1.

Deep Foundations
1.1 Carrying capacity of a single pile
Ultimate load carrying capacity of a pile (Qu) is given by the addition of skin friction (Qs) and end bearing (Qb).
Thus,

𝑄𝑢 = 𝑄𝑏 + 𝑄𝑠 [1.1]

1.1.1 Carrying capacity of pile in clay

Qb for piles in cohesive soils is based on Meyerhof’s equation (1951):

𝑄𝑏 = 𝑁𝑐 × 𝐶𝑏 × 𝐴𝑏 [1.2]

Where Nc is bearing capacity factor, widely accepted as equal to 9.0; Cb is undrained shear strength at the base of
the pile and Ab is the area of the base of the pile.

Qs is given by the equation:

𝑄𝑠 = 𝛼 × ̅̅̅
𝐶𝑢 × 𝐴𝑠 [1.3]

where 𝛼 - adhesion factor, ̅̅̅

𝐶𝑢 - average undrained shear strength of soil adjoining pile; As is the surface area of the
embedded length of pile. The variation of 𝛼 is shown in Fig. 1.1.

Figure 1.1: Variation of 𝛼 with undrained cohesion of clay

Hence, Qu in clay is given by:

̅̅̅̅
𝑸𝒖 = 𝑪𝒃 𝑵𝒄 𝑨𝒃 + 𝜶𝑪 𝒖 𝑨𝒔 [1.4]
Copyright© 2021 – Dr.M.C.M. Nasvi-All right reserved CVX9416 1
 1.1.2 Carrying capacity of pile in sand

The ultimate pile load in cohesionless soil is estimated using drained soil parameters (𝑐 ′ and ∅′ ), and assuming any
contribution from 𝑐 ′ is zero.

𝑄𝑏 = 𝑞𝑏 𝐴𝑏 = 𝜎𝑣′ 𝑁𝑞 𝐴𝑏 [1.5]

Where 𝜎𝑣′ is the effective overburden pressure at the base of the pile, 𝑁𝑞 is bearing capacity coefficient and Ab is the
area of the base of the pile.

The selection of a suitable value of Nq is a crucial part of the design of pile. The values suggested by Berezentzev et
al., (1961) are often used and the variation is shown in Figure 1.2.

Qs is given by the equation:

𝑄𝑠 = 𝑓𝑠 × 𝐴𝑠 [1.6]

Where 𝑓𝑠 is average value of ultimate skin friction over embedded length of pile.

Meyerhof (1959) suggested that for the average value of the ultimate skin friction:

̅̅̅𝑣′ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛿
𝑓𝑠 = 𝐾𝜎 [1.7]

Where 𝐾 is coefficient of lateral earth pressure, ̅̅̅

𝜎𝑣′ is average effective overburden pressure acting along the
embedded length of pile and 𝛿 is angle of friction between the pile and the soil.

Fig 1.2: Berezantsev’s bearing capacity factor, Nq.

Typical values of δ and K suggested by Broms (1966) are given in Table 1.1.

Copyright© 2021 – Dr.M.C.M. Nasvi-All right reserved CVX9416 2

 Table 1.1: Typical values for δ and K suggested by Broms (1966).

Ks
Pile Material δ Relative density of soil
Loose Dense
Steel 20 º 0.5 1.0
Concrete 0.75∅′ 1.0 2.0
Timber 0.67∅′ 1.5 4.0

Hence, ultimate bearing capacity in sand is given by:

̅̅̅′𝒗̅𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜹
𝑸𝒖 = 𝝈′𝒗 𝑵𝒒 𝑨𝒃 + 𝑨𝒔 𝑲𝝈 [1.8]

1.2 Carrying capacity of pile group

A structure is never founded on a single pile and the action of closely spaced group piles (Figure 1.3) must be considered.
The spacing of the piles in a group depends on many factors including overlapping of stresses of adjacent piles (stress
isobars), cost of foundation and the desired efficiency of the pile group. Bearing capacity of pile group (Qg) is not
necessarily the capacity of individual pile multiplied by the number of piles in a group, and hence ‘group action of piles’
needs to be considered. Disturbance of soil during installation of pile and stress overlap may cause the group capacity to
be less than sum of the individual piles. Conversely, soil between individual piles may experience densification from
driving, and this may lead to group capacity larger than sum of the capacities of individual piles.

𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒

𝑄𝑔 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 [ ]
𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘

Figure 1.3: Pile groups

Copyright© 2021 – Dr.M.C.M. Nasvi-All right reserved CVX9416 3

The ratio of the load capacity of a pile group (Qg) to the total load capacity of the piles acting as individual piles (nQu),
is called the efficiency factor (η);
𝑄
𝜂 = 𝑛.𝑄𝑔 [1.9]
𝑢

1.2.1 Pile group in cohesionless soil

For driven piles, bearing capacity of pile group is higher than sum of the individual pile bearing capacity due to
densification associated with driving. Bored or cast-in situ piles will loosen the soil and hence group capacity will be
somewhat less than the sum of the capacities of individual piles.

𝑄𝑔 = 𝜂 × 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑒 × 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠

̅̅̅′𝒗̅𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜹)
𝑸𝒈 = 𝜼𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 (𝝈′𝒗 𝑵𝒒 𝑨𝒃 + 𝑨𝒔 𝑲𝝈 [1.10]

Where 𝜂 is pile group efficiency.

1.2.2 Pile group in cohesive soil

Considerable amount of remoulding of soil takes pace when piles are driven in cohesive soils. The mode of failure of
pile group in cohesive soils depends primarily on the spacing of piles. For smaller spacing, “block failure” may occur,
in other words, the group capacity as a block will be less than the sum of individual pile capacities. This is when the soil
fails along the perimeter of the pile group (See Fig 1.4). The ultimate capacity of group pile is obtained based on the
following procedure:

1. Estimate 𝑄𝑔 = ∑ 𝑄𝑢 = 𝜂 × 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑒 × 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠

𝑸𝒈 = 𝜼𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 (𝑪𝒃 𝑵𝒄 𝑨𝒃 + 𝜶𝑪 ̅̅̅̅
𝒖 𝑨𝒔 ) [1.11]
2. Estimate the capacity assuming that pile groups act as a block as shown in Fig. 1.4.

For Block Failure,

𝑸𝒃 = 𝟗𝑪𝒖 𝑩𝑳

̅̅̅̅
𝑸𝒔 = 𝟐(𝑳 + 𝑩)𝑪 𝒖𝐃

Where L is length of the block, B is width of the block and D is depth

of penetration of pile

̅̅̅̅
𝑸𝒈 = 𝟗𝑪𝒖 𝑩𝑳 + 𝟐(𝑳 + 𝑩)𝑪 𝒖𝐃 [1.12]

The lower of the two values in Equations [1.11] and [1.12] will give Qg
for piles in cohesive soils.

Figure 1.4: Block failure in a pile group in a clayey soil

Copyright© 2021 – Dr.M.C.M. Nasvi-All right reserved CVX9416 4

1.3 Negative skin friction

Negative skin friction is a phenomenon which occurs when a soil layer surrounding a portion of the pile shaft settles
more than the pile. If a soft or loose layer settles after the pile has been installed, the skin friction developed in this zone
is in the direction of the soil movement, pulling the pile downward. The negative skin friction occurs under conditions
such as following:

a) When a fill of clay is filled over a granular soil. Consolidation of fill will exert a downward drag on the pile (Fig
1.5a).
b) When a fill of granular soil is placed over soft clay, consolidation takes place in clay layer exerting downward
drag force on the pile (Fig 1.5b).
c) Lowering of ground water will increase the effective stress inducing consolidation and consequent settlement
around the pile.

Fig 1.5: Negative skin friction on a pile.

