It’s also 81 times more temperature dependent due to n’s dependence
on temperature.
A Thick Zero-Order Wave Plate
The first plate (say, a 10¼-wave
Input Optic axes Output
plate) has fast and slow axes
beam beam
opposite to those of the second
one (say, a 10-wave plate).
Their relative phases subtract.
d1 d2
The Jones vector becomes:

⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢exp ⎡i 2π (n − n ) d + i 2π (n − n ) d ⎤ ⎥ ⎢exp ⎡i 2π (n − n ) (d − d )⎤ ⎥
=
⎢⎣ ⎢ e o 1 o e 2⎥
⎥ ⎢ ⎢ e o 1 2 ⎥
⎣ 0λ λ0 ⎦⎦ ⎣ ⎣ 0λ ⎦ ⎥⎦
First plate Second plate

Now, as long as d1 – d2 is equal to the thickness of the thin zero-order

wave plate, this optic behaves like the really thin one! This is ideal.
The Babinet compensator rotates
polarization by an arbitrary amount.
The 1st wedge is cut with
Optic axes Output fast and slow axes opposite
Input
beam beam to those of the 2nd wedge.
Slide one wedge with
respect to the other,
d2 changing d1 and/or d2.
dd1 1
In practice, the two wedges
The wedge angles are highly exaggerated. are contacted.

⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎡ 2π 2π ⎤ = ⎡ 2π ⎤
⎢exp i (n − n ) d + i (n − n ) d ⎥ ⎢exp i (n − n ) (d − d ) ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎢ e o 1 o e 2⎥
⎥ ⎢ ⎢ e o 1 2 ⎥
λ
⎣ 0 λ0 ⎦⎦ ⎣ λ
⎣ 0 ⎦ ⎥⎦
1st wedge 2nd wedge
Polarization Mode Dispersion plagues
broadband optical-fiber communications.
Imagine just a tiny bit of birefringence,
Δn, but over a distance of 1000km…

⎡ 1 ⎤
Polarization
⎢ ⎥
state at = ⎢ ⎛ 2π ⎞⎥
receiver exp ⎜ i Δn d ⎟
⎢⎣ ⎝ λ0 ⎠ ⎥⎦

Distance

If λ = 1.5µm, then Δn ~ 10-12 can rotate the polarization by 90º!

This is a big problem because newer fiber-optic systems detect only

one polarization and so don’t see the orthogonal polarization.
Worse, as the temperature changes, the birefringence changes, too.
 Use polarization to split up a beam into
many beams for amplification.
Start and end
with 45⁰ polarization. Lower intensity avoids damage.

Amplifiers

Division Recombination
Beams
must be
in phase.

HWP at 22.5⁰ yields 45⁰ polarization. Repeat each process

many times.
Beam-splitting can be repeated many
times: four beams.
Beam-recombining can be repeated many
times: four beams.
A Lyot filter is a wave plate between polarizers.
# Lyot filters
Because the wave-plate polarization
rotation varies with wavelength, placing
one between polarizers yields 1
wavelength-dependent transmission.

Polarizer Polarizer 2

Transmission
3
Wave
plate
4
Placing several Lyot filters in a row
(with each succeeding wave-plate
twice as thick as the one before and 5
hence with half the period) yields a
narrowband filter, which transmits only
a narrow range of wavelengths. Wavelength
 Circular Polarizers ±45° Polarizer
A circular polarizer makes circularly
polarized light by first linearly polarizing
it and then rotating it to circular. Quarter wave
This involves a linear polarizer followed plate (QWP)
by a quarter-wave plate.

Unpolarized Additional QWP and linear polarizer

input light comprise a circular “analyzer.”

45° 45°
Polarizer QWP QWP Polarizer

45° polarized light Circularly polarized light -45° polarized light

 Two different images are required, one for each eye.
3D TV
One version of 3D TV uses the two circular polarizations
for the two images.

+π/2-wave plates
-π/2-wave plates
 Phase shifts in
π
total internal
┴
Phase shift

reflection can
also be used to
0
0° 30° 60° 90°
rotate the
Incidence angle polarization.
π
||
Phase shift

Recall the interesting

phase shifts that occur
above the critical angle.
0
Interestingly, they’re
0° 30° 60° 90°
Incidence angle remarkably wavelength-
independent.
The Fresnel Rhomb uses total-internal-
reflection phase shifts to rotate polarization.
After two total internal reflections, input 45° polarization becomes
circular.

54.6°

45° Circular
polarization polarization

Elliptical
polarization

Unlike wave plates, this polarization rotation is nearly wavelength

independent (a 100nm wavelength range is typical in the visible).
Polarization Rotation by a Periscope
Mirror reflects beam out of screen toward you.

Two additional
mirrors deflecting
the beam perpen-
dicular to the screen
can make the beams
collinear,
maintaining the s-
polarization.

Electron
motion

This is complex, but it’s as broadband as the mirror coatings involved.

Aluminum and silver are reflective over the entire visible spectrum.
Depolarization by Reflection or Transmission
Suppose that 45° polarization is incident on an interface, which has
different parallel (x) and perpendicular (y) reflection coefficients.

