FLUID MECHANICS

Syllabus:
Unit II: Introduction, Fluid flow phenomena, Newtonian and
Non-Newtonian fluid flow, Boundary layer theory, friction factor
for smooth and rough pipes.
By: Dr. Vandana Gupta
Basic concepts/Introduction

• Unit operation
• Unit process
• Unit system
• Unit conversion
• Dimensional analysis
 Basic concepts/Introduction
• Unit operation:
– Physical changes takes place
– Ex. Salt manufacturing, sugar production etc.
– Individual operations are based on same scientific principles and common
techniques.
– Heat transfer, transportation of material, mass transfer, mechanical operation,
electrochemical operation.
• Unit process
– Chemical changes takes place
– Ex. Cracking of petroleum
• Unit and dimension
– Unit system
– Unit conversion
– Fundamental units have dimensions in form of M (mass), L (length), T (time)
– Dimensional analysis
• Equation must be dimensionally homogenous.
 Dimensional analysis
• Rayleigh’s Method
• Let a physical process depends on Q1, Q2, Q3…Qn… n dimensional variables
• Q1 is dependent on Q2, Q3…..Qn
• So dimensional analysis can be expressed as
Q1 = Q2a Q3b….
It can be evaluated by exponents so that the relationship is dimensionally homogenous.
Example: Reynolds No. Re = ρ.D.V/μ
ρ = kg/m3 = M1.L-3.
D = m = L1
V = m/s = L1. T-1
μ = Pa.s = M. L-1. T-2.T
M0.L0.T0 = (M1.L-3). (L1). (L1.T-1)/ (M.L-1.T-1)
Equate exponents of LHS and RHS
For M; M0 = M1-1
L ; L0 = L-3+1+1+1
T ; T0 = T -1+1
 Dimensional analysis
Q. The force F exerted on a body immersed in a flowing fluid is dependent on the
relative velocity between the solid and the fluid u, fluid density ρ, fluid viscosity μ and
a characteristic length of the body l. Using Rayleigh’s method, determine the
dimensionless group in which the dimensional variable may be arranged.
Fluid Mechanics
• Branch of science which deals with the nature / behavior of fluid.
• Gases or liquid
• Divided in to three parts
• Fluid statics
• Study of fluid at rest
• Fluid kinematics
• Study of fluid in motion
• Fluid dynamics
• Study of fluid in motion by considering the pressure forces
Fluid Flow Phenomena
• Types of fluid
• Ideal
• Real
• Newtonian/non-newtonian
• Compressible/incompressible fluid
• Types of fluid flow
• Potential flow
• Irrotational/Rotational
• Plug flow (rod like) flow
• Laminar flow
• Turbulent flow
• Boundary layer
Ideal Fluid
• Ideal Fluid:
• Incompressible
• Zero viscosity
• Ideal fluid flow:
• Density and viscosity doesn’t changes (Potential flow).
• Neither circulation nor eddies can form within the stream (Irrotational
flow)
• Friction can’t developed (No dissipation of mechanical energy into heat)
• Boundary layer
• Effect of solid boundary on the fluid flow is confined to the layer of fluid
immediately adjacent to the solid wall. Layer so formed is called boundary
layer.
Boundary layer

Distance from the wall (y)

Fs
Plane C

- Fs
• Velocity gradient and rate of shear Plane B

𝑑𝑢 Δ𝑢
= lim
Plane A

𝑑𝑦 Δ𝑦→0 Δ𝑦
0
• Local Velocity gradient is called shear rate. 0
Local Fluid velocity (u)

• Since actual fluid resist shear so a shear force must exist when there is time
rate of shear.
• Parallel to the plane
• Fs exerted by fluid outside the plane C on the fluid between plane C and wall
• -Fs acts on fluid outside the plane C from fluid inside the plane C

Force per unit area is known as shear stress (τ)