[a] Clay-fill over granular soil

Negative skin friction is given by;

𝑸𝒏 = 𝜶 × ̅̅
𝑪̅̅
𝒖 × 𝑨𝒔

[b] Granular soil-fill over clay

Negative skin friction occurs up to neutral depth (Refer Fig 2.5b). The neutral depth is given by:

Copyright© 2021 – Dr.M.C.M. Nasvi-All right reserved CVX9416 5

 𝑳−𝑯𝒇 𝑳−𝑯𝒇 𝜸′𝒇 𝑯𝒇 𝟐𝜸′𝒇 𝑯𝒇
𝑳𝟏 = 𝑳𝟏
( 𝟐
+ 𝜸′
)− 𝜸′
[1.13]

Where 𝜸′ is effective unit weight of clay.

The downward drag force is obtained using the following formula:

𝑳 𝑳 𝑳𝟐𝟏 𝒑𝑲𝜸′ 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜹

𝑸𝒏 = ∫𝟎 𝟏 𝒑𝒇𝒏 𝒅𝒛 = ∫𝟎 𝟏 𝒑𝑲(𝜸′𝒇 𝑯𝒇 + 𝜸′ 𝒛)𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜹′ 𝒅𝒛 = (𝒑𝑲𝜸′𝒇 𝑯𝒇 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜹)𝑳𝟏 + 𝟐
[1.14]

1.3.1 EC7 guidelines for NSF

If ULS design calculations are carried out with NSF load as an action, its value shall be the maximum [Cl 7.3.2.2 (1)].
When designing piles subjected to drag-down, the resulting axial load is treated as a permanent unfavourable action.
EC7 Part 1 requires down-drag displacements to be treated in one of two ways: (1) as an indirect action in a soil-structure
interaction analysis; or (2) as an equivalent direct action, calculated separately as an upper bound value. Table 1.2 shows
the partial factor sets to be used when NSF is treated as an action.

Table 1.2: Partial factor sets to apply when NSF is treated as an action

The characteristic vertical compressive action (Fck) is given by 𝑭𝒄𝒌 = 𝑷𝑮𝒌 + 𝑾𝑮𝒌 + 𝑫𝑮𝒌 [1.15]

where PGk – Characteristic imposed load; WGk – Piles characteristics self-weight; DGk – characteristic downward drag on
the pile.

Copyright© 2021 – Dr.M.C.M. Nasvi-All right reserved CVX9416 6

Note: EC7 points out that NSF & transient loading need not usually be considered to act simultaneously in load
combinations [Cl 7.3.2.2(7)]. Hence, PQk [imposed live load] can be ignored in above equation [1.15].

In principle, Fc;d should include the weight of the pile itself and Rc;d should include the overburden pressure of the soil
at the foundation base. However, these two items may be disregarded if they cancel approximately. They need not cancel
if:

— down drag is significant;

— the soil is very light,

— the pile extends above the surface of the ground [Cl 7.6.2.1(2)].

1.4. Settlement of pile group

1.4.1 Elastic settlement of piles

(a) Single pile

The elastic settlement of a pile under a vertical load (Qw) is given by Equation [1.16].

𝑆𝑒 = 𝑆𝑒(1) + 𝑆𝑒(2) + 𝑆𝑒(3) [1.16]

where 𝑆𝑒(1) – elastic settlement of the pile, 𝑆𝑒(2) – settlement of the pile caused by the load at the pile tip and
𝑆𝑒(3) – Settlement of pile caused by the load transmitted along the pile shaft
If the pile material is assumed to be elastic, deformation of pile shaft can be evaluated using Equation [1.17]:

(𝑄𝑤𝑝 +𝜉𝑄𝑤𝑠 )𝐿
𝑠𝑒(1) = [1.17]
𝐴𝑝 𝐸𝑝

where 𝑄𝑤𝑝 – load carried at the pile point under working load condition, 𝑄𝑤𝑠 - load carried by frictional
resistance under working load condition, 𝐴𝑝 – area of cross section of pile, L – length of pile, 𝐸𝑝 – modulus of
elasticity of pile material and 𝜉 – varies between 0.5 and 0.67 and the value depends on the nature of the
distribution of the unit friction resistance (f ) along the shaft.
s