Incident light fields:

y Incident
polarization
Ex = E0
E y = E0
x
Reflected light fields:
Reflected
polarization
Ex = rx E0 (if rx > ry)
E y = ry E0

Unless light is purely parallel or perpendicularly polarized or incident

at 0°, polarization rotation will occur in reflection or transmission.
Ellipsometry
Vary the wavelength,
polarization, and/or
incidence angle of θ
light onto a surface
and measure the
polarization of the
reflected light.

Ellipsometry allows
the study of
surfaces, especially
thin films.

Here, the film

thickness vs.
position on a surface
is measured.
Fresnel Reflection and Transmission
and Depolarization

Reflectances Fresnel reflections and

transmissions are common
1.0
Interface: causes of polarization
ni = 1 rotation.
nt = 1.5
.5
R⊥ Because R ≠ R||, the ratio
┴
of polarization-component
R|| strengths will change on
0 reflection off or
0° 30° 60° 90°
transmission through an
Incidence angle, θi interface.

This effect is particularly strong near Brewster's angle.

Polarizers are very useful in photography.
When a reflecting surface is viewed near Brewster’s angle, a
polarizer allows you to decide how much reflection you’d like.

Without a polarizer With

Withaahorizontal
vertical polarizer
polarizer

Horizontally
polarized
reflection
(like glare)

The effect of a polarizer is one of the few

filter effects that you can’t reproduce later
using Photoshop!
Rotating a Polarizer

A good reason to buy a camera that’s better than the one in your phone!
Glare is horizontally polarized.
Here, sunlight reflected from the water passes over our heads. But
wave edges can reflect it into our eyes. But at near-Brewster’s angle
incidence.
So the p (i.e., vertical) polarization sees zero reflection.

Ocean reflection viewed Ocean reflection viewed

through a polarizer that through a polarizer that
transmits only horizontally transmits only vertically
polarized light (or no polarizer) polarized light
Polarizer Sunglasses
Because glare is mainly horizontally polarized, polarizer sunglasses
are designed to transmit only vertically polarized light.
The atmosphere depolarizes light slightly.
Odd-angle interfaces between regions
Star
of warm and cool air cause air to
slightly depolarize light.

Cooler
regions of
air (with
higher
refractive
index)

In clouds, droplets of water are more numerous and involve much

larger refractive-index ratios and so completely depolarize light.
Why does real-world stuff depolarize?
Real-world solid materials
are like air, but much
more non-uniform: a huge
series of interfaces at
random angles.

Plastic baggie
Crossed polarizers

Human tissue completely

depolarizes light in the
visible, IR, and UV.
Scattering by molecules is not spherically
symmetrical. It has a dipole pattern.
The field emitted by an oscillating dipole Oscillations in the field are
due to the usual wave
excited by a vertically polarized light wave:
nature of the emission.

! Direction of light excitation !

! E E-field and electron oscillation E !
k k

! ! ! !
k E E k

! !
E E
! !
k k
Emitted field pattern

Directions of scat- No light is emitted in the Directions of scat-

tered light E-field direction of oscillation! tered light E-field
Dipole Emission Pattern
r
θ k Perfect dipole intensity emitted
by a molecule.
! !
Escattered ∝ Einput sin(θ )
I scattered ∝ I input sin 2 (θ )

Analogous to a molecule
emitting light, an antenna emits
a dipole pattern (here the field)
at much lower frequency and
longer wavelength:

The antenna’s pattern is somewhat distorted by the earth and nearby

objects.
Scattering of Polarized Light
!
No light is scattered
! along the input field direction, i.e. with k
parallel to Einput .

Vertically polarized Horizontally polarized

input light input light

Input light
Input light

This
beam is
weaker.
Scattering
of Unpol- Horizontally
polarized
arized
Light Input light
Vertically
polarized

Again, no light is
scattered along
the input-field
direction,
! i.e., !with
k parallel to Einput . Unpolarized

Light scattered by Vertically

90º is polarized. Partially
polarized polarized
Scattering in the earth's atmosphere
leads to interesting polarization
properties of skylight.
Atmosphere

Sun's
rays
Skylight is polarized if the sun is at 90º to
you.
Right-angle scattering This polarizer transmits
is polarized. horizontal polarization
(of which there is very little).

Polarizer transmitting vertical polarization

Multiple scattering yields some light of the other polarization.

In clouds, much multiple scattering occurs, so light from clouds
is unpolarized.
Vertical polarizer Horizontal polarizer

Sky Through a Polarizer

When the Sun Is at the Side
Don’t use a polarizer on a wide-angle lens.
Polarizer
A polarizer seeing a small angular
region of sky can see a mostly
polarized region of it and so can
improve a photograph.

A polarizer on a wide-angle lens

necessarily sees both polarized
and unpolarized regions of the sky.

It’s difficult to imagine this effect

being useful! Sun
Brewster's Angle Revisited
A complex trigonometric calcu-
lation reveals that the reflection
coefficient for parallel-polarized
light goes to zero for Brewster's
angle incidence, tan(θi) = nt / ni
θi θi
ni
nt θi +θt = 90°
θt
When the reflected beam makes a
right angle with the transmitted beam,
and the polarization is parallel, then
no scattering can occur, due to the
scattered dipole emission pattern.
ni sin(θ i ) = nt sin(θ t )
But our right-angle assumption
implies that θi + θt = 90°. So:
ni sin(θ i ) = nt sin(90o − θ i )
= nt cos(θ i )
nt
⇒ tan(θi ) =
ni