𝐹𝑠
τ=
𝐴𝑠
Newton’s law of viscosity
• Shear stress is directly proportional to shear rate
𝑑𝑢
τα
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢
τ (N/m2) = μ (s-1)
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢
μ = τ/( )
𝑑𝑦
μ = Viscosity in kg/m.s or Pa.s; in cgs unit g/cm.s = poise (P) or cP (= 0.01P = mPa.s)
• Defined as internal friction of fluid or lack of slipperiness.
• Quantitative measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow or measure of the resistance it
offers to relative shearing motion.
• Momentum flux is proportional to the velocity gradient with proportionality constant
μ
• So μ is regarded as conductivity of momentum transfer in laminar flow.
• Important factor affecting the viscosity of fluid are temperature and pressure.
Effect of temperature and pressure

• Viscosity of Gases < Liquids

• Gas
• Increases with increasing temperature as follows
μ T n
μ0
= (
273
)
• Almost independent of pressure at atmospheric pressure
• At high pressure it increases
• Liquid
• Decreases with increasing temperature
• Increases with increasing pressure (insignificant at < 40 atm)
Kinematic viscosity (υ):
• Ratio of dynamic viscosity to density
• Unit: SI - m2/s, CGS - cm2/s = Stoke
Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluid
• Newtonian fluid:
• Obey the Newton’s Law of viscosity
• Stress α rate of strain or fluid with constant viscosity at constant temp and
pressure
• Linear relationship between viscosity and shear stress
• Example:
• water
• light motor oil
• Gasoline
• Mineral oil
• Alcohol
Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluid
• Non-Newtonian fluid:
• Deviate from Newton’s law
• Non linear relation between shear stress and shear rate
• Viscosity changes with increasing shear stress
• Example:
• Soap solution
• Cosmetics
• Glue
• Sewage sludge
• Sand filled emulsion
Non-Newtonian fluid
• Bingham plastics:
• Doesn’t flow until threshold shear stress is applied. Thereafter flow linearly
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
• τ < τ0 , = 0; τ > τ0 , τ-τ0 = K ; K=constant coefficient of rigidity
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
• Ex. Sewage sludge, Jellies, toothpaste
Power law fluids
𝒅𝒖
τ= 𝐊 ′ 𝐧; K ′ , n = constant
𝒅𝒚
• Pseudoplastic
• Shear thinning, n<1
• Viscosity decreases with shear stress
• Ex. Ketchup, polymer sol., Detergent slurries, grease.

• Dilatant
• Shear thickening, n>1
• Viscosity increases with shear stress
• Ex. Quicksand, potassium silicate sol., Starch solution,
Suspension of paper pulp
Non-Newtonian fluid
• Time dependent fluids
Thixotropic:
• Viscosity decreases with shear stress and
restore to initial viscosity when stress is
removed
• Ex. Synovial fluid, gelatin, paint, glue etc.
Rheopectic:
• Viscosity increases with time under any
constant shear rate and recover when shear
stress is removed
• Ex. Betonite sol, shock absorption fluid etc.
Guess the type of fluid
• Yogurt

• Nail polish

• Blood plasma

• Molasses

• Ice

• Blood

• Custard

• Water

• Lipstick

• Honey

• Gypsum

• Cream
Answer
• Yogurt (T, P)

• Nail polish (P, ST)

• Blood plasma (N)

• Molasses (P, ST)

• Ice (P, ST)

• Blood (P, ST)

• Custard (N)

• Water (N)

• Lipstick (T, P)

• Honey (T, P)

• Gypsum paste (R, D)

• Cream (R, D)
Reynolds Experiment for Laminar and Turbulent flow
Reynolds Number
• Given by Osborne Reynolds (1883)
• Transition of flow form laminar to turbulent depends on 4 quantities
• 1) diameter of tube, 2) viscosity, 3) density and 4) average linear velocity of
liquid
ρ.D.V D.V
Re = =
μ υ
• Dimensionless group

• Laminar flow: Re < 2100

• Transition region: 2100 < Re < 4000

• Turbulent flow: Re > 4000

Laminar and Turbulent flow
Laminar:
• At low velocity fluids tends to flow without lateral mixing and adjacent layer
flow past another.
Turbulent:
• At high velocity fluids tends to flow with lateral mixing, crosscurrent and
eddies.
• Wall turbulence: resulted from contact of flowing stream with solid
boundaries
• Appears when fluid flow through closed/open channel past solid shape
immersed in stream
• Free turbulence: resulted from contact between two layers of fluid moving
with different velocity.
• Appears in the flow of jet into a mass of stagnant fluid or when boundary
layer separates from solid wall and flow through bulk of liquid.
Laminar and Turbulent flow
Boundary layer theory
Laminar and Turbulent flow in boundary layer

Laminar and Turbulent flow through pipe

Boundary layer thickness

Consist of two layer:

Close to boundary- large velocity gradient and appreciable viscous forces
Outside the boundary layer- Viscous force are negligible, flow may be treated
as non-viscous or in-viscid

Boundary thickness depends on the Reynolds number as follows

For 103<Rex<105

For Rex>105
Boundary layer thickness
Q. Water at 20C flows at a velocity of 1 m/s over a plane surface 50 cm wide
and 1 m long.
Calculate:
1. The thickness of the boundary layer at a distance of 5 cm from the leading
edge.
2. The distance from the leading edge at which transition from streamline to
turbulent flow occurs in the boundary layer.
3. The thickness of the boundary layer at a distance of 50 cm from the
leading edge.
Data: ρ = 1000 kg/m3 , μ = 1 mPa.s , Rex,cr = 3.2 x 105
Smooth and rough boundaries:
k= average height of irregularities
Large k = rough boundary
Small k = smooth boundary

Turbulent flow analysis

a) Viscous flow predominated (Laminar sub-layer)
b) shear stress dominated (turbulent flow)

Fig. a: hydro-dynamically smooth boundary

thick laminar sub-layer, so effect of turbulence or eddies are negligible.

Fig. b: hydro-dynamically rough boundary

Thin laminar sub-layer due to increase in Re.
Eddies come in contact with roughness and loss of energy will be more.
Flow through pipe
1) Laminar flow (Re<2000)
Forces acting on element
a) Pressure force on face AB
b) Pressure force on face CD
c) Shear force on surface of fluid element
Total force in direction of flow = 0

Velocity distribution:

----(i)
Loss of pressure head:
In eq. (i)
Integrate w.r.t. x for complete length of pipe (L)

Pressure head = Hagen Poiseuille Equation ……(ii)

Loss of head due to friction in pipe:

Frictional resistance = frictional resistance (per unit wetted area.velocity).
x Wetted area x velocity2
F1= f’ x πdL x V2 = f’ x P x V2 ………………(iii)
Forces: p1A - p2A - F1= 0 => (p1 - p2)A = F1= f’ x πdL x V2
By eq (ii)

Darcy Weishbach Equation ……(iv)

Friction factor:

2) Turbulent flow
Head loss in pipe

Friction factor for smooth pipe

(Re: 4000-100000)
3000<Re< 3x106 : f = 0.0014+ 0.125Re-0.32

50000<Re< 1x106 : f = 0.046Re-0.2

Re upto 4x106:

Re upto 4x107:
Friction factor for rough pipe:
• Dependent on relative roughness and Independent of Re

• Q. Laminar flow is taking place in a pipe of diameter 200 mm. The

maximum velocity is 1.5 m/s. find the mean velocity and the radius at which
this occurs. Also calculate the velocity at 4 cm from the wall of the pipe.

• Q. A rough pipe of diameter 400 mm and length 1000 m carries water at the
rate of 0.4 m3/s. the wall roughness is 0.012 mm. Determine the co-efficient
of friction and wall shear stress.