The settlement of the pile caused by the load carried at the pile point is given by Equation [1.18]:
𝑞𝑤𝑝 𝐷
𝑠𝑒(2) = (1 − 𝜇𝑠2 )𝐼𝑤𝑝 [1.18]
𝐸𝑠
𝑄𝑤𝑝
where 𝐷 - width or dimeter of pile, 𝑞𝑤𝑝 – point load per unit area at the pile point = ⁄𝐴 , 𝜇𝑠 – Poisson’s
𝑝
ratio of soil and 𝐼𝑤𝑝 – influence factor ≈ 0.85

Copyright© 2021 – Dr.M.C.M. Nasvi-All right reserved CVX9416 7

The settlement of the pile caused by the load carried along the pile shaft is given by Equation [1.19]:
𝑄 𝐷
𝑤𝑠
𝑠𝑒(3) = ( 𝑝𝐿 ) 𝐸 (1 − 𝜇𝑠2 )𝐼𝑤𝑠 [1.19]
𝑠

where 𝑝 – perimeter of the pile and 𝐼𝑤𝑠 – influence factor

𝑄𝑤𝑠
Note: 1. Term is the average value of f along the pile shaft
𝑝𝐿 s
𝑳
2. 𝐼𝑤𝑠 has an empirical relation: 𝑰𝒘𝒔 = 𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓√𝑫
(a) Elastic settlement of Pile Groups

Vesic (1969) proposed the following simple relationship to obtain the settlement of group piles:

𝐵𝑔
𝑆𝑔(𝑒) = √ 𝐷 𝑆𝑒 [2.20]

where 𝑆𝑔(𝑒) – elastic settlement of group piles, 𝐵𝑔 – width of group pile, D – diameter or width of each pile in
the group, 𝑆𝑒 – elastic settlement of each pile at comparable working load

1.4.2 Piles in cohesive soils

Equations for consolidation settlement can be used to determine the settlement treating the pile as a block or a
unit. For this purpose, increase in stress, Δσ, needs to be evaluated due to the vertical load Qg. Computation of
stress depends on the type of soil through which pile is installed, and the stresses can be computed based on
the following methods (Figure 1.6):

Case 1: The soil is homogeneous clay (Figure 1.6a). The load Qg is assumed to act on a fictitious footing at a
depth 2/3D from the surface and distributed over the sectional area of the group. The load on the pile group
acting at this level is assumed to spread out at a 4V:1H slope.

Case 2: The pile passes through a very weak layer of depth L1 and the lower portion of length D is embedded
in a strong layer (Figure 1.6b). In this case, the load Qg is assumed to act at a depth equal to 2/3D below the
surface of the strong layer and spreads at a 4V:1H slope

Case 3: The piles are point bearing piles (Figure 1.6c). The load in this case is assumed to act at the level of
the firm stratum.

Copyright© 2021 – Dr.M.C.M. Nasvi-All right reserved CVX9416 8

Figure 1.6: Settlement of pile groups in clay soils; (a) in homogeneous clay, (b) piles passing a weak layer at
the top into a strong layer at the bottom, and (c) point bearing piles.
Increase in effective stress can be computed based on:
𝑄𝑔
∆𝜎𝑖′ = (𝐵 [1.21]
𝑔 +𝑍𝑖 )(𝐿𝑔 +𝑍𝑖 )

Where ∆𝜎𝑖′ is increase in effective stress at the middle layer i, Lg and Bg are length and width of pile group,
and Zi is distance from 0 to middle of the ith layer.
The consolidation settlement of each layer can be computed based on:
∆𝑒
∆𝑆𝑐(𝑖) = 𝐻𝑖 [1.22]
1+𝑒0

Where ∆𝑆𝑐(𝑖) is consolidation settlement of layer i, ∆𝑒𝑖 is change in void ratio caused by stress increase in layer
i, 𝑒0(𝑖) is initial void ratio of layer I and Hi is thickness of layer i.

The relationship between changes in void ratio caused by increase in load is given by:
𝜎0′ +∆𝜎′
∆𝑒 = 𝐶𝑐 log [1.23]
𝜎0′

Where Cc is compression index which can be established from consolidation test.

Copyright© 2021 – Dr.M.C.M. Nasvi-All right reserved CVX9416